Fluid Flow

This chapter is concerned with the characteristics of fluids that affect their flow
properties, with particular references to flow through pipes and channels, as
will occur in process plant.
Description of some experimental work refer to water, remember that the term can be
applied to any substance that does not offer permanent resistance to distortion, thus
liquids, gases and vapors will be included.

Mechanism of Fluid Flow:

When a fluid flows through a pipe or channel, the character of the flow can vary
according to the conditions. The forms of flow can best by visualized by reference to a
classical experiment on the flow of water through a circular tube, first carried out by
asborne Reynolds,
In Reynolds experiment a long, glass tybe was connected to a reservoir providing a
constant head of water, with a control at the outlet so that the rate of flow could be
varied. In the inlet of the tube a jet was inserted which allowed a coloured liquid to be
injected into the centre of the tube.
This arrangement is illustrated diagrammatically in fig (1). Reynold studied the effect of
varying the conditions on the character of flow and on the appearance of the thread of
colored liquid. This can be illustrated, for example, by varying the velocity of the water
through the tube.
When the velocity is low, the thread of colored liquids remains undistributed in the
centre of the water stream and moves steadily along the tube, without mixing. At
moderate velocities, a point is reached (the critical velocity) at which the threads
begins to waver, although no moxing occurs. This is the phase transitional flow. As the
velocity is increased to high values eddies begin to occur in the flow, so that the
colored liquid mixes with the bulk of the water immediately after leaving the jet. Since
this is a state of complete turbulence, the condition is known as turbulent flow.
As a result of this experiments, Reynold found that flow conditions are affected by four
facors:
1. Diameter of the pipe
2. Velocity of the fluid
3. Density of fluid
4. Viscosity of fluid
It was discovered, furthermore, that these were connected together in a particular way
and could be grouped into a particular expression, known as Reynolds Number:

Vd

Where:
R
= Reynolds Number
e

= Denisty of fluid
V
= Velocity of fluid
d
= Diameter of pipe

= Viscosity of fluid
Its important to remember that thisnumber is a number and has no dimensions, provided
consistent units of mass, length and time are used.

Thus = Kg/m3, U= m/s, d=m, U= Kg/ms

And hence

Kg
m
m3
mms
s
w=
Kg

It can be seen that all the units cancel out, i.e., Re is dimensionless.

Significance of Reynolds Number

It will be shown that it can be very important in practice to know whether flow is streamline or
turbulent, and the special significance of Reynold Number is that it can be used to predict the
character of flow in a particular set of circumstances.
In general, if Reynolds Number is less than 2000, the flow will be streamline and if the
number exceeds approximately 4000 the flow will be turbulent. Between these two valves, the
type of flow will depend on the form of the flow channel, if there is no disturbance of any sort
the flow pattern may be unbroken and streamline flow may persist at Reynold Number well in
excess of 2000. On the other hand, if the pipe surface is rough or if there are bends or other
pipe fittings, flow may be turbulent at Reynold Number less than 4000, possibly lower than
even 2000.
The important difference to remember between the two types of flow is that, in streamline
flow there is no velocity component at right angles to the direction of flow. Hence there is no
movement of the fluid between the centre and the walls, which accounts of the thread of
coloured liquid remaining in the centre of the tube in the Reynolds experiment. When the flow
is turbulent, however there is a great deal of movement across the direction of flow, eddies
are set up, and mixing occurs.

Boundary Layers:
Examination of the velocity profiles illustrated in the prevoirs section will show that the
velocity reaches very low values near the walls, in the fact there will be a layer that is
stationary
Consider, then, a fluid in turbulent flow. These conditions will apply through the bulk of the
fluid, but approaching the wall the fvelocity will decrease until ultimately, it becomes zero at
the wall itself.
Reynolds Number is propotional to the velocity so that there will be a similar decrease in the
value of the local Reynolds Number. This means that there will be a change from turbulence,
through a transitional region to a sluggish streamline region and, finally to a stationary film on
the wall. This is represented diagramtically in figure 2. In practice, there will be a gradual
transition from one region to another. These are referred to collectively as the boundary layer.
It must be emphasized that boundary layers can never be eliminated. Increasing the velocity
of the fluid over the surface will reduce the thickness of the layer, but it will never be removed
entirely.