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RADIOACTIVITY
It was observed by Henri Becquerel in i896 that some minerals like pitchblende emit
radiation spontaneously, and this radiation can blacken photographic plates if photographic
plate is wrapped in light proof paper. He called this phenomenon radioactivity. It was
observed that radioactivity was not affected by temperature, pressure or chemical
combination, it could therefore be a property that was intrinsic to the atom-more specifically
to its nucleus. Detailed studies of radioactivity resulted in the discovery that radiation
emerging from radioactive substances were of three types : -rays, -rays and -rays.
-rays were found to be positively charged, -rays (mostly) negatively charged, and rays uncharged. Some of the properties of , and rays, are explain below:
(i)
Alpha Particles: An -particle is a helium nucleus, i.e. a helium atom which has lost
two electrons. It has a mass about four times that of a hydrogen atom and carries a
charge +2e. The velocity of -particles ranges from 5 to 7 percent of the velocity of
light. These have very little penetrating power into a material medium but have a very
high ionising power.
(ii)
Beta Particles: -particles are electrons moving at high speeds. These have greater
(compared to -particles) penetrating power but less ionising power. Their emission
velocity is almost the velocity of light. Unlike -particles, they have a spectrum of
energy, i.e., beta particles possess energy from a certain minimum to a certain
maximum value.
(iii)
Gamma Rays: -rays are electromagnetic waves of wavelength of the order of ~ 1012
m. These have the maximum penetrating power (even more than Xray) and the
least ionising power. These are emitted due to transition of excited nucleus from
higher energy state to lower energy state.
Property
Nature
radiation
Charge
Mass
Range
particles (electrons).
Uncharged
o
~ 0.01A,
electromagnetic
+2e
e
0
6.6466 1027 kg
9.1091031kg
0
~10 cm in air, can be Upto a few m in
Several m in air
stopped by 1mm of A l can be stopped stopped by ~ cm of
~cm of A l
Pb
Natural
By natural radioiso- By radioisotopes Excited nuclei formed
sources
topes e.g. 92U236
e.g. 29Co68
as a result of , decay
The other simple laws of radioactivity that were discovered by were the Rutherford-Soddy
displacement laws:
(a)
During a decay, the daughter element was always two position below the parent in
the periodic table; the mass number of the daughter nucleus was 4 units smaller
b
b- 4
than that of the parent nucleus. a X =a- 2 Y +a
(b)
During -decay, the daughter nucleus had the same mass number as the parent
while its atomic number was greater than that of the parent by 1 (smaller by 1 unit in
decay). ba X ba+1Y +b-
(c)
2.
dN
The number of atoms disintegrating per second is directly proportional to the number
dt
of atoms (N) present at that instant. For most radioisotopes, is very small in the SI
system it take a large number N(~ Avogadro number, 10 23) to get any significant activity.
dN
N
.(i)
dt
Where is the radioactivity decay constant.
If No is the number of radioactive atoms present at a time t = 0, and N is the number at the
end of time t, then
N =N0 e - t
dN
The term is called the activity of a radioactive substance and is denoted by 'A'.
dt
Units:
1 Becquerel (Bq)
= 1 disintegration per second (dps)
1 curie (Ci)
= 3.7 x 1010 dps
1 Rutherford
=106 dps
The changes in N, due to radioactivity, are very small in 1 s compared with the value of N 'its self.
Therefore. N may be approximated by means of a continuous function N(t).
For the case considered in equation (i), we can write,
A=
rate of decrease of N = N
or
dN
N
dt
.....(ii)
Note the equation (ii) is valid only for large value of N, typically 1018 or so.
If the number of atoms at time t = 0 (initial) is N = N0, then one can solve equation (ii):
N
dN
N N 0 dt
0
N
t
N0
or
In
or
N(t) = N0 e t
......(iii)
....(iv)
No
In N
Ex
po
n
St
ra
igh
tL
in e
No
2
.31N0
t1
2
ten
tia
l
de
ca
y
tav
2.1
HALF-LIFE
A significant feature of the above graph is the time in which the number of active nuclei (N)
is halved. This is independent of the starring value, N = N 0. Let us compute this time:
N0
N0 er '
2
1
e t ' =
2
t ' = In 2 = 0.693 (approx)
or,
0.693
or,
t' = T1/ 2 =
1
This half-life represents the time in which the number of radioactive nuclei falls to
of its starting
2
value. Activity, being proportional to the number of active nuclei, also has the same half-life.
Illustration 1:
Solution:
2.2
=
2700 Nt
N
Using l t =2.303 log 0
Nt
l ( 5) =2.303 log
t1/ 2 =
4750
2700
2.303
4750
log
=0.1129 min - 1
5
2700
0.693
=6.14 min
0.1129
MEAN-LIFE
A very significant quantity that can be measured directly for small numbers of atoms is the
mean lifetime. If there are n active nuclei, (atoms) (of the same type, of course), the mean life is
....... 2
1 2
n
Where 1 , 2 ,....... n represent the observed lifetime of the individual nuclei and n is a very
large number. It can also be calculated as a weighted average:
N N ....... nNn
1 1 2 2
N1 ..... Nn
Where
N1 nuclei live for time 1 ,
N2 nuclei live for time 2 , ....... and so on.
This quantity may be related with .
Using calculus (vi) may be rewritten as:
t dN
dN
Where |dN| is the number of nuclei decaying between t, t + dt; the modulus sign is required
to ensure that it is positive.
t
dN = N0 e dt
and
t
|dN| = N0 e dt
t N e
N e
0
dt
dt
1
2
0
=
=
(integrating the numerator by parts)
1
t
0 e dt
1
te
or
Illustration 2:
Solution:
dt
NB (t) =
.......(vi)
A B
A
B
Substitution the value of NB in equation (iii) and solving, we get
A BN0 1 e A t 1 e B t
NC =
......(vii)
A B
A
B
Using these values of NA, NB and NC. the activity can be calculated, if required.
3.
THE NUCLEUS
It exists at the centre of an atom, containing entire positive charge and almost whole of
mass. The electron revolve around the nucleus to form an atom. The nucleus consists of
protons (+ve charge) and neutrons.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
The number of protons in a nucleus of an atom is called as the atomic number (Z) of
that atom. The number of protons plus neutrons (called as Nucleons) in a nucleus of
an atom is called as mass number (A) of that atom.
(iv)
(v)
The nuclides having same number of protons (Z), but different number of nucleons
(A) are called as isotopes.
(vi)
The nuclide having same number of nucleons (A), but different number of protons (Z)
are called as isobars.
(vii)
3.1
The nucleons are bound together in a nucleus and the energy has to be supplied in order to
break apart the constituents into free nucleons. The energy with which nucleons are
bounded together in a nucleus is called as Binding Energy (B.E.). In order to free nucleons
from a bounded nucleus this much of energy (= B.E.) is to be supplied.
It is observed that the mass of a nucleus is always less than the mass of constituent (free)
nucleons. This difference in mass is called as mass defect and is denoted as m.
If
mn : mass of a neutron
;
mp : mass of a proton
M (Z, A) : mass of bounded nucleus
Then, m = Z . mp + (A Z). mn M (Z, A)
This mass-defect is in form of energy and is responsible for binding the nucleons together.
From Einstein's law of inter-conversion of mass into energy:
E = mc2
(c : speed of light; m : mass)
binding energy = m . c2
Generally, m is measured in amu units. So let us calculate the energy equivalent to 1 amu.
It is calculated in eV (electron volts; 1 eV = 1.6 x 10 19 J)
1.67 10 - 27 3 108
E 1amu =
1.6 10 - 19
eV =931 10 6 eV =931Me V
There is another quantity which is very useful in predicting the stability of a nucleus called
as Binding energy per nucleons.
Dm ( 931)
B.E. per nucleons =
MeV
A
8.5 Mev
8
o
B.E.
A
c
(In Mev) 6 Be
4
2
0
20
60
180 A
mass number
For more heavy nuclei, B.E./nucleons decreases slowly as A increases. For the
heaviest natural element U238 it drops to about 7.5 MeV.
From above observation, it follows that nuclei in the region of atomic masses 50-80
are most stable.
Illustration 2:
Solution:
Illustration 4:
If mass of proton = 1.008 amu and mass of neutron = 1.009 amu, then
the binding energy per nucleon for 4Be9 (mass = 9.012 amu) will be
(A) 0.0672 MeV
(B) 0.672 MeV
(C) 6.72 MeV
(D) 67.2 MeV
Mass defect
Dm =(4 1.008 +5 1.009) - 9.012
=9.077 - 9.012 =0.065 amu
BE 0.065 931
\
=
=6.72 MeV
A
9
The energy released in the following -decay process will be 1
1
0
0 n 1P + - 1e +v
Given
mn =1.6747 10 - 27 kg
that
mp =1.6725 10 - 27 kg
me =0.00091 10 - 27 kg
Solution:
Illustration 5:
Solution:
Illustration 6:
Solution:
DE =
0.0012 10 - 27 (3 108 )2
=0.731MeV
1.6 10- 13
The binding energy per nucleon for 3Li7 will be, if the mass of 3Li7 is
7.01653 amu.
(A) 5.6 MeV
(B) 39.25 MeV
(C) 1 MeV
(D) zero.
DE Dm 931
E=
=
MeV
A
A
Dm =(3mp +4mn ) - mass of Li7
=(3 1.00759 +4 1.008898) - 7.01653
=0.04216 amu
0.04216 931 39.25
DE =
=
=5.6 MeV
7
7
How much energy is released in the following reaction?
2
2
4
1H + 1H = 2He
If the B.E./Nucleon of 1H2 and 2He4 are 1.123 MeV and 7.2 MeV
respectively.
(A) 12 MeV
(B) 24.3 MeV
(C) 36 MeV
(D) zero
DE =1.125
B. E. of 1H2
E =A DE
E =2 1.125
=2.25 MeV
\
3.2
NUCLEAR FORCES
The protons and neutrons are held together by the strong attractive forces inside the
nucleus. These forces are called as nuclear forces.
(i)
Nuclear forces are short-ranged. They exist in small region (of diameter 10 15 m = 1 fm).
The nuclear force between two nucleons decrease rapidly as the separation between
them increases and becomes negligible at separation more than 10 fm.
(ii)
Nuclear force are much stronger than electromagnetic force or gravitational attractive
forces.
(iii)
Nuclear force are independent of charge. The nuclear force between two proton is
same as that between two neutrons or between a neutron and proton. This is known
as charge independent character of nuclear forces.
Illustration 7:
Solution:
Illustration 8:
Solution:
3.3
NUCLEAR FISSION
The breaking of a heavy nucleus into two or more fragments of comparable masses, with
the release of tremendous energy is called as nuclear fission. The most typical fission
reaction occurs when slow moving neutrons strike 92U235. The following nuclear reaction
takes place.
92
If more than one of the neutrons produced in the above fission reaction are capable of
inducing a fission reaction (provided U 235 is available), then the number of fissions taking
place at successive stages goes increasing at a very brisk rate and this generates a series
of fissions. This is known as chain reaction. The chain reaction takes place only if the size
of the fissionable material (U235) is greater than a certain size called the critical size.
If the number of fission in a given interval of time goes on increasing continuously, then a
condition of explosion is created. In such cases, the chain reaction is known as
uncontrolled chain reaction. This forms the basis of atomic bomb.
In a chain reaction, the fast moving neutrons are absorbed by certain substances known as
moderators (like heavy water), then the number of fissions can be controlled and the chain
reaction is such cases is known as controlled chain reaction. This forms the basis of a
nuclear reactor.
Illustration 9:
Solution:
Nn
is decreased
Np
Illustration 10: In which sequence, the radioactive radiations are emitted in the
following nuclear reactions?
A
A
A- 4
Z - 1K A - 4
Z X Z +1Y Z - 1K
Solution:
3.4
(A) , and
(B) , and
(C) , and
(D) , and
We know that on emission of -particle from the nucleus, atomic number
reduces by 2 and mass number reduces by 4. And on emission of particle from the nucleus, the atomic number increases by 1. Similarly on
emission of -particle from the nucleus, there is no change in atomic
number of mass number.
NUCLEAR FUSION
The process in which two or more light nuclei are combined into a single nucleus with the
release of tremendous amount of energy is called as nuclear fusion. Like a fission
reaction, the sum of masses before the fusion (i.e. of light nuclei) is more than the sum of
masses after the fusion (i.e. of bigger nucleus) and this difference appears as the fusion
energy. The most typical fusion reaction is the fusion of two deuterium nuclei into helium.
H1 +1H2 2He 4 +21.6 MeV
For the fusion reaction to occur, the light nuclei are brought closer to each other (with a
distance of 1014 m). This is possible only at very high temperature to counter the repulsive
force between nuclei. Due to this reason, the fusion reaction is very difficult to perform. The
inner core of sun is at very high temperature, and is suitable for fusion, in fact the source of
sun's and other star's energy is the nuclear fusion reaction
4.
ASSIGNMENT
1.
14
4
17
1
In the reaction 7 N 2 He 8 O 1 H the minimum energy of the particle is
(A)
1.21 MeV
(B)
1.62 MeV
(C)
1.89 MeV
(D)
1.96 MeV.
(MN = 14.00307 amu, MHe = 4.00260 amu and MO
= 16.99914 amu, MH = 1.00783 amu and 1 amu = 931 MeV)
Solution- (A) 7N14 + 2He4 8O17 + 1H1
Total mass of reactants = 18.00567 amu
Tota mass of products = 18.00697 amu
Mass defect = 18.00697 18.00567 = 0.0013 amu
Energy (E) = 931 (0.0013) = 1.2103 MeV
4.
To generate a power of 3.2 MW, the number of fissions of U 235 per minute is (Energy
released per fission = 200 MeV, 1 eV = 1.6 1019 J)
(A)
61018
(B)
61017
(C)
1017
(D)
61016
nE
Solution- (A) Power of reactor P
t
6.
Where 'n' is number of fissions 't' is time 'E' is energy released per fission
n(200 106 )(1.6 10 - 19 )
\ 3.2 106 =
60
18
n 6 10
If in nuclear reactor using U 235 as fuel, the power output is 4.8 MW, the number of
fissions per second is (Energy released per fission of U 235 = 200 MeV watts, e eV =
1.6 1019 J)
(A)
1.51017
(B)
31019
(C)
1.5025
(D)
31025
6
Solution- (A) P = 4.8 MW = 4.810 W
nE
Power of a nuclear reactor P
t
6
n P
4.8 10
17
13 = 1.5 10
t E (200)(1.6 10 )
11
11
8.
In the following nuclear reaction 6 C 5 B X . What does X stand for ?
(A)
A neutron
(B)
A neutrino (C)
an electron (D) A proton
SolutionIn -decay process a neutrino is accompanied with the emission of a
positron.
7.
If 200 MeV energy is released in the fission of a single U235 nucleus, the number of
fissions required per second to produce 1 kilowatt power shall be (given 1 eV = 1.6
1019 J)
(A)
3.1251013
(B)
3.1251014
15
(C)
3.12510
(D)
3.1251016
Solution- (A) Energy released in the fission
E = 200 MeV = 2001061.61019 = 3.21011 Joule
nE
P
t
n P
103
= 3.1251013
t E 3.2 10 11
9.
MP = 1.008 a.m.u., MN = 1.009 a.m.u. and 2He4 = 4.003 a.m.u. then the binding
energy of -particle is
(A)
21.4 MeV
(B)
8.2 MeV
(C)
34 MeV
(D)
1.35 A/m.
Solution(D) BE = 2Mp + 2Mn Ma
= 21.008 + 2 1.009 4.003
= 0.031 amu
= 0.031 931 = 28.8 MeV
10.
11.
12.
Atomic number of a nucleus is Z, while its mass number is M. What will be the
number of neutrons in its nucleus ?
(A)
M
(B)
Z
(C)
(MZ)
(D)
(M+Z)
Solution(C) M = Z + N
N M Z
14.
The net force between two nucleons 1 fm apart is F 1 if both are protons, F2 if both are
neutrons, and F3 if one is a neutron and the other is a proton.
(A)
F1 < F2 < F3
(B)
F2 < F1 < F3
(C)
F1 < F2 = F3
(D)
F1 = F2 < F3
Solution:
(C) The nuclear force of interaction between any pair of nucleons is identical
i.e. force between two neutrons (F2) equals the force between neutron and proton
(F3). However, between two protons net force is equal to the resultant of nuclear
force between them (attractive in nature) and electrostatic force between them
(repulsive in nature). Hence F1 is a value lesser than F2 and F3. So F1 < F2 = F3.
16.
A-3
+c
z-2
A
A
X
XA z-1
+f
X Z +e
+g
(C)
(D)
Z
-1 AX z-1
Solution:
(C) In gamma decay neither the proton number (Z) nor the neutron number
(A-Z) changes. Only the quantum states of the nucleons change.
17.
The activity of a sample of radioactive material is R 1 at time t1 and R2 at time t2 (t2 >
t1). If mean life of the radioactive sample is T, then:
R1 - R 2
= constant
(A)
R1t1 = R2t2
(B)
t2 - t1
(C)
t -t
R 2 = R1exp 1 2
T
(D)
t
R 2 = R1exp 1
Tt2
Solution:
(C)
lt
-lt
If R0 be the initial activity of the sample, then R1 =R0 e 1 and R2 =R0 e 2
Where l =
1
T
Q Mean life =T =
18.
Sol:
19.
Sol:
20.
Sol
21.
Sol
22.
Sol
R2 e- l t2
l t -t
= - l t1 =e ( 1 2 )
R1 e
t - t
R2 =R1 exp 1 2
T
23.
Sol
24.
Sol
In the uranium radioactive series, the initial nucleus is 92U238 and the final nucleus is
206
. When the uranium nucleus decays to lead, the number of -particle emitted
82Pb
will be
(A)
1
(B)
2
(C)
4
(D)
8
A _ A 2 238 - 206 32
=
= =8
(D) a n = 1
4
4
4
The activity of a radioactive sample is 1.6 curie, and its half-life is 2.5 days. Its
activity after 10 days will be:
(A)
0.8 curie
(B)
0.4 curie
(C)
0.1 curie
(D)
0.16 curie
10
=4
(C) n
2.5
A 1
=
A 0 2
A = 0.1 Curie.
25.
Sol
26.
Sol
27.
Sol
28.
Sol
1
A =1.6
2
(B)
(D)
Pauli
J. Chadwick
Half-life of an element is 30 days. How much part will remain after 90 days
(A)
1/4th part
(B)
1/16 part
(C)
1/8th part
(D)
1/3rd part
N
1
1
1
= (1/ T ) = (90 / 30) =
(C)
N0 2
2
8
234
222
In the radioactive decay 92 X 87 Y number of emitted and particles emitted are
(A)
3, 3
(B)
3, 1
(C)
5, 3
(D)
3, 5
A - A 2 234 - 222
=
=3
(B) na = 1
4
4
nb =Z2 +2na - Z1 =87 +6 - 92 =1
29.
After five half lives what will be the fraction of initial substance remaining undecayed
10
5
4
1
1
1
1
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
2
2
2
2
5
N 1
=
N0 2
Sol
30.
If half-life of a substance is 3.8 days & its initial quantity is 10.38 gm, then quantity of
substance reaming after 19 days will be:
(A)
0.151 gm
(B)
0.32 gm
(C)
1.51 gm
(D)
0.16 gm
19
=5
(B) No. of half periods =
3.8
Quantity remaining after n half lives
n
5
10.38
1
1
= No. = 10.38 =
=0.32 gm
2
2
32
Sol
For Test
1.
(B)
(D)
1 MeV energy is
(A)
1.61019 J
(B)
(C)
1.61013 J
(D)
19
Solution(C) 1eV = 1.6 10 J
1 MeV 1.6 10 19 10 6 = 1.6 1013 J
5.
1.61016 J
1.61011 J
Solution- (B) We know that is nuclear fission and fusion, the mass is converted into the
energy. Therefore nuclear fission and fusion can be explained on the basis of
Einstein mass-energy equivalence relation.
6.
1 a.m.u. is equal to
(A)
1 gm
(C)
6.0231023 gm
(B)
(D)
4.81010 esu
1.661027 kg
1
th of the
12
mass of the isotope of carbon atom (6C12) and is numerically equal to = 1.66 1027
kg.
Solution:
9.
An atomic power reactor furnace can deliver 300 MW. The energy released due to
fission of each of uranium atom U238 is 170 MeV. The number of uranium atoms
fissioned per hour will be
(A)
51015
(B)
101020
(C)
401021
(D)
301025
Solution:
(C) No. of Atoms fissioned per sec
3 108
3 1020
27.2 10 12
27.2
No. of Atoms fissioned per hour
3 3600 1020 3 36
1022 4 1022
27.2
27.2
13.
r1 and r2 are the radii of atomic nuclei of mass numbers 64 and 27 respectively. The
r1
ratio is
r2
64
27
4
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
1
27
64
3
Solution:
(A) 1H3 + 1P1 2He4
14.
Two radioactive materials. X1 and X2 have decay constants 10 respectively. If
initially they have the same number of nuclei, then the ratio of the number of nuclei
of X1 to that of X2. will be 1/e after a time
1
1
(A)
(B)
10
11
11
1
(C)
(D)
10
9
Solution:
(D)
N1 = N0 e 10 t
N2 = N0 e t
1
9 t = 1, or t =
9
15.
The wave length of the characteristic X-ray K line emitted by a hydrogen like atom
is 0.32 . The wave length of K line emitted by the same element is:
(A)
(C)
Solution:
16.
Sol
17.
0.18
(B)
0.48
0.27
(D)
0.38A
(C) The wavelength of x-rays emitted for K line and K line are given by
hc
hc
a
and
E x EL
EK EM
1 1
EK EM 1 32 32
EK EL 1 1 27
1 22
o
27
27
0.32 0.27 A
32
32
The ratio of the mean life of a radionuclide to its half-life is
(A)
1
(B)
1.44
(C)
2
(D)
3.12
1
(B) Mean-life (t)mean =
l
0.693
and half-life (t)1/ 2 =
l
(t)mean
1/ l
1
=
=
=1.44
(t)1/ 2
0.693 / l
0.693
The half-life of radioactive substance is 48 hr. How much time it will take to
disintegrate to its 1/16th part.
(A)
Sol
12 hr.
(B)
16 hr.
n
n
N0
1 1
1
(D) N = =N0 or
=
2
16
16 2
n
(C)
48 hr.
(D)
192 hr.
1 1
or = or n =4 =48 4 =192 hr.
2 2
18.
Sol
19.
Sol
20.
Sol
21.
Sol
22.
Sol
23.
t
=4
T
t 120
T= =
=30 min
4
4
Sol
24.
Sol
25.
Sol
26.
Sol
27.
Sol
28.
Sol
29.
(A)
X Z +r A X Z - 1 +a +b
(B)
X Z 1n0 3 Z Z - 2 +C
(C)
(C)
X Z A X Z +f
(D)
X Z +e - 1 A X Z - 1 +g
The half-life of 215At is 100 s. The time taken for the radioactivity of a sample of
215At to decay to (1/16) th of its initial value is
(A)
400 s
(B)
6.3 s
(C)
40 s
(D)
300 s
(A) Number of half lives = 4
Total time = 4 t1/ 2 =4 100 ms =400 ms
A sample of a radioactive substance contains 2828 atoms. If its half-life is 2 days,
how many atoms will be left intact in the sample after one day?
(A)
1414
(B)
1000
(C)
2000
(D)
707
N
2828
=2000
(C) N = 1/02 =
2
1.4
If N0 is the original mass of the substance of half life period t 1/2 = 5 years, then the
amount of substance left after 15 years is
(A)
N0 / 8
(B)
N0 / 16
(C)
N0 / 2
(D)
N0 / 4
N0
N0
N0
(A) N = t / T = 15 / 5 = 8
( 2)
( 2)
At a specific instant emission of radioactive compound is deflected in a magnetic
field. The compound can emit
(i)
electrons
(ii)
protons
(iii)
He2+
(iv)
neutrons
The emission at the instant can be
(A)
i, ii, iii
(B)
i, ii, iii, iv
(C)
iv
(D)
ii, iii
(A)
A radioactive sample at any instant has its disintegration rate 5000 disintegrations
per minute. After 5 minutes, the rate is 1250 disintegrations per minute. Then, the
decay constant (per minute) is
(A)
19 : 81
(B)
18 : 92
(C)
81 : 19
(D)
92 : 18
N0
0.693log10
N
(A) l =
t log10 2
or
5000
0.693 log10
1250
l =
5 log10 2
or
l =
2ln2
=0.4ln2
5
Sol
30.
Sol
(A)
76
(B)
78
(B) ZR =Z - 2Na +Nb- - Nb+
=92 - 2 8 +4 - 2
=92 +4 - 18 =78
(C)
82
(D)
74