MEASUREMENT OF

VARIABLES: OPERATIONAL
DEFINITION AND SCALES

THE RESEARCH DESIGN

DETAILS OF STUDY
Purpose of the
study

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Exploration
Description
Hypothesis testing

Unit of analysis
(Population to be
studied)
Individuals
Dyads
Groups
Organizations
Machines
etc.

Types of
Investigation
Establishing:
-Casual relationships
-Correlations
-Group differences,

Sampling design
Probability/
nonprobability
Sample
Size (n)

MEASURMENT

Extent of researcher
Interference
Minimum: Studying events
as they normally occur
Moderate: Minimum
amount of interference
Maximum: High degree
of control and artificial
settings

Time

horizon

One-Shot
(cross-sectional)

Study setting

Contrived
Noncontrived

Measurement
and measures
Operational
definition
items (measure)
Scaling
Categorizing
Coding

1.

Feel for
data

2.

Goodness
of data

Data-Collection
method
Observation
Interview
Questionnaire

Multishot
(longitudinal)

DATA
ANALYSIS

Physical
measurement
Unobtrusive

3. Hypotheses
testing

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

Reduction

of abstract concepts to render them

measurable in tangible way is called operationalizing the
concepts. It is done by looking at the behavioral
dimensions, facts, or properties denoted by the concept.

EXAMPLE OF DIMENTIONS AND ELEMENTS

The concept of thirst is abstract: we cannot see thirst. However, we would
expect a thirsty person to drink plenty of fluid. If several people say they
are thirsty, then we may determine the thirst level of each of these
individuals by the measure of the quantity of fluid that they drink to
quench their thirst. We will thus be able to measure their level of thirst,
even though the concept of thirst itself is abstract and nebulous (unclear).

In the above example the thirst is the concept, the drinking of plenty of
fluid is the dimension, and the measuring of the quantity of fluid that
they drink to quench their thirst is the element.

The nature of measurement

Measurement occurs when an established index verifies the height, weight,
or other feature of a physical object.

To measure is to discover the extent, dimension, quantity, or capacity of

something, especially by comparison with a standard.

Measurement in research consists of assigning numbers to empirical events,

objects or properties, or activities in compliance with a set of rules.

This definition implies that measurement is a three-part process

The nature of measurement

Select observable empirical events.

Developing a set of mapping rules
Applying the mapping rule(s) to each observation of that event.

Gender

Sample
elements
Empirical
Observations

Mapping Rules

Symbol

Attendees
B C

Styling Characteristics

Attendees

Desirability of auto styling

A B C

Gender

Assign
5 if very desirable
4 if desirable
3 if neither
2 if undesirable
1 if very undesirable

Assign
M if male
F if female

(M, F)

(1 through 5)

Methods of scale
A scale is a tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as

to how they differ from one another on the variable of interest to our
study.

There are four basic methods of scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and

ratio. The degree of sophistication to which the scales are fine-tuned

increases progressively as we move from nominal to the ratio scale.

Nominal Scale
The lowest measurement level you can use, from a statistical point of view,

is a nominal scale, as the name implies, is simple some placing of data into
categories, without any order or structure.

Example of a nominal scale

SEX

1. Male

2. Female

Area 2. Rural 2. Urban

Numbers

assigned to represent the categories cannot meaningfully be

added, subtracted, or divided.

A mean or a median cannot be calculated for nominal data.

A mode and a chi-square statistical test can be used.

Ordinal Scale
Ordinal

scale include the characteristics of the nominal scale plus an

indication of order. Ordinal data require conformity to a logical postulate,
which states: If a is greater than b and b is greater than c, then a is greater
than c.

The use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of greater than or lesser than
(an equality statement is also acceptable) without stating how much greater
or less.

Example of a ordinal scale: Brand Preference for purchasing a Television

Onida

Samsung :
LG

Sony

Sharpe

Median and mode, rank order correlation statistical test can be used

INTERVAL SCALE
An interval scale measure the distance between any two points on the
scale. This help us to compute the means and the standard deviations of the
responses on the variables.

In other words, the interval scale not only groups, it also measures the
magnitude of the differences in the preferences among the individuals.

It is more powerful scale than the nominal and ordinal scale, and has for
its measure of central tendency the arithmetic mean. Its measure of
dispersion are the range, the standard deviation, and the variance.

EXAMPLE OF INTERVAL SCALE

Indicate the extent to which you agree with the following statements as

they related to your job, by circling the appropriate number against each,
using the scale given below.
Strongly
Disagree
1

Disagree
2

Neither Agree
Nor Disagree
3

Agree

Strongly
Agree

The following opportunities offered by the job are very important to me:
a.

Interacting with others.

b.

Using a number of different skills.

c.

Completing a task from beginning to end.

d.

Serving others.

e.

Working independently.

RATIO SCALE

The ratio scale overcomes the disadvantage of the arbitrary origin point of the
interval scale, in that it has an absolute zero point, which is a meaningful
measurement point. Thus the ratio scale not only measures the magnitude of the
differences between points on the scale but also tapes the propositions in the
differences. It is most powerful of the four scales because it has a unique zero
origin (not an arbitrary origin) and subsumes all the properties of the other three
scales.

The measurement of central tendency of the ratio scale could be either the
arithmetic or the geometric mean and the measure of dispersion could be either
the standard deviation, or variance, or the coefficient of variation.

1.
2.

EXAMPLE OF RATIO SCALE

How many other organization did you work for before joining this system? ____
Indicate the number of children you have in each of the following categories:
____below three years of age
____between three to six years
____over six years but under twelve years

3.

____twelve years and over.

How many retail outlets do you operate? ____.
The responses to the questions could range from 0 to any reasonable figure.

SCALE

Assigning numbers or symbols to elicit the attitudinal responses of subjects

toward object, event, or persons is called scale.

TYPES OF SCALES
There are two main categories of attitudinal scales.

1.Rating scale: Rating scales have several response categories and are used to
elicit responses or behavioral concept with regard to the object, events,
or person studied.

2.Ranking

scale: Ranking scales make comparison between or among

objects, events, or persons and elicit the preferred choices and ranking
among them.

Rating Scale
Simple Attitude Scale
Likert Scale
Semantic Differential Scales
Numerical/Multiple Rating List Scale
STAPEL Scales
Constant-Sum Scales
Graphic Rating Scales

Simple Attitude Scale

The simple category scale (also called a dichotomous scales) offers two
mutually exclusive response choice.

This response strategy is particularly useful for demographic questions or

where a dichotomous response is adequate.

Examples of Simple Attitude Scale

Do you plan to purchase a laptop in the next 3 Months
Yes

No

What newspaper do you read most often for financial news

The Economic times

the financial express

business standard

Others

Check any of the sources you consulted when designing your new home
Online

Magazines

Designer

Architect

others

The internet is superior to traditional libraries for comprehensive searches

Strongly Agree

Agree

Neutral

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

Likert Scale
The Likert scale, developed by Rensis Liker (pronounced Lick-ert), is the
most frequently used variation of the summated scale. Summated rating
Scale consist of statements that express either a favourable or an
unfavourable attitude towards the object of interest.

Typically, each scale item will have 5 categories, with scale values ranging
from -2 to 2 with 0 as neutral response.

Examples of Likert Scale

Strongly Agree

Agree

Neutral

Disagree

Strongly
Disagree

Quality of the
Food

-1

-2

Cleanness of
the Hostel

-1

-2

Amenities
provided by the
management

Training time
intervals

Satisfaction
with the
present
Appraisal
system

Semantic Differential Scales

This

type of scale makes extensive use of words rather than numbers.

Respondents describe their feelings about the products or brands on scales

with semantic labels. When bipolar adjective are used at the end points of
the scales, these are termed Semantic Differential Scales.

Examples of Semantic Differential Scales

Good
Extremely
Important

Bad
Quite

Slightly

Neither

Slightly Quite

Extremely

Semantic Scales

unimportant

High

Low

Strong

Week

Active

Passive

Semantic Differential
Scales

Numerical/Multiple Rating List Scale

The Numerical/Multiple Rating List Scale is commonly used variation of the

linear, numeric scale but there is an important distinction. With the linear,
numeric scale the respondents has to pick a number from the scale and then
write the number beside the item.

Examples of Numerical/Multiple Rating List

Scale
Extremely
safe

Extremely
Unsafe

Savings
Account

Loan
saving
account

Certificate
of deposit

Corporate
common
stocks

Precious
metals

STAPAL (BASIC) SCALE

This scale simultaneously measure both the direction and intensity of the
attitude toward the item under study. The characteristic of interest to the
study is placed at the center and a numerical scale ranging, say from +3 to -3
or +5 to -5, on either side of the item. This gives the idea of how closer or
distant the individual response to the stimulus. Since this does not an
absolute zero point, this is an interval scale.

Example of STAPAL (BASIC) SCALE

FIXED OR CONSTANT SUM SCALE

The respondents

are here asked to distribute a given number of points

across various items. This is an ordinal scale

Example of Fixed or Constant Sum Scale

GRAPHIC RATING SCALE

A graphical scale representation helps the respondents to indicate on this
scale their answers to a particular question by placing a mark at the
appropriate point in the line. This is an ordinal scale. The faces scale, which
shows faces ranging from smiling to sad is also a graphic scale, used to
obtain responses regarding peoples feelings.

EXAMPLE GRAPHIC RATING SCALE

On a scale of 1 to 10 how would you rate your supervisor?

10

Ranking Scale
In ranking scales, the participants directly compares two or more objects
and makes choices among the.

Ranking scales used in organization

1.
2.
3.

PAIRED COMPARISON.
FORCED CHOICE.
COMPARATIVE SCALE.

PAIRED COMPARISON

It is used when, among a small number of objects, respondents are asked to

choose between two objects at a time.

As the number of objects to be compared increases, so does the number of

paired comparisons. The paired choices for n objects will be n (n-1) / 2.

Examples of Paired Comparison

FORCED CHOICE

It enables respondents to rank objects relative to one another, among the

alternatives provided. This is easier for the respondents, practically if the
number of choices to be ranked is limited in number.

Example of Forced Ranking Scale

COMPARATIVE SCALE
It provides a benchmark or a point of reference to assess attitudes toward
the current object, event, or situation under study.

EXAMPLE OF COMPARATIVE SCALE

In a volatile (evaporation) financial environment, compared to stocks,
how wise or useful is it to invest in Treasury bonds? Circle the
appropriate response.
More Useful
1

About the
Same
2

Less Useful
4

GOODNESS OF DATA
It is important to make sure that the instrument that we develop to measure
a particular concept is indeed accurately measuring the variable, and that in
fact, we are actually measuring the concept perceptual and attitudinal
measure. This ensures that in operationally defining perceptual and
attitudinal variables, we have not overlooked some important
dimensions and elements or included some irrelevant ones.

Item analysis
Item analysis is carried out to see if the items in the instrument belong there
or not. Each item is examined for its ability to discriminate between those
subjects whose total scores are high, and those with low scores.

Thereafter, test for the reliability of the instrument are carried out and the
validity of the measure is established.

Reliability is a test of how consistently a measuring instrument measures

whatever concept it is measuring.

Validity is a test of how well an instrument that is developed measures the

particular concept it is intended to measure. In other words, validity is
concerned with whether we measure the right concept, and reliability with
stability and consistency of measurement.

TESTING GOODNESS OF MEASURES

Test-retest reliability
Stability

Reliability
(accuracy
In
Measurement)
Goodness
of data

Logical validity
(content)

Face validity

Parallel-form reliability
Interitem consistency reliability
Consistency
Split-half reliability

Validity
(we are
Measuring
The right
Thing)

Criterion-related
validity

Predictive

Concurrent

Congruent validity
(construct)

Convergent

Discriminant

Types of validity tests

1. Content validity.
2. Criterion-related validity.
3. Construct validity

CONTENT VALIDITY
It ensures that the measure includes an adequate and representative set
of items that tap the concept. The more the scale items represent the
domain (circle of affection) or universe of the concept being measured, the
greater the content validity.

Face validity considered by some as a basic and a very minimum index of content
validity. Face validity indicates that the items that are intended to measure a concept,
so on the face of it look like they measure the concept.

the simplest and least scientific definition of validity

Based on subjective judgment and difficult to quantify

it is demonstrated when a measure superficially appears to measure what it claims

to measure
e.g. intelligence and reasoning questions on the IQ test
Problem - participants can use the face validity to change their answers

CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY
It is established when the measure differentiates individuals on a criterion it

is expected to predict. This can be done by establishing concurrent ( with

consensus) validity or predictive validity

CONCURRENT VALIDITY: It is established when the scale discriminates individuals

who are known to the different; that is they should score differently on the instrument

e.g. new IQ test correlates with an older IQ test

e.g. high scores on need for achievement test predict competitive behavior in children
(ring toss game)

PREDICTIVE VALIDITY: It indicates the ability of the measuring instrument to

differentiate among individuals with reference to a future criterion.

CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
It testified to how well the results obtained from the use of the measure fit
the theories around which the test is designed. This is assessed through
convergent and discriminant validity.

CONVERGENT VALIDITY: It is established when the scores obtained with two

different instrument measuring the same concept are highly correlated

e.g. an experimenter observing aggressive behavior in children correlated with

teachers ratings of their behavior

DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY: It is established when, based on the theory, two variables

are predicted to be correlated, and the scores obtained by measuring them are indeed
empirically found to be so.

e.g. aggressive behavior and general activity level in children

Convergent validity, divergent validity and construct

validity

By demonstrating strong convergent validity for two different constructs and then showing
divergent validity between the two constructs, you obtain strong construct validity of the two
constructs

Aggressive
behavior
Active behavior

Teachers ratings
High Diver
gent Vali
dity
Unrelated
scores

Teachers ratings

High convergent
validity
Related scores

High convergent
validity
Related scores

Experimenters
observation
High Diver
gent Vali
dity
Unrelated
scores

Experimenters
observation

TYPES OF VALIDITY
Validity

Content Validity

Description

Method

Does the measure adequately measure the concept?

Judgmental
Panel evaluation with content validity ratio

Face Validity

Do experts validate that the instrument measures

what its name suggests it measures?

Criterion-related Validity

Does the measure differentiate in a manner that

helps to predict a criterion variable.

Correlation

Concurrent Validity

Does the measure differentiate in a manner that

helps to predict a criterion variable currently?

Correlation

Predictive Validity

Does the measure differentiate individuals in as

manner as to help predict a future criterion?

Correlation

Construct Validity

Does the instrument tap the concept as theorized?

Convergent Validity

Do two instruments measuring the concept correlate

highly?

Discriminant Validity

Does the measure have a low correlation with a

variable that is supposed to be unrelated to this
variable?

Judgmental
Correlation of proposed test with established one
Convergent discriminant techniques
Factor analysis
Multitrait multimethods analysis

RELIBILITY
The reliability of a measure indicate the extent to which it is without bias
(error free) and hence ensures consistent measurement across time and
across the various items in the instrument. In other words, the reliability of a
measures is an indication of the stability and consistency with which the
instrument measures the concept and helps to assess the goodness of a
measure.

TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY
The reliability coefficient obtained with a repetition of the same measure
on a second occasion is called test-retest reliability. That is, when a
questionnaire containing some items that are supposed to measure a
concept is administered to a set of respondents now, and again to the same
respondents, say several weeks to 6 months later, the correlation between
the scores obtained at the two different times from one and the same set of
respondents is called the test-retest reliability.

PARALLEL-FORM RELIABILITY
When responses on two comparable sets

of measure tapping the same

construct are highly correlated, we have parallel-form reliability. Both

forms have similar items and the same response format, the only
changes being the wordings and the order or sequence of the questions.

INTERNAL CONSISTENCY OF MEASURE

The internal consistency of measures is indicative of the homogeneity of the
items in the measure that tap the construct. In other words, the items
should hang together as a set and be capable of independently
measuring the same concept so that the respondents attach the same
overall meaning to each of the items.
Consistency can be examined through :

1.Inter-item Consistency Reliability.

2.Split- Half Reliability.

INTER-ITEM CONSISTENCY RELIABILITY

This is a test of the consistency of respondents answer to all the items in a

measure. To the degree that items are independent measures of the same
concept, they will be correlated with one another.

SPLIT-HALF RELIABILITY

Split-half

reliability reflects the correlations between two halves of an

instrument. The estimates would vary depending on how the items in the
measure are split into two halves.

THANK YOU
FOR YOUR
CONCENTRATION