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PHILOSOPHICAL

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ROYAL

SOCIETY

OF

LON DON.

FOR THE YEAR MDCCCXXXIV.

PART II.

LONDON:
.PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, RED LION COURT, }'LEET STREET.
MDCCCXXXIV.

[ 425 ]

XX. Experimental Researches in Electricity.-Eighth Series. By MICHAEL FARADAY,


D.C.L. F.R.S. Fullerian Prof. Chem.Royal Institution, Corr. Memb. Royal and
Imp. Acadd. of Sciences, Paris, Petersburgh, Florence, Copenhagen, Berlin, $8c.$c.
Received April 7,-Read

June 5, 1834.

?. 14. On the Electricity of the Voltaic Pile; its source, quantity, intensity,
and general characters. ] i. On simple Voltaic Circles. T[ii. On the
intensity necessaryfor Electrolyzation. ?[ iii. On associated Voltaic
Circles, or the Voltaic Battery. ? iv. On the resistance of an Electrolyte to Electrolytic action. [ v. General remarks on the active
Voltaic Battery.

T i. On simple Voltaic Circles.


875. THE great question of the source of electricity in the voltaic pile has engaged
the attention of so mnanyeminent philosophers, that a man of liberal mind and able
to appreciate their powers would probably conclude, although he might not have
studied the question, that the truth was somewhere revealed. But if in pursuance of
this impression lie were induced to enter upon the work of collating results and conclusions, he would find such contradictory evidence, such equilibrium of opinion,
such variation and combination of theory, as would leave him in complete doubt respecting what he should accept as the true interpretation of nature: he would be
forced to take upon himself the labour of repeating and examining the facts, and
then use his own judgment on them in preference to that of others.
876. This state of the subject must, to those who have made up their minds on the
matter, be my apology for entering upon its investigation. The views I have taken
of the definite action of electricity in decomposing bodies (783.), and the identity of
the power so used with the power to be overcome (855.), founded not on a mere
opinion or general notion, but on facts which, being altogether new, were to my mind
precise and conclusive, gave me, as I conceived, the power of examining the question
with advantages not before possessed by any, and which might compensate, on my
part, for the superior clearness and extent of intellect on theirs. Such are the considerations which have induced me to suppose I might help in deciding the question,
and be able to render assistance in that great service of removing doubtfulknowledge.
Such knowledge is the early morning light of every advancing science, and is essential
to its development; but the man who is engaged in dispelling that which is deceptive

426

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCHES

IN ELECTRICITY.

in it, and revealing more clearly that which is true, is as useful in his place, and
as necessary to the general progress of the science, as he who first broke into the
intellectual darkness, and opened a path into knowledge before unknown to man.
877. The identity of the force constituting the voltaic current or electrolytic
agent, with that which holds the elements of electrolytes together (855.), or in other
words with chemical affinity, seemed to indicate that the electricity of the pile itself
was merely a mode of exertion, or exhibition, or existence of true chemical action, or
rather of its cause; and I have consequently already said that I agree with those
who believe that the supply of electricity is due to chemical powers (857.).
878. But the great question of whether it is originally due to metallic contact or
to chemical action, i. e. whether it is the first or the second which originates and
determines the current, was to me still doubtful; and the beautiful and simple
experiment with amalgamated zinc and platina, which I have described minutely as
to its results (863, &c.), did not decide the point; for in that experiment the chenical action does not take place without the contact of the metals, and the metallic
contact is inefficient without the chemical action. Hence either might be looked
upon as the determiningcause of the current.
879. I thought it essential to decide this question by the simplest possible forms
of apparatus and experiment, that no fallacy might be inadvertently admitted. The
well known difficulty of effecting decomposition by a single pair of plates, except in
the fluid exciting them into action (863.), seemed to throw insurmountable obstruction in the way of such experiments; but I remembered the easy decomposibility of
the solution of iodide of potassium (316.), and seeing no theoretical reason, if metallic contact was not essentiial,why true electro-decomposition should not be obtained without it, even in a single circuit, I persevered and succeeded.
880. A plate of zinc, about eight inches long and half an inch wide, was cleaned
and bent in the middle to a right angle, fig. 1 a. Plate XVIII. A plate of platina, about
three inches long and half an inch wide, was fastened to a platina wire, and the
latter bent as in the figure b. These two pieces of metal were arranged together as
delineated, but as yet without the vessel c, and its contents, which consisted of dilute sulphuric acid mingled with a little nitric acid. At x a piece of folded bibulous
paper, moistened in a solution of iodide of potassium, was placed on the zinc, and
was pressed upon by the end of the platina wire. When under these circumstances
the plates were dipped into the acid of the vessel c, there was an immediate effect at x,
the iodide being decomposed, and iodine appearing at the anode (663.), i. e. against
the end of the platina wire.
881. As long as the lower ends of the plates remained in the acid the electric current continued, and the decomposition proceeded at x. On removing the end of the
wire from place to place on the paper, the effect was evidently very powerful; and
on placing a piece of turmeric paper between the white paper and zinc, both papers
being moistened with the solution of iodide of potassium, alkali was evolved at the

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METALLIC CONTACT NOT NECESSARY

TOTHE VOLTAIC CURRENT.

427

athode (663.) against the zinc, in proportion to the evolution of iodine at the anode.

Hence the decomposition was perfectly polar, and decidedly dependent upon a current of electricity passing firomthe zinc through the acid to the platina in thievessel c,
and back from the platina through the solution to the zinc at the paper x.
882. That the decomposition at x was a true electrolytic action, due to a current

determined by the state of things in the vessel c, and not dependent upon any mere
direct chemical action of the zinc and platina on the iodide, or even upon any current
which the solution of iodide might by its action on those metals tend to form at x,
was shown, in the first place, by removing the vessel c and its acid from the plates,
when all decomposition at x ceased, and in the next by connecting the metals, either
in or out of the acid, together, when decomposition of the iodide at x occurred, but
in a reverse order; for now alkali appeared against the end of the platina wire, and
the iodine passed to the zinc, the current being the contrary of what it was in the
former instance, and produced directly by the difference of action of the solution in
the paper on the two metals. The iodine of course combined with the zinc.
883. When this experiment was made with pieces of zinc amalgamated over the
whole surface (863.), the results were obtained with equal facility and in the same
direction, even when only dilute sulphuric acid was contained in the vessel c (fig. L.),
Whichever end of the zinc was immersed in the acid, still the effects were the sanme:
so that if, for a moment, tlhemercury might be supposed to supply the metallic contact, the reversion of the amlalgamated piece destroys that objection. The use of
unamalgamatedzinc (880.) removes all possibility of doubt.
884. When, in pursuance of othler views (930.), the vessel c was made to contain a

solution of caustic potash in place of acid, still the same results occurred. Decomposition of the iodide was effected freely, though there was no metallic contact of
dissimilar metals, and the current of electricity was in the same directionas when
acid was used.
885. Even a solution of brine in the glass c could produce all these effects.
886. Iaving made a galvanometer with platina wires, and introduced it into the
course of the current between the platina plate and the place of decomposition x, it
was affected, giving indication of currents in the same direction as those shown to
exist by the chemical action.
887. If we consider these results generally, they lead to very important conclusions,
In the first place they prove, in the most decisive manner, that metallic contact is not
necessaryfor the production of the voltaic current. In the next place they show a most

extraordinary mutual relation of the chemical affinities of the fluid which excites the
current, and the fluid which is decomposedby it.
888. For the purpose of simplifying the consideration, let us take the experiment
with amalgamated zinc. The metal so prepared exhibits no effect until the current
can pass: it at the same time introduces no new action, but merely removes an

influence which is extraneous to those belonging either to the production or the

428

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES IN ELECTRICITY.

effect of the electric current under investigation (1000.) ; an influence also which,
when present, tends only to confuse the results.
889. Let two plates, one of amalgamated zinc and the other of platina, be placed
parallel to each other (fig. 2.), and introduce a drop of dilute sulphuric acid, y, between them at one end: there will be no sensible chemical action at that spot unless
the two plates are connected somewhere else, as at P Z, by a body capable of conducting electricity. If that body be a metal or certain forms of carbon, then the
current passes, and, as it circulates through the fluid at y, decomposition ensues.
890. Then remove the acid from y, and introduce a drop of the solution of iodide
of potassium at x (fig. 3.). Exactly the same set of effects occur, except that when
the metallic communication is made at P Z, the electric current is in the opposite
direction to what it was before, as is indicated by the arrows,which show the couIrses
of the currents (667.).
891. Now both the solutions used are conductors, but the conduction in them is
essentially connected with decomposition (858.) in a certain constant order, and
therefore the appearance of the elements in certain places shows in what direction a
current has passed when the solutions are thus employed. Moreover, we find that
when they are used at opposite ends of the plates, as in the last two experiments
(889. 890.), metallic contact being allowed at the other extremities, the currents
are in opposite directions. We have evidently, therefore, the power of opposing the
actions of the two fluids simultaneously to each other at the opposite ends of the
plates, using each one as a conductor for the discharge of the current of electricity,
which the other tends to generate; in fact, substituting them for metallic contact, and
combining both experiments into one (fig. 4.). Under these circumstances there is
an opposition of forces : the fluid, which brings into play the stronger set of chemical
affinities for the zinc, (being the dilute acid,) overcomes the force of the other, and
determines the formation and direction of the electric current; not merely making
that current pass through the weaker liquid, but actually reversing the tendency
which the elements of the latter have in relation to the zinc and platina if not thus
counteracted, and forcing them in the contrary direction to that they are inclined to
follow, that its own current may have free course. If the dominant action at y be
removed by making metallic contact there, then the liquid at x resumes its power;
or if the metals be not brought into contact at y, but the affinities of the solution
there weakened, whilst those active at x are strengthened, then the latter gains the
ascendancy, and the decompositions are produced in a contrary order.
892. Before drawing afinal conclusion from this mutual dependence and state of
the chemical affinities of two distant portions of acting fluids (916.), I will proceed to
examine more minutely the various circumstances under which the reaction of the
decomposed body is rendered evident upon the action of that body, also in the act of
decomposition, which produces the voltaic current.
893. The use of metallic contact in a single pair of plates, and the cause of its great

USE OF METALLIC CONTACT IN THE VOLTAIC APPARATUS.

429

superiority above contact made by other kinds of matter, become now very evident.
When an amalgamated zinc plate is dipped into dilute sulphuric acid, the force of
chemical affinity exerted between the metal and the fluid is not sufficiently powerful
to cause sensible action at the surfaces of contact, and occasion the decomposition of
water by the oxidation of the metal, although it is sufficient to produce such a condition of the electricity (or the power upon which chemical affinity depends) as would
produce a current if there were a path open for it (916. 956.); and that current
would complete the conditions necessary, under the circumstances, for the decomposition of the water.
894. Now the presence of a piece of platina touching both the zinc and the fluid to
be decomposed, opens the path required for the electricity. Its direct communication
with the zinc is effectual, far beyond any communication made between it and that
ebetween the platina and zinc,) by means of decomposable conducting
metal, (i. e.
bodies, or, in other words, electrolytes, as in the experiment already described (891.);
because, when they are used, the chemical affinities between them and the zinc produce a contraryand opposing action to that which is influential in the dilute sulphuric
acid; or if that action be but small, still the affinityof their component parts for each
other has to be overcome, for they cannot conduct without suffering decomposition;
and this decomposition is found experimentallyto react back upon the forces which
in the acid tend to produce the current (904. 910. &c.), and in numerous cases entirely
to neutralize them. Where direct contact of the zinc and platina occurs, these obstructing forces are not brought into action, and therefore the production and the
circulation of the electric current and the concomitant action of decomposition are
then highly favoured.
895. It is evident, however, that one of these opposing actions may be dismissed,
and yet an electrolyte be used for the purpose of completing the circuit between the
zinc and platina immersed separatelyinto the dilute acid; for if, in fig. 1, the platina
wire be retained in metallic contact with the zinc plate a, at x, and a division of the
platina be mradeelsewhere, as at s, then the solution of iodide placed there, being in
contact with platina at both surfaces, exerts no chemical affinities for that metal; or
if it does, they are equal on both sides. Its power, therefore, of forming a current in
opposition to that dependent upon the action of the acid in the vessel c, is removed,
and only its resistance to decomposition remains as the obstacle to be overcome by
the affinities exerted in the dilute sulphuric acid.
896. This becomes the condition of a single pair of plates where metallic contact is
allowed. In such cases, only one set of opposing affinities are to be overcome by those
which are dominant in the vessel c; whereas, when metallic contact is not allowed,
two sets of opposing affinities must be conquered (894.).
897. It has been considered a difficult,and by some an impossible, thing to decompose bodies by the current fiom a single pair of plates, even when it was so powerful
as to heat bars of metal red hot, as in the case of HARE'Scalorimeter, arranged as a
3K
MDCCCXXXIV.

430

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCHES

IN ELECTRICITY.

powerful single pair of metals. This diffisingle voltaic circuit, or of W6LLASTON'S


culty has arisen altogether from the antagonism of the chemical affinity engaged in
producing the current with the chemical affinityto be overcorne,and depends entirely
upon their relative intensity ; for when the sum of forces in one has a certain degree
of superiority over the sum of forces in the other, the former gains the ascendancy,
determines the current, and overcomes the latter forces so as to make the substance
exerting them yield up its elements in perfect accordance, both as to direction and
quantity, with the course of those which are exerting the most intense action.
898. Water has generally been the substance, the decomposition of which has been
sought for as a chemical test of the passage of an electric current. But I now began
to perceive a reason for its failure, and for a fact which I had observed long before
(315. 316.) with regard to the iodide of potassium, namely, that bodies would differ

in facility of decomposition by a given electric current, according to the condition


and intensity of their ordinary chemical affinities. This reason appeared in their
reaction back upon the affinities tending to cause the current; and it appeared probable, that mnanysubstances might be found which could be decomposed by the curirent of a single pair of zinc and platina plates immersed in dilute sulphuric acid,

although water resisted its action. I soon found this to be the case, and as the experiments offer new and beautiful proofs of the direct relation and opposition of the
chemical affinities concerned in producing and in resisting the stream of electricity, I
shall briefly describe them.
899. The arrangement of the apparatuswas as in fig. 5. The vessel v contained
dilute sulphuric acid; Z and P are the zinc and platina plates; a, b, and c are platina
wires; the decompositions were effected at x, and occasionally, indeed generally, a

galvanometer was introduced into the circuit at g: its place only is here given, tlle
circle at g having no reference to the size of the instrument. Various arrangements
were made at x, according to the kind of decomposition to be effected. If a drop of
liquid was to be acted upon, the two ends were merely dipped into it; if a solution
contained in the pores of paper was to be decomposed, one of the extremities was

connected with a platina plate supporting the paper,whilst the other extremity rested
on the paper, e, fig. 12: or sometimes, as with sulphate of soda, a plate of platina

sustained two portions of paper, one of the ends of a and c resting upon each piece,
c, fig. 14. The darts represent the direction of the electric current (667.).
900. Solution of iodide of potassium, being placed in moistened paper at the interruption of the circuit at x, was readily decomposed. Iodine was evolved at the anode,
and alkali at the cathode,of the decomposing body.
901. Protochloride of tin, when fused and placed at x, was also readily decomposed, yielding perchloride of tin at the anode (779.), and tin at the cathode.
902. Fused chloride of silver, placed at x, was also easily decomposed; chlorine
was evolved at the anode, and brilliant metallic silver, either in films upon the surface of the liquid, or in crystals beneath, evolved at the cathode.

DECOMPOSITIONS BY A SINGLE PAIR OF PLATES.

431

903. Water acidulated with sulphuric acid, solution of muriatic acid, solution of
sulphate of soda, fused nitre, and the fused chloride and iodide of lead were not decomposed by this single pair of plates, excited only by dilute sulphuric acid.
904. These experiments give abundant proofs that a single pair of plates can electrolyze bodies and separate their elements. They also show in a beautiful manner the
direct relation and opposition of the chemical affinitiesconcerned at the two points of
action. In those cases where the sum of the opposing affinities at x was sufficiently
beneath the sum of the acting affinities in v, decomposition took place; but in those
cases where they rose higher, decomposition was effectually resisted and the current
ceased to pass (891.).
905. It is, however, evident, that the sum of acting affinities in v may be increased
by using other fluids than dilute sulphuric acid, in which latter case, as I believe, it
is merely the affinity of the zinc for the oxygen already combined with hydrogen in
the water that is exerted in producing the electric current (919.): and when the
affinities are so increased, the view I am supporting leads to the conclusion, that
bodies which resisted in the preceding experimnentswould then be decomposed, because of the increased difference between their affinities and the acting affinities thus
exalted. This expectation was fully confirmed in the following manner.
906. A little nitric acid was added to the liquid in the vessel v, so as to make a
mixture which I shall call diluted nitro-sllphuric acid. On repeating the experiments with this mixture, all the substances before decomposed again gave way, and
much more readily. But besides that, nany which before resisted electrolyzation
now yielded up their elements. Thus, solution of sulphate of soda, acted upon in the
interstices of litmus and turmeric paper, yielded acid at the anode and alkali at the
cathode; solution of muriatic acid tinged by indigo yielded chlorine at the anode and
hydrogen at the cathode; solution of nitrate of silver yielded silver at the cathode.
Again, fused nitre and the fused iodide and chloride of lead were decomposable by
the current of this single pair of plates though they were not by the former (903.).
907. A solution of acetate of lead was apparently not decomposed by this pair, nor
did water acidulated by sulphuric acid seem at first to give way (973.).
908. The increase of intensity or power of the current produced by a simple voltaic
circle, with the increase of the force of the chemical action at the exciting place, is
here sufficiently evident. But in order to place it in a clearer point of view, and to
show that the decomposing effect was not at all dependent, in the latter cases, upon
the mere capability of evolving more electricity, experiments were made in which the
quantity evolved could be increased without variation in the intensity of the exciting
cause. Thus the experiments in which dilute sulphuric acid was used (899.) were
repeated, using large plates of zinc and platina in the acid; but still those bodies
which resisted decomposition before, resisted it also under these new circumstances.
Then again, where nitro-sulphuric acid was used (906.), mere wires of platina and
zinc were immersed in the exciting acid; yet, notwithstanding this change, those
3K2

432

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES IN ELECTRICITY.

bodies were now decomposed which resisted any current tending to be formed by the
dilute sulphuric acid. For instance, muriatic acid could not be decomposed by a
single pair of plates when immersed in dilute sulphuric acid; nor did making the
sulphuric acid strong, nor enlarging the size of the zinc and platina plates immersed
in it, increase the power; but if to a weak sulphuric acid a very little nitric acid was
added, then the electricity evolved had power to decompose the muriatic acid,
evolving chlorine at the anodeand hydrogen at the cathode,even when mere wires of
metals were used. This mode of increasing the intensity of the electric current, as it
excludes the effect dependent upon many pairs of plates, or even the effect of making
any one acid stronger or weaker, is at once referable to the condition and force of
the chemical affinities which are brought into action, and may, both in principle and
practice, be considered as perfectly distinct from any other mode.
909. The direct reference which is thus experimentally made in the simple voltaic
circle of the intensity of the electric current to the intensity of the chemical action
going on at the place where the existence and direction of the current is determined,
leads to the conclusion that by using selected bodies, as fuisedchlorides, salts, solutions of acids, &c., which may act upon the metals employed with different degrees of
chemical force; and using also metals in association with platina, or with each other,
which shall differ in the degree of chenical action exerted between them and the ex.
citing fluid or electrolyte, we should be able to obtain a series of comparatively con
stant effects due to electric currents of different intensities, which would serve to
assist in the construction of a scale so as to supply the means of determining relative
degrees of intensity accurately in future researches.
910. I have already expressed the view which I take of the decomposition in the
experimental place, as being the direct consequence of the superior exertion at some
other spot of the saine kind of power as that to be overcome, and therefore as the
result of an antagonism of forces of the same nature (891. 904.). Those at the place
of decompositionhave a reaction upon, and a power over, the exerting or determining
set proportionate to what is needful to overcome their own power; and hence a curious result of resistance offered by decompositions to the original determining force,
and consequently to the current. This is well shown in the cases where such bodies
as chloride of lead, iodide of lead, and water would not decompose with the culrrent
produced by a single pair of zinc and platina plates in sulphuric acid (903.), although
they would with a current of higher intensity produced by stronger chemical powers.
In such cases no sensible portion of the current passes (967.); the action is stopped:
and I am now of opinion that in the case of the law of conduction which I described
in the Fourth Series of these Researches (413.), the bodies which are electrolytes in the
fluid state cease to be such in the solid form, because the attractions of the particles
by which they are retained in combination and in their relative position, are then too
powerful for the electric current. The particles retain their places; and as decompo-

RELATIVE INTENSITIES OF ELEMENTARY VOLTAIC ACTIONS.

433

sition is prevented, the transmission of the electricity is prevented also; and although
a battery of many plates may be used, yet if it be of that perfect kind which allows
of no extraneous or indirect action (1000.), the whole of the affinities concerned in
the activity of that battery are at the same time also suspended and counteracted.
911. But referring to the resistance of each single case of decomposition, it would
appear that as these differ in force according to the affinities by whiclh the elements
in the substance tend to retain their places, they also would supply cases constituting
a series of degrees by which to measure the initial intensities of simple voltaic or other
currents of electricity, and which, combined with the scale of intensities determined
by different degrees of acting force (909.), would probably include a sufficient set of
differences to meet almost every important case where a reference to intensity would
be required.
912. According to the experiments I have already had occasion to make, I find that
the following bodies are electrolytic in the order in which I have placed them, those
which are first being decomposed by the current of lowest intensity. These currents
were always from a single pair of plates, and may be considered as elementary voltaic
forces.

Iodide of potassium (solution).


Chloride of silver (fused).
Protochloride of tin (fused).
Chloride of lead (fused).
Iodide of lead (fused).
Muriatic acid (solution).
Water, acidulated with sulphuric acid.
to obtain the telative electrolytic intensity
en
913. It is essential tthat in all endeavours
necessary for the decomposition of different bodies, attention should be paid to the
nature of the electrodes, and the other bodies present which may favour secondaryactions (986.). If in electro-decomposition one of the elements separated has an
affinity for the electrode, or for bodies present in the surrounding fluid, then the
affinity resisting decomposition is in part balanced by such power, and the true place
of the electrolyte in a table of the above kind is not obtained: thus, chlorine combines
with a positive platina electrode freely, but iodine scarcely at all, and therefore I believe it is that the chloride stands first in the preceding Table. Again, if in the decomposition of water not merely sulphuric but also a little nitric acid be present, then
the water is more freely decomposed, for the hydrogen at the cathodeis not ultimately
expelled, but finds oxygen in the nitric acid, with which it can combine to produce a
secondary result; the affinities opposing decomposition are in this way diminished,
and the elements of the water can then be separated by a current of lower intensity.
914. Advantage may be taken of this principle to interpolate more minute degrees
into the scale of initial intensities already referredto (909. 911.) than is there supposed; for by combining the force of a current constant in its intensity, with the use

434

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES IN ELECTRICITY.

of electrodes consisting of matter, having more or less affinity for the elements evolved
from the decomposing electrolyte, various intermediate degrees may be obtained.
915. Returning to the consideration of the source of electricity (878, &c.), there
is another proof of the most perfect kind that metallic contact has nothing to do
with the productionof electricity in the voltaic circuit, and further, that electricity is
only another mode of the exertion of chemical forces. It is, the production of the
electric spark before any contact of metals is made, and by the exertion of pure and
unmixed chemicalforces. The experiiment,which will be described further on (956.),
consists in obtaining the spark upon making contact between a plate of zinc and a
plate of copper plunged into dilute sulphuric acid. In order to make the arrangement as elementary as possible, mercurial surfaces were dismissed, and the contact made by a copper wire connected with the copper plate, and then brought to
touch a clean part of the zinc plate. The electric spark appeared, and it must of
necessity have existed and passed beforethe zinc and the copperwere in contact.
916. In order to render more distinct the principleswhich I have been endeavouriing
to establish, I will restate them in their simplest form, according to my present beliefo
The electricity of the voltaic pile (856. note) is not depelndent either in its origin or
its continuance to the contact of the metals with each other (880. 915.). It is entirely
due to chemical action (882.), and is proportionatein its intensity to the intensity of
the affinities concerned in its production (908.); and in its quantity to the quantity of
matter which has been chemically active during its evolution (869.). This definite production is again one of the strongest proofs that the electricity is of chemical origin.
917. As volta-electro-generationis a case of mere chemical action, so volta-electrodecompositionis simply a case of the preponderance of one set of chemical affinities
more powerful in their nature, over another set which are less powerful; and if the
instance of two opposing sets of such forces (891.) be considered, and their mlutllalrelation and dependence borne in iind, there appears no necessity for using, in respect
to such cases, any other term than chenmicalaffinity, (thouglhthat of electricity may
be very convenient,) or supposing any new agent to be concerned in producing the
results; for we may consider that the powers at the two places of action are in direct
communion and balanced against each other through the medium of the mretals(891.),
fig. 4, in a manner analogous to that in which mechanical forces are balanced against
each other by the intervention of the lever (1031.).
918. All the facts show us that that power commonly called chemical affinity, can
be communicated to a distance through the metals and celrtainforms of carbon ; that
the electric current is only another form of the forces of chemical affinity; that its
power is in proportion to the chemical affinitiesproducing it; that when it is deficient
in force it may be helped by calling in chemical aid, the want in the former being
made up by an equivalent of the latter; that, in other words, the forces termed chemical affinity and electricity are one and the same.

SOURCE OF ELECTRICITY

IN THE VOLTAIC APPARATUS.

435

919. When the circumstances connected with the production of electricity in the
ordinary voltaic circuit are examined and compared, it appears that the source of tllat

agent, always meaning the electricity which circulates and completes the current in
the voltaic apparatus,and gives that apparatuspower and character (947. 996.), exists
in the chemical action which takes place directly between the metal and the body with
which it combines, and not at all in the subsequent action of the substance so produced with the acid present*. Thus, when zinc, platina, and dilute sulphuric acid are
used, it is the union of the zinc with the oxygen of the water which determines the

current; and though the acid is essential to the renmovalof the oxide so formed, in
order that another portion of zinc may act on another portion of water, it does not,
by combination with that oxide, produce any sensible portion of the current of electricity which circulates; for the quantity of electricity is dependent upon the quantity
of zinc oxidized, and in definite proportion to it: its intensity is in proportion to the
intensity of the chemical affinity of the zinc for the oxygen under the circumstances,
and is scarcely, if at all, affected by the use of either strong or weak acid (908.).
920. Again, if zinc, platina, and muriatic acid are used, the electricity appears to

be dependent upon the affinity of the zinc for the chlorine, and to be circulated in
exact proportion to the number of particles of zinc and chlorine which unite, being
in fact an equivalent to them.
921. But in considering this oxidation, or other direct action upon the METAL itself

as the cause and source of the electric current, it is of the utmost importance to
observe that the oxygen or other body must be in a peculiar condition, namely, in the
state of combination; and not only so, but limited still further, to such a state of combination, and in such proportions as will constitute an electrolyte (823.). A pair of
zinc and platina plates cannot be so arranged in oxygen gas as to produce a current
of electricity, or act as a voltaic circle, even though the temperature may be raised so
highly as to cause oxidation of the zinc far more rapidly than if the pair of plates
were plunged into dilute sulphuric acid, for the oxygen is not part of an electrolyte,
and cannot therefore conduct the forces onwards by decomposition, or even as metals
do by itself. Or if its gaseous state embarrass the minds of some, then liquid chlorine
may be taken. It does not excite a current of electricity through the two plates by
comnbiningwith the zinc, for its particles cannot transfer the electricity active at the
point of combination, across to the platina. It is not a conductor of itself, like the
metals; nor is it an electrolyte, so as to be capable of conduction during decomposition, and hence there is simple chemical action at the spot, and no electric currentt.
*

WOLLASTON, Philosophical

Transactions,

1801, p. 427.

- I do not mean to affirm that no traces of electricity ever appear in such cases.

What I mean is that no


electricity is evolved in any way, due or related to the causes which excite voltaic electricity, or proportionate
to them. That which does appear occasionally is the smallest possible fraction of that which the acting matter
could produce if arranged so as to act voltaically, probably not the one hundred thousandth, or even the
millionth part, and is very probably altogether different in its source.

436

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES IN ELECTRICITY.

922. It might at first be supposed that a conducting body, not electrolytic, might
answer as the third substance between the zinc and the platina; and it is true that
we have some such capable of exerting chemical action upon the metals. They must,
however, be chosen from the metals themselves, for there are no bodies of this kind
except those substances and charcoal. To decide the matter by experiment, I made
the following arrangement. Melted tin was put into a glass tube bent into the form
of the letter V, fig. 6, so as to fill the half of each limb, and two pieces of thick platina
wire, p, w, inserted, so as to have their ends immersed some depth in the tin; the
whole was then allowed to cool, and the ends p and w connected with a delicate galvanometer. The part of the tube at x was now reheated, whilst the portion y was
retained cool. The galvanometer was immediately influenced by the thermo-electric
current produced. The heat was steadily increased at x, until at last the tin and platina
combined there; an effect which is known to take place with strong chemical action
and high ignition; but not the slightest additional effect occurred at the galvanometer. No other deflection than that due to the thermo-electric current was observable
the whole time. Hence, though a conductor, and one capable of exerting chemical
action on the tin, was used, yet, not being an electrolyte,not the slightest effect of an
electrical current could be observed (947.).
923. From this it seems apparent that the peculiar character and condition of an
electrolyte is essential in one part of the voltaic circuit; and its nature being considered, good reasons appear why it and it alone should be effectual. An electrolyte
is always a compound body: it can conduct, but only whilst decomposing. Its conduction depends upon its decomposition and the transmissionof its particles in directions parallel to the current; and so intimate is this connexion, that if their transition
be stopped, the current is- stopped also; if their course be changed, its course and
direction changes with them; if they proceed in one direction, it has no power to
proceed in any other than a direction invariably dependent on them. The particles
of an electrolytic body are all so mutually connected, are in such relation with each
other through their whole extent in the direction of the current, that if the last is
not disposed of, the first is not at liberty to take up its place in the new combination
which the powerful affinity of the most active metal tends to produce; and then the
current itself is stopped; for the dependencies of the current and the decomposition
are so mutual, that whichever be originally determined, i. e. the motion of the particles or the motion of the current, the other is invariable in its concomitant production and its relation to it.
924. Consider, then, water as an electrolyte and also as an oxidizing body. The
attraction of the zinc for the oxygen is greater, under the circumstances, than that of
the oxygen for the hydrogen; but in combining with it, it tends to throw into circulation a current of electricity in a certain direction. This direction is consistent (as
is found by innumerable experiments) with the transfer of the hydrogen from the zinc
towards the platina, and the transfer in the opposite direction of fresh oxygen from

OXIDATION

OF THE ZINC THE SOURCE OF ELECTRICITY.

437

the platina towards the zinc so that the current can pass in that one line, and, whilst
it passes, can consist with and favour the renewal of the conditions upon the surface
of the zinc, which at first determined both the combination and circulation. Hence
the continuance of the action there, and the continuation of the current. It therefore
appears quite as essential that there should be an electrolyte in the circuit, in order
that the action may be transferred forward, in a certain constant direction, as that
there should be an oxidizing or other body capable of acting directly on the metal;
and it also appears to be essential that these two should merge into one, or that the
principle directly active on the metal by chemical action should be one of the ions of
the electrolyte used. Whether the voltaic arrangement be excited by solution of
acids, or alkalies, or sulphurets, or by fused substances (476.), this principle has
always hitherto, as far as I am aware, been an anion (943.); and I anticipate, fiom a
consideration of the printciplesof electric action, that it must of necessity be one of
that class of bodies.
925. If the action of the sulphuric acid used in the voltaic circuit be considered,
it will be found incompetent to produce any sensible portion of the electricity of the
current by its combination with the oxide formed, for this simple reason, it is deficient
in a most essential condition: it formnsno part of an electrolyte, nor is it in relation
with any other body present in the solution which will permit of the mutual transfelr
of the particles and the consequent transfer of the electricity. It is true, that as the
plane at which the acid is dissolving the oxide of zinc fornmedby the action of the
water, is in contact with the metal zinc, there seems no difficulty in considering how
the oxide there could comnmunicatean electrical state, proportionate to its own chemical action on the acid, to the metal, which is a conductor without decomposition.
But on the side of the acid there is no substance to complete the circuit: the water,
as water, cannot conduct it, or at least only so smralla proportion that it is merely an
incidental and almost inappreciable effect (970.); and it cannot conduct it as an
an electrolyte conducts
in consequence of the mutual relation and
bconducts
consequene
electrlectrolyte
action of its particles; and neither of the elements of the water, nor even the water
itself, as far as we can perceive, are ions with respect to the sulphuric acid (848.)*.
926. This view of the secondary chlaracterof the sulphuric acid as an agent in the
production of the voltaic current, is further confirmed by the fact, that the current
generated and transmittedis directly and exactly proportionalto the quantity of water
decomposed and the quantity of zinc oxidized (868. 991.): and is the same as that
required to decompose the same quantity of water. As, therefore, the decomnposition
of the water shows that the electricity has passed by its means, there remains no other
electricity to be accounted for or to be referred to any action other than that of the
zinc and the water on each other.
* It will be seen that I here agree with Sir HUMPURY
DAVY, who has experimentally supported the opinion

that acids and alkalies in combining do not produce any current of electricity.
1826, p. 398.

MDCCCXXXIV.

3 L

Philosophical Transactions,

438

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCHES

IN ELECTRICITY.

927. The general case (for it includes the former one (924.),) of acids and bases,
may theoretically be stated in the following manner. Let a, fig. 7. be supposed to
be a dry oxyacid, and b a dry base, in contact at c, and in electric communication
at their extremities by plates of platina p p, and a platina wire w. If this acid and
base were fluid, and comnbinationtook place at c, with an affinity ever so vigorous,
and capable of originating an electric current, the current could not circulate in any
serious degree; because, according to the experimental results, neither a nor b could
conduct without being decomposed, for they are either electrolytes or else insulators,
under all circumstances, except to very feeble and unimportant currents (970. 986.).
Now the affinities at c are not such as tend to cause the elements either of a or b to
separate, but only such as would make the two bodies combine together as a whole;
the point of action is, therefore, insulated, the action itself local (921. 947.), and no
current can be formed.
928. If the acid and base be dissolved in water, then it is possible that a small
portion of the electricity due to chemical action mnaybe conducted by the water
without decomposition (966. 984.); but the quantity will be so small as to be utterly
disproportionateto that due to the equivalents of chemical force; will be mnerelyincidental; and, as it does not involve the essential principles of the voltaic pile, it forms
no part of the phenomena at present under investigation*.
929. If for the oxyacid a hydracid be substituted (927.),-as one analogous to the
muriatic, for instance,-then the state of things changes altogether, and a current due
to the chemical action of the acid on the base is possible. But now both the bodies
act as electrolytes, for it is only one principle of each which combine mutually,-as,
for instance, the chlorine with the metal,-and the hydrogen of the acid and the oxygen of the base are ready to traverse with the chlorine of the acid and the metal of
the base in conformity with the current and according to the general principles already
so fully laid down.
930. This view of the oxidation of the metal, or other direct chemical action upon
it, being the sole cause of the production of the electric current in the ordinary voltaic pile, is supported by the effects which take place when alkaline or sulphuretted
solutions (931. 943.) are used for the electrolytic conductor instead of dilute sulphuric acid. It was in elucidation of this point that the experiments withlout mnetallic
contact, and with solution of alkali as the exciting fluid, already referred to (884.),
were made.
931. Advantage was then taken of the more favourable condition offered, when
metallic contact is allowed (895.), and the experiments upon the decomposition of
bodies by a single pair of plates (899.) were repeated, solution of caustic potassa
* It will, I
trust, be fully understood, that in these investigations I am not professing to take an account of

every small, incidental,or barelypossibleeffect,dependentupon slight disturbancesof the electricfluidduring


chemical action, but am seeking to distinguish and identify those actions on which the power of the voltaic
battery essentially depends.

COMBINATION WITH THE ACID PRODUCES NO ELECTRICITY.

being enmployedin the vessel v, fig. 5. in place of dilute sulphuric acid. All the effects
occurred as before: the galvanoineter was deflected; the decompositions of the solutions of iodide of potassium, nitrate of silver, muriatic acid, and sulphate of soda
ensueldat x; and the places where the evolved principles appeared, as well as the
deflection of the galvanometer, indicated a current in the same dtrection as when acid
was in the vessel v; i. e. from the zinc through the solution to the platina, and back
by the galvanometer and decomposing agent to the zinc.
932. The similarity in the action of either dilute sulphuric acid or potassa goes indeed
far beyond this, even to the proof of identity in quantiti as well as in lirection of the
electricity produced. If a plate of amalgamated zinc be put into a solution of potassa,
it is not sensibly acted upon; but if touched in the solution by a plate of platina, hydrogen is evolved on the surface of the latter nmetal,and the zinc is oxidized exactly
as when immersed in dilute sulphuric acid (863.). I accordingly repeated the expement before described with weighed plates of zinc (864. &c.), using however solution.
of potassa instead of dilute sulphuric acid. Although the time required was much
longer than when acid was used, amounting to three hours for the oxidizement of
7*55 grains of zinc, still I found that the hydrogen evolved at the platina plate was
the equivalent of the metal oxidized at the surface of the zinc. Hence the whole of
the reasoning which was applicable in the former instance applies also here, the current being in the same direction, and its decomposing effect in the same degree, as if
acid instead of alkali had been used (868.).
ooid
that the combincation
the
thon
933. The proof,therefore,appears to me complete,
completebinat
with thle oxide, in the former experiment, had nothing to do with the production of
the electric current; for the same current is here produced when the action of the
acid is absnt and the reverse action of an alkali is present. I thik it cannot be
supposed for a mnoment,that the alkali acted chemically as an acid to the oxide
formed; on the contrary, our general chemical knowledge leads to the conclusion,
that the ordinary metallic oxides act rather as acids to the alkalies: yet that kind of
action would tend to give a reverse curent in the present case, if any were due to the
union of the oxide of the exciting metal with the body which combines with it. But
instead of any variation of this sort, the direction of the electricity was constant, and
its quantity also directly proportional to the water decomposed, or the zinc oxidized.
There are reasons for believing that acids and alkalies, when in contact with nietals
upon which they cannot act directly, still have a power of influencing their attractioins
for oxygen (941.); but all the effects in thes experiments prove, I think, that it is the
oxidation of the metal necessarily dependent upon, and associated as it is with, the
electrolyzation of the water (921. 923.), that produces the current; and that the cid
or alkali merely act as solvents, and by removing the oxidized zinc, allow othier
portions to decompose fresh water, and so continue the evolution or determination of
the current.
934. The experiments were then varied by using solution of ammnoniainstead of
3 L2

440

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCHES

IN ELECTRICITY.

solution of potassa; and as it, when pure, is a bad conductor, like water (554.), it was
occasionally improved in that power by adding sulphate of ammonia to it. But in all
the cases the effects were the same as before; decoinpositions of the same kind were
effected, and the electric current producing these was in the same direction as in
the experiments just described.
935. In order to put the equal and similar action of acid and alkali to stronger
proof, airrangements were made as in fig. 8. ; the glass vessel A contained dilute sulphuric acid, the corresponding glass vessel B solution of potassa, P P was a plate of
platina dipping into both solutions, and ZZ two plates of amalgamated zinc connected with a delicate galvanometer. When these were plunged at the sarnme
time
into the two vessels, there was generally a first feeble effect, and that in favour of the
alkali, i. e. the electric current tended to pass through the vessels in the direction of
the arrow, being the reverse direction of that which the acid in A would have produced alone: but the effect instantly ceased, and the action of the plates in the vessels was so equal, thlat,being contrary, because of the contrary position of the plates,
no permanent current resulted.
936. Occasionally a zinc plate was substituted for the plate P P, and platina plates
for the plates Z Z; but this caused no difference in the results: nor did a further
change of the middle plate to copper produce any alteration.
937. As the opposition of electro-motive pairs of plates produces results other than
those due to the mieredifference of their independent actions (1011. 1045.), I devised
another form of apparatus, in which the action of acid and alkali might be moreldirectly coimpared. A cylindrical glass cup, about two inches deep within, an inch in
internal diameter, and at least a quarter of an inch in thickness, was cut down the
middle into two halves, fig. 9. A broad brass ring, larger in diameter than the cup,
was supplied with a screw at one side; so that when the two halves of the cup were
within the ring, and the screw was made to press tightly against the glass, the cup
held any fluid put into it. Bibulous paper of'different degrees of permeability was
then cut into pieces of such a size as to be easily introduced between the loosened
halves of the cup, and served when the latter were tightened again to form a porolus
division down the middle of the cup, sufficient to keep any two fluids on opposite
sides of the paper fromin
mingling, except very slowly, and yet allowing them to act
freely as one electrolyte. The two spaces thus produced I will call the cells A and B,
fig. 10. This instrument I have found of most general application in the investigation
of the relation of fluids and metals amongst themselves and to each other. By combining its use with that of the galvanometer, it is easy to ascertain the relation of
one metal witl two fluids, or of two metals with one fluid, or of two metals and two
fluids upon each other.
938. Dilute sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1*25,was put into the cell A, and a strong solution of caustic potassa into the cell B; they mingled slowly through the paper, and at
last a thick crust of sulphate of potassa formed on the side of the paper next to the

ACIDS AND ALKALIES

HAVE EQUAL AND SIMILAR ACTIONS.

441

alkali. A plate of clean platina was put into each cell and connected with a delicate
galvanorneter,but no electric current could be observed. Hence the contact of acid
with one platina plate, and allkali with the other, was unable to produce a current;
nor was the combination of the acid with the alkali more effectual (925.).
939. When one of the platina plates was removed and a zinc plate substituted,
either amalgamated or not, a strong electric current was produced. But, whether

acid.
940. In these experiments, therefore, the acid seems to have no power over the
alkali, but to be rather inferior to it in force. Hence thereis no reasonto suppose
that the combination of the oxide formed with the acid around it has any direct influence in producing the electricity evolved, the whole of which appears to be due to
the oxidation of the metal (919.).

called the positive state ; for if plates of the same metal, as zinc, tin, lead, or coppe,

DAVYformerly stated*. This current is so powerful, that if amalgamated zinc, or tin,

or lead be used, the metal in the acid evolves hydrogen the moment it is placed in
communication with that in the alkali, not from any direct action of the acid upon
it, for if the contact be broken the action ceases, but because it is powerfully negative
with regard to the metal in the alkali.
942. The superiority of alkali is further proved by this, that if zinc and tin be used,
or tin and lead, whichever metal is put into the alkali becomes positive, that in the
acid being negative. Whichever is in the alkali is oxidized, whilst that in the acid
remains in the metallic state, as far as the electric current is concerned.
943. When sulphuretted solutions are used (930.) in illustration of the assertion,
that it is the chemnicalaction of the metal and one of the ions of the associated electrolyte that produces all the electricity of the voltaic circuit, the proofs are still the
same.

Thus, as Sir HUMPHRYDAVYt has shown, if iron and copper be plunged into

dilute acid, the current is from the iron through the liquid to the copper; in solution
of potassa it is in the same direction, but in solution of sulphuret of potassa it is reversed. In the two first cases it is oxygen which combines with the iron, in the latter
sulphur which comnbineswith the copper, that produces the electric current; but
both of these are ions, existing as such in the electrolyte, wvhichis at the same moment
stulfferingdecomposition; and, what is more, both of these are anions, for they leave
* Elements of Chemical Philosophy,
p. 149; or Plilosophical Transactions, 1826, p. 403.
Elements
of
Chemical
Philosophy, p. 148.
t

442

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCHES

IN ELECTRICITY.

the electrolites at their anodes, and act jutstas chlorine, iodine, or any other anion
would act which might have been prev-iously chosen as that wich

should be used to

throw the voltaic circle into activity.


944. The following experiments complete the series of proofs of the origin of the
electricity in the voltaic pile. A fluid amalgam of potassium, containing not more
than a hundredth of that metal, was put into pure water, and connected through
the galvanometer with a plate of platina in the same water. There was immediately
an electric current fron the amalgam through the electrolyte to the platina. This
must have been due to the oxidation only of the metal, for there was neither acid nor
alkali to combiiie with, or in any way act on, the body produced.
945. Again, a plate of clean lead and a plate of platina were put into pure water.
There was immediately a powerful current produced fromnthe lead through the fluid
to the platina: it was even intense enough to decompose solution of the iodide of
potassium when introduced into the circuit in the form of apparatusalready described
(880.), fig. 1. Here no action of acid or alkali on the oxide formed from the lead
could supply the electricity: it was due solely to the oxidation of the metal.
946. There is no point in electrical science which seems to me of more importance
than the state of the metals and the electrolytic conductor in a simple voltaic circuit
before and at the moment when metallic contact is first completed. If clearly understood, I feel no doubt it would supply us with a direct key to the laws under which
the great variety of voltaic excitements, direct and incidental, occur, and open out
various new fields of research for our investigation.
947. We seem to have the power of deciding to a certain extent in numerous cases
of chemical affinity, (as of zinc with the oxygen of water, &c. &c.) which of two modes
of action of the attractive power shall be exerted (996.).

In the one mode we can

transfer the power onwards, and make it produce elsewhere its equivalent of action
(867. 917.) ; in the other, it is not transferred, but exerted wholly at the spot. Tlhe
first is the case of volta-electric excitation, the other ordinary chemrical affiniity: but

both are chemical actions and due to one force or principle.


948. The general circumstances of the former mode occur in all instances of voltaic
currents, but may be considered as in their perfect condition, and then free from those
of the second mnode,in somreonly of the cases; as in those of plates of zinc and platina
in solution of potassa, or of amnalgamatedzinc and platina in dilute sulphuric acid.
949. Assuming it sufficiently proved, by the preceding experimnentsand considerations, that the electro-motive action depends, when zinc, platina, and dilute sulphuric
acid are used, upon the mutual affinity of the metal zinc and the oxygen of the
wrater(921. 924.), it would appear that the metal, when alone, has not power enough,
under the circumstances, to take the oxygen and expel the hydrogen from the combination; for, in fact, no such action takes place. But it would also appear that it
hlaspower so far to act, by its attraction for the oxygen of the particles in contact

STATE OF TENSION

BE'TWEEN TIE

ZINC AND WATER.

443

with it, as to place the similar forces already active between these and the other particles of oxygen and the particles of hydrogen in the water, in a peculiar state of
tension or polarity, and probably also at the same titme to throw those of its own
particles which are in contact with the water into a sirnilarbut opposed state. Wfhilst
this state is retained, no further change occurs; but when it is relieved, by completion of the circuit, in which case the forces determined in opposite directions, with
respect to the zinc and the electrolyte, are found exactly coinpetent to neutralize each
other, then a series of decompositions and recomapositionstakes place amnongstthe
e
btween te place of relief
particles ofxygen and hydrogen constituting th watr,
and the place where the zinc is active; these intervening particles being evidently in
close dependenceupon and relation to each other. The zinc forms a direct compound
with those particles of oxygen which were, inmmediatelybefore, in divided relation to
both it and the hydrogen: the oxide is removed by the acid, and a fresh surface of
contact between the zinc and water is presented, to renew and repeat the action.
950. Practically, the state of tension is best relieved by dipping a metal which has
the dilute acid, and making it also tourei
i
less attraction for oxyge than the zinc, in
the zinc. The force of chemical affinity,which has been influenced or polarized in tnhe
particles of the water by the dominant attraction of the zinc for the oxygen, is then
transferred,in a most extraordinarymanner, through the two metals, so as to re-enter
upon the circuit in the electrolytic conductor, which cannot convey or transfer it
without decomposition as the metals can; or rather, probably, it is exactly balanced
and neutralized by the force which at the same moment completes the comnbinationof
the zinc with the oxygen of the water. The forces, in fact, of the two particles which
are acting towards each other, and which are therefore in opposite directions, are the
origin of the two opposite forces, or directions of force, in the current. They are of
necessity equivalent to each other. Being transferred forward in contrary directions,
they produce what is called the voltaic curr?ent: and it seems to me impossible to
resist the idea that it must be preceded by a state of tension in the fluid, and between
the fluid and the zinc; thefirst consequenceof the affinity of the zinc for the oxygen
of the water.
951. I have sought carefully for indications of a state of tension in the electrolytic
conductor; and conceiving that it migiht produce something like structure, either
before or during its discharge, I endeavoured to make this evident by polarize-d light.
A glass cell, seven inches long, one inch and a half wide, and six inches deep, had
two sets of platina electrodes adapted to it, one set for the ends, and the other for
the sides. Those for the sides were seven inches long by three inclhes hligh,and when
in the cell were separated by a little framneof wood covered with calico; so that
when made active by connexion with a battery upon any sol-ution in the cell, the
bubbles of gas rising from them did not obscurtethe central pairtsof the liquid.
952. A saturated solution of sulphate of soda was put into the cell, and the electrodes connected with a battery of 150 pairsof 4-inch plates : the currtentof electricity

444

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCHES

IN ELECTRICITY.

was conducted across the cell so fieely, that the discharge was as good as if a wire
had been used. A ray of polarized light was then transmitted through this solution,
directly across the course of the electric current, and examined by an analysing
plate; but though it penetrated seven inches of solution thus subject to the action of
the electricity, and though contact was sometimes made, sometimes broken, and
occasionally reversed during the observations, not the slightest trace of action on the
ray could be perceived.
953. The large electrodes were then removed, and others introduced which fitted
the ends of the cell. In each a slit was cut, so as to allow the light to pass. The
course of the polarized ray was now parallel to the current, or in the direction of its
axis (517.); but still no effect, under any circumstances of contact or disunion,
could be perceived upon it.
954. A strong solution of nitrate of lead was employed instead of the sulphate of
soda, but the results were equally negative.
955. Thinking it possible that the discharge of the electric forces by the successive
decompositions and recoinpositions of the particles of the electrolyte mnightneutralize
and therefore destroy any effect which the first state of tension could by possibility
give, I took a substance which, being an excellent electrolyte when fluid, was a
perfect insulator when solid, namely, borate of lead, in the form of a glass plate, and
connecting the sides and the edges of this mass with the metallic plates, sometimes
in contact with the poles of a voltaic battery, and sometimneseven with the electric
machine, for the advantage of the much highei intensity then obtained, I passed a
polarized ray across it in various directions, as before, but could not obtain the
slightest appearance of action upon the light. Hence I conclude, that notwithstanding the new and extraordinary state which must be assumed by an electrolyte, either
during decomposition (when a miostenormous quantity of electricity must be traversing it), or in the state of tension which is assumed as preceding decomposition,
and which might be supposed to be retained in the solid form of the electrolyte, still
it has no power of affecting a polarized ray of light; for no kind of structure or tension can in this way be rendered evident.
956. There is, howevei, one beautiful experimental proof of a state of tension
acquired by the metals and the electrolyte before the electric current is produced, and
before contact of the different mnetalsis made (915.); in fact, at that moment when
chemical forces only are efficient as a cause of action. I took a voltaic apparatus,
zinc,
consisting of a single pair of large plates, namely, a cylinder of amnalgarmated
and a double cylinder of copper. These were put into a jar containing dilute sulphuric acid*, and could at pleasure be placed in metallic communication by a copper
wire adjusted so as to dip at the extremities into two cups of mercury connected
with the two plates.
* When nitro-sulphuric acid is used, the spark is more powerful, but local clemical action can then com-

mence, and proceed without requiring metallic contact.

ELECTRIC

SPARK DIRECT FROM CHEMICAL ACTION.

445

957. Being thus arranged, there was no chemical action whilst the plates were not
connected. On making the connexion, a spark was obtained *, and the solution was
immediately decomposed. On breaking it, the usual spark was obtained, and the decomposition ceased. In this case it is evident that the first spark must have occurred
before metallic contact was made, for it passed through an interval of air, and also
that it must have tended to pass before the electrolytic action began; for the latter

could not take place until the current passed, and the current could not pass before
the spark appeared. HIenceI think there is sufficient proof, that as it is the zinc and
water which by their mutual action produce the electricity of this apparatus,so these,
by their first contact with each other, were placed in a state of powerful tension (951.),
which, thougl it could not produce the actual decomposition of the water, was able
to make a spark of electricity pass between the zinc and a fit discharger as soon as
the interval was rendered sufficiently small. The experiment demonstrates the direct

production of the electric spark from pure chemical forces.


958. There are a few cilrcumstancesconnected with the production of this spark by
a single pair of plates, which should be known, to ensure success to the experiment.
When the amalgamated surfaces of contact are quite clean and dry, the spark, on

making contact, is quite as brilliant as on breaking it, if not even more so. When
a film of oxide or dirt was present at either mercurial surface, then the first spark

was often feeble, and often failed, the breaking spark, however, continuing very
constant and bright. When a little water was put over the mercury, the spark
was greatly diminished in brilliancy, but very regular both on making and breaking
contact. When the contact was made between clean platina, the spark was also very
small, but regular both ways. The true electric spark is, in fact, very small, and
when surfaces of mercury are used, it is the combustion of the mnetalwhich produces
the greater part of the light. The circumstances connected with the burning of the
mercury are most favourable on breaking contact; for the act of separation exposes
clean surfaces of metal, whereas, on making contact, a thin film of oxide, or soiling matter, often interferes. Hence the origin of the general opinion that it is only
when the contact is broken that the spark passes.
959. With referenceto the other set of cases, namely, those in which chemical affinity
exerted
is
(947.), but where no transferenceof the power to a distance takes place, and
where no electric current is produced,,it is evident that forces of the most intense kind
must be active, and in some way balanced in their activity, during such combinations;
these forces being directed so immediately and exclusively towards each other, that no
signs of the powerful electric current they can produce become apparent, although
the same final state of things is obtained as if that current had passed. It was BER* It has been universally supposed that no spark is produced on making the contact between a single pair
of plates. I was led to expect one from the considerations already advanced in this paper. The wire of communication should be short; for with a long wire, circumstances strongly affecting the spark are introduced.

MDCCCXXXIV.

3 M

446,

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES IN ELECTRICITY4

I believe, who considered the heat and light evolved in cases of comibustion
as the consequences of this mode of exertion of the electric powers of the combining
particles. But it will require a much more exact and extensive knowledge of the
nature of electricity, and the manner in which it is associated with the atoms of
matter before we can understand accurately the action of this power in thus causing
thleirunion, or comprehend the nature of the great differencewhich it presents in the
two modes of action just distinguished, We may imagine, but such imaginations must

ZELIUS,

for the time be classed withtthe great miass of doubtftulknowledge (876.) which we otght

rather to strive to diminish than to increase; for the very extensive contradictions of
this knowledge of itself shows that but a small portion of it can ultimately prove true.
960. Of the two modes of action in which chemical affinity is exerted, it is imthe electric current is as defiite as that
porttant to remark, that that which prodLuces
which causes ordinary chemical combination; so that in examining the production or
evolutionof electricity in cases of combination or decomposition, it will be necessary,
not merely to observe certain effects dependent upon a current of electricity, but also
their quiantity: and thoughiit may often happenthat the forces concerned in any particular case of chemical action may be partly exerted in one mode and partly in the
other, it is only those which are efficient in producing the current that have any rela.tion to voltaic action. Thus, in the combination of oxygen and hydrogen to produce
water, electric powers to a most enormous amount are for the time active (861. 873.);
but any mode of examining the flame which they form during energetic combination,
which has as yet been devised, has given but the feeblest traces. These therefore may
not, cannot, be taken as evidences of the nature of the action; but are merely incidental results, incomparably small in relation to the forces concerned, and supplying
no information of the way in which the particles are active on each other, or in wlich
their forces are finally arranged.
961. That such cases of chemical action produce no curreantof electricity, is perfectly consistent with what we know of the voltaic apparatus, in which it is essential
that one of the combining elements shall form part of, or be in direct relation witlh,
an electrolytic conductor (921. 923.). That such cases produce no free electricity of
tension, and that when they are converted into cases of voltaic action they produce a
current in which the opposite forces are so equal as to neutralize each other, prove
the equality of the forces in the opposed acting particles of mnatter,and therefore the
equality of electric power in those quantities of matter which are called electrochemicalequivalents (824.). Hence another proof of the definite nature of electrochemical action (783, &c.), and that chemical affinity and electricity are forms of
the same power (917. &c.).
962. The direct reference of the effects produced by the voltaic pile at the place of
experimnentaldecomposition to the chemical affinities active at the place of excitation
(891. 917.), gives a very simple and natural view of the cause why the bodies or ions
evolved pass in certain directions; for it is only when they pass in those directions

CONSISTENT DIRECTION OF THE EVOLVED AND COMBINING BODIES.

447

that their forces can consist with and compensate (in direction at least) the superior
the action of the whole is determined.
wherethe
forces whicl are dominant ation placwhole
If, for instance, in a voltaic circuit, the activity of which is determined by the attraction of zinc for the oxygen of water, the zinc move frot right to left, then any otler
cation included in the circuit, being part of an electrolyte, or forming part of it at the
moment, will also move from right to left and as the oxygen of the water, by its
natural affinity for the zinc, moves from left to right, so any other body of the same
class with it (i. e. any other anion), and under its government for the time, will move
from left to right.
to fig. 11, the double circle of which may
963. This I may illustrate by erference
direction
of its forces being determined by
the
a
voltaic
circuit,
represent complete
supposing for a moment the zinc b and the platina c as representing plates of those
metals acting upon water, d, e, and other substances, but having their energy exalted
so as to effect several decompositions by the use of a battery at a (989.). This supposition mnaybe allowed, because the action in the battery will only consist of repetitions of what would take place between b and c, if they really constituted but a
single pair. The zinc b, and the oxygen d, by their mutual affinity, tend to unite;
but as the oxygen is already in association with the hydrogen e, and has its inherent
chemical or electric powers neutralized for the time by those of the latter, the hydrogen e must leave the oxygen d, and advance in the direction of the arrow head, or
lse the zinc 6 cannot move in the same direction to unite to the oxygen d, nor the
oxygen d niove in the contrary direction to unite to the zinc b, the relation of the
similar forces of b and e, in contrary directions, to the opposite forces of d being the
preventive. As the hydrogen e advances, it, on coming against the platina c,f, which
forms a part of the circuit, communicates its electric or chemical forces through it to
the next electrolyte in the circuit, fused chtlorideof lead, g, h, where the chlorine must
move in conformity with the direction of the oxygen at d, for it hliasto compensat
ttie forces disturbed in its part of the circuit by the superior influence of those between the oxygen and zinc at d, b, aided as they are by those of the battery a; and
for a similar reason thte lead must move in the direction pointed out by the arrow
head, that it may be in right relation to the first moving body of its own class,
namely, the zinc b. If copper intervene in the circuit from i to k, it acts as the
platina did before; and if another electrolyte, as the iodide of tin, occur at 1, m, then
the iodine 1, being an anion, must move in conformity with the exciting anion,
namely, the oxygen d, and the cation tin m move in correspondence with the other
cations b, e, and h, that the chemical forces may be in equilibrium as to their direc-

tion and quantity throughout the circuit. Should it so happen that the anions in
their circulation can combine with the metals at the anodes of the respective electrolytes, as would be the case at the platina / and the copper k, then those bodies becoming parts of electrolytes, under the influence of the current, immediately travel;
but considering their relation to the zinc b, it is evidently impossible that they can
3 M2

448

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCHES

IN ELECTRICITY.

travel in any other direction than what will accord with its course, and therefore can
never tend to pass otherwise thanfrom the anode and to the cathode.
964. In such a circle as that delineated, therefore, all the known anions may be
grouped within, and all the cations without. If any number of them enter as ions
into the constitution of electrolytes, and, forming one circuit, are simultaneously
subject to one common current, the anions must move in accordance with each
other in one direction, and the cations in the other. Nay, more than that, equivalent portions of these bodies must so advance in opposite directions; for the advance
of every 32-5 parts of the zinc b must be accompanied by a motion in the opposite
direction of 8 parts of oxygen at d, of 36 parts of chlorine at g, of 126 parts of iodine
at l; and in the same direction by electro-chemical equivalents of hydrogen, lead,
copper and tin, at e, h, k, and m.
965. If the present paper be accepted as a correct expression of facts, it will still
only prove a confirmation of certain general views put forth by Sir HUMPHRY DAVYin
his Bakerian Lecture for 1806*, and revised and re-stated by him in another Bakerian Lecture, on electrical and chemical changes, for the year 1826 f. His general statement is, that " chemical and electrical attractions were produced by the same
cause, acting in one case on particles, in the other on masses, of matter; and that the
same property, under djfferent modifications, was the cause of all the phenomena exhi-

bited by differentvoltaic combinations." This statement I believe to be true; but


in admitting and supporting it, I must guard myself from being supposed to assent
to all that is associated with it in the two papers referred to, or as admitting the
experiments which are there quoted as decided proofs of the truth of the principle.
Had I thought them so, there would have been no occasion for this investigation.
It may be supposed by some that I ought to go through these papers, distinguishing
what I admit from what I reject, and giving good experimental or philosophical
reasons for the judgement in both cases. But then I should be equally bound to
review, for the same purpose, all that has been written both for and against the
necessity of metallic contact,-for and against the origin of voltaic electricity in chemical action,-a duty which I may not undertake in the present paper ?.

? ii.

On the Intensity necessaryfor Electrolyzation.


966. It became requisite, for the comprehension of many of the conditions attending voltaic action, to determine positively, if possible, whether electrolytes could
* Philosophical Transactions, 1807.
t Ibid. 1826, p. 383.
* Ibid. 1826, p. 389.
? I at one time intended to introduce here, in the form of a note, a table of reference to the papers of the
different philosophers who have referred the origin of the electricity in the voltaic pile to contact, or to chemical action, or to both; but on the publication of the first volume of M. BECQUEREL'shighly important and
valuable Trait6 de l'Electricite et du Magnetism, I thought it far better to refer to that work for these references, and the views held by the authors quoted. See pages 86, 91, 104, 110, 112, 117, 118, 120, 151,
152, 224, 227, 228, 232, 233, 252, 255, 257, 258, 290, &c.-July 3rd, 1834.

ON THE INTENSITY NECESSARY FOR ELECTROLYZATION.

449

resist the action of an electric current if beneath a certain intensity? whether the
intensity at which the current ceased to act would be the same for all bodies ? and
also whether the electrolytes thus resisting decomposition would conduct the electric
current as a metal does, after they ceased to conduct as electrolytes, or would act as
perfect insulators ?
967. It was evident from the experiments described (904. 906.) that different
bodies were decomposed with very different facilities, and apparently that they required for their decomposition currents of different intensities, resisting some, but
giving way to others. But it was needful, by very careful and express experiments,
to determine whether a current could really pass through, and yet not decompose an
electrolyte (910.).
968. An arrangement (fig. 12.) was made, in which two glass vessels contained the
same dilute sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1*25. The plate z was amalgamated zinc, in connexion, by a platina wire a, with the platina plate e; b was a platina wire connecting
the two platina plates P P'; c was a platina wire connected with the platina plate P".
On the plate e was placed a piece of paper moistened in solution of iodide of potassium: the wire c was so curved that its end could be made to rest at pleasure on
this paper, and show, by the evolution of iodine there, whether a current was passing; or, being placed in the dotted position, it formed a direct communication with
the platina plate e, and the electricity could pass without causing decomposition.
The object was to produce a current by the action of the acid on the amalgamated
zinc in the first vessel; to pass it through the acid in the second vessel by platina
electrodes, that its power of decomposing water might, if existing, be observed; and
to verify the existence of the current at pleasure, by decomposition at e, without
involving the continual obstruction to the current which would arise from making
the decomposition there constant. The experiment, being arranged, was examined,
the existence of a current shown by the decomposition at e, and then left with the
end of the wire c resting on the plate e, so as to form a constant metallic communication there.
969. After several hours, the end of the wire c was replaced on the test paper at e:
decomposition occurred, and the proof of a passing current was therefore complete.
The current was very feeble compared to what it had been at the beginning of the
experiment, because of a peculiar state acquired by the metal surfaces in the second
vessel, which caused them to oppose the passing current by a force which they possess under these circumstances (1040.). Still it was proved, by the decomposition, that
this state of the plates in the second vessel was not able entirely to stop the current
determined in the first, and that was all that was needful to be ascertained in the
present inquiry.
970. This apparatus was examined from time to time, and an electric current
always found circulating through it, until twelve days had elapsed, during which the
water in the second vessel had been constantly subject to its action. Notwithstand-

450

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES IN ELECTRICITY.

ing this lengthened period, not the slightest appearance of a bubble upon either of the
plates in that vessel occurred. From the results of the experiment, I conclude that
a current had passed, but of so low an intensity as to fall beneath that degree at
which the elements of water, unaided by any secondary force resulting from the
capability of combination with the matter of the electrodes, or of the liquid surroilnding them, separated fiom each other.
971. It may be supposed, that the oxygen and hydrogen had been evolved in such
small quantities as to have entirely dissolved in the water, and finally to have escaped
at the surface, or to have reunited into water. That the hydrogen can be so dissolved was shown in the first vessel; for after several days minute bubbles of gas
gradually appeared upon a glass rod, inserted to retain the zinc and platina apart,
and also upon the platina plate itself, and these were hydrogen. They resulted in
this way. Notwithstanding the amalgamation of the zinc, the acid exerted a little
direct action upon it, so that a small stream of hydrogen bubbles was continually
rising from its surface; a little of this hydrogen gradually -dissolved in the dilute
acid, and was in part set free against the surfaces of the rod and the plate, according to the well known action of such solid bodies in solutions of gases (623. &c.).
972. But if the gases had been evolved in the second vessel by the decomposition
of water, and had tended to dissolve, still there would have been every reason to
expect that a few bubbles should have appeared on the electrodes, especially on the
negative one, if it were only because of its action as a nucleus on the solution supposed to be for'med; but none appeared even after twelve days.
973. When a few drops only of nitric acid were added to the vessel A, fig. 12., then
the results were altogether different. In less than five minutes bubbles of gas appeared on the plates P' and P' in the second vessel. To prove that this was the effect
of the electric current (which by trial at e was found at the same time to be passing,)
the connexion at e was broken, the plates P' P" cleared from bubbles and left in the
acid of the vessel B, for fifteen minutes: during that time no bubbles appeared upon
them; but on restoring the communication at , a minute did not elapse before gas
appeared in bubbles upon the plates. The proof, therefore, is most full and complete,
that the current excited by dilute sulphuric,acid with a little nitric acid in vessel A,
has intensity enough to overcome the chemical affinity exerted between the oxygen
and hydrogen of the water in the vessel B, whilst that excited by dilute sulphuric acid
alone has not sufficient intensity.
974. On using a strong solution of caustic potassa in the vessel A, to excite the
current, it was found by the decomnposingeffects at e, that the current passed. But
it had not intensity enough to decompose the water in the vessel B; for though left
for fourteen days, during the whole of which time the current was found to be pass-,
ing, still not the slightest appearance of gas appeared on the plates P' P", nor any
other signs of the water having suffered decomposition.
975. Sulphate of soda in solution was then experimented with, for the purpose of

ELECTROLYTIC INTENSITY FOR SULPHATE OF SODA.-CHLORIDE

OF LEAD.

451

ascertaining with respect to it, whether a certain electrolytic intensity was also required for its decomposition in this state, in analogy with the resilt established with
regard to water (974.). The apparatuswas arranged as in fig. 13.; P and Z are the
platina and zinc plates dipping into a solution of commionsalt; a and b are platina
plates connected by wires of platina (except in the galvanometer g) with P and Z;
c is a connecting wire of platina, the ends of which can be made to rest either on the
plates a, b, or on the papers moistened in solutions which are placed upon them; so
that the passage of the current without decomposition, or with one or two decompo-n
Sitions, was under ready command, as far as arrangement was concerned. In order
cathodes
to change the anodesandthe
cplaceatsat the places of decomposition, the form of apparatus fig. 14, was occasionally adopted. HIereonly one platina plate, c, was used;
both pieces of paper on which decomposition was to be effected were placed upon it,
the wires from P and Z resting upon these pieces of paper, or upon the plate c, according as the current with or without decomposition of the solutions was required.
976. On placing solution of iodide of potassium in paper at one of the decomposing
localities, and solution of sulphate of soda at the other, so that the electric current
should pass through both at once, the solution of iodide was slowly decomposed,
yielding iodine at the anode and alkali at the cathode; but the solution of sulphate
of soda exhibited no signs of decomposition, neither acid nor alkali being evolved
from it. On placing the wires so that the iodide alone was subject to the action of
the current (900.), it was quickly and powerfully decomposed; but on arranging
them so that the sulphate of soda alone was subject to action, it still refused to yield
up its elements. Finally, the apparatus was so arranged under a wet bell-glass, that
it could be left for twelve houars,the current passing during the whole time throughl

a solution of sulphate of soda, retained in its place by only two thicknesses of bibuthattime it was ascertained by the
otouslitmausand turmeric paper. At the end of that
decomposition of iodide of potassium at the second place of action, tha e current
was passing and had passed for the twelve hours, and yet no trace of acid or alkali
from the sulphate of soda appeared.
977. From these experiments it may, I think, be concluded, that a solution of sulphate of soda can conduct a current of electricity, which is unable to decomnpose the
neutral salt present; that this salt in the state of solution, like water, requires a certain electrolytic intensity for its decomrnposition;and that the necessary intensity is
state of
much higher for this substance than for the iodide of potassium in a simnlilar
solution.

978. I then experimented on bodies rendered decomposable by fusion, and first on


chloride of lead. The current was excited by dilute sulplhuricacid without any nitric
acid between zinc and platina plates, fig. 15., and was then made to traverse a little
chloride of lead fused upon glass at a, a paper moistened in solution of iodide of
potassium at b, and a galvanometer at g. The metallic terminations at a and b
were of platina. Being thus arranged, the decomposition at b and the deflection at g

452

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCHES

IN ELECTRICITY.

showed that an electric current was passing, but there was no appearance of decomposition at a, not even after a metallic communication at b was established. The experiment was repeated several times, and I am led to conclude that in this case the current has not intensity sufficient to cause the decomposition of the chloride of lead;
and further, that, like water (974.), fused chloride of lead can conduct an electric
current having an intensity below that required to effect decomposition.
979. Chlorideof silver was then placed at a, fig. 15., instead of chloride of lead.
There was a very ready decomposition of the solution of iodide of potassium at b, and
when meltalliccontact was made there, very considerable deflection of the galvanometer needle at g. Platina also appeared to be dissolved at the anode of the fused
chloride at a, and there was every appearance of a decomposition having been effected
there.
980. A further proof of decomposition was obtained in the following manner. The
platina wires in the fused chloride at a were brought very near together (metallic
contact having been established at b), and left so; the deflection at the galvanometer
indicated the passage of a current, feeble in its force, but constant. After a minute
or two, however, the needle would suddenly be violently affected, and indicate a current as strong as if metallic contact had taken place at a. This I actually found to
be the case, for the silver reduced by the action of the current crystallized in long
delicate spiculae,and these at last completed the metallic communication; and at the
same time that they transmitted a more pow'erful current than the fused chloride,
they proved that electro-chemical decomposition of that chloride had been going
on. Hence it appears, that the current excited by dilute sulphuric acid between zinc
and platina, has an intensity above that required to electrolyze the fused chloride of
silver when placed between platina electrodes, although it has not intensity enough
to decompose chloride of lead under the same circumstances.
981. A drop of water placed at a instead of the fused chlorides, showed as in the
former case (970.), that it could condluct a current unable to decompose it, for decomposition of the solution of iodide at b occurred after some time. But its conducting power was much below that of the fused chloride of lead (978.).
982. Fused nitre at a conducted much better than water: I was unable to decide
with certainty whether it was electrolyzed, but I incline to think not, for there was
no discoloration against the platina at the cathode. If sulpho-nitric acid had been
used in the exciting vessel, both the nitre and the chloride of lead would have suffered
decomposition like the water (906.).
983. The results thus supplied of conduction without decomposition, and the necessity of a certain electrolytic intensity for the separation of the ions of different electrolytes, are immediately connected with the experiments and results given
in ? 10. of the Fourth Series of these Researches (418. 423. 444. 449.). But it will
require a more exact knowledge of the nature of intensity, both as regards the first
origin of the electric current, and also the manner in which it may be reduced,

ELECTROLYTIC INTENSITY REQUIRED FOR WATER, ETC.

453

or lowered by the intervention of larger or smaller portions of bad conductors,


whether decomposable or not, before their relation can be minutely and fully understood.
984. In the case of water, the experiments I have as yet made, appear to show,
that, when the electric current is reduced in intensity below the point required for
decomposition, then the degree of conduction is the same whether sulphuric acid,
or any other of the many bodies which can affect its transferring power as an electrolyte, are present or not. Or, in other words, that the necessary electrolytic intensity for water is the same whether it be pure, or rendered a better conductor by
the addition of these substances ; and that fo currents of less intensity than this, the
water, whether pure or acidulated, has equal conducting power. An apparatus,
fig. 12, was arranged with dilute sulphuric acid in the vessel A, and pure distilled water in the vessel B. By the decomposition at e, it appeared as if water was a better
conductor than dilute sulphuric acid for a current of such low intensity as to cause
no decomposition. I am inclined, however, to attribute this apparent superiority of
water to variations in that peculiar condition of the platina electrodes which is referred to further on in this Series (1040.), and which is assumed, as far as I can
judge, to a greater degree in dilute sulphuric acid than in pure water. The power,
therefore, of acids, alkalies, salts, and other bodies in solution, to increase conducting power, appears to hold good only in those cases where the electrolyte subject to
the current suffers decomposition, and loses all influence when the current transmitted has too low an intensity to effect chemical change. It is probable that the ordinary conducting power of an electrolyte in the solid state (419.) is the same as that
which it possesses in the fluid state for currents under the due electrolytic intensity.
985. Currents of electricity, produced by less than eight or ten series of voltaic
elements, can be reduced to that intensity at which water can conduct them without
suffering decomposition, by causing them to pass through three or four vessels in
which water shall be successively interposed between platina surfaces. The principles of interference ulpon which this effect depends, will be described hereafter
(1009. 1018.), but the effect may be useful in obtaining currents of standard intensity, and is probably applicable to batteries of any number of pairs of plates.
986. As there appears every reason to expect that all electrolytes will be found
subject to the law which requires an electric current of a certain intensity for their
decomposition, but that they will differ from each other in the degree of intensity
required, it will be desirable hereafter to arrange them in a table, in the order of
their electrolytic intensities. Investigations on this point must, however, be very
much extended, and include many more bodies than have been here mentioned
before such a table can be constructed. It will be especially needful in such experiments, to describe the nature of the electrodes used, or, if possible, to select such as,
like platina or plumbago in certain cases, shall have no power of assisting the separation of the ions to be evolved (913.).
MDCCCXXX1V.

3 N

454

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES IN ELECTRICITY.

987. Of the two modes in which bodies can transmit the electric forces, namely,
that which is so characteristically exhibited by the metals, and that in which it is
accompanied by decomposition, the first appears common to all bodies, although it
occurs with almost infinite degrees of difference; the second is at present distinctive
of the electrolytes. It is, however, just possible that it may hereafter be extended to
the metals; for their power of conducting without decomposition may, perhaps justly,
be ascribed to their requiring a very high electrolytic intensity for their decomposition.
987-. The establishment of a certain electrolytic intensity being necessary before
decomposition can be effected, is of great importance in all those considerations
which arise regarding the probable effects of weak currents, such for instance as
those produced by natural thermo-electricity, or natural voltaic arrangements. For
to produce an effect of decomposition or of combination, a current must not only
exist, but have a certain intensity before it can overcome the quiescent affinities
opposed to it, otherwise it will be conducted, producing no permanent effects.
On the other hand, the principles are also now evident by which an opposing
action can be so weakened by the juxtaposition of bodies not having quite affinity
enough to cause direct action between them (913.), that a very weak current shall
be able to raise the sum of actions sufficiently high, and cause chemical changes to
occur.
988. In concluding this division on the intensity necessaryfor electrolyzation, I cannot resist pointing out the following remarkable conclusion in relation to intensity
generally. It would appear that when a voltaic current is produced, having a certain
intensity, dependent upon the strength of the chemical affinities by which that current is excited (916.), it can decompose a particular electrolyte without relation to
the quantity of electricity passed, the intensity deciding whether the electrolyte shall
give way or not. If that conclusion be confirmed, then we may arrange circumstances so that the same quantity of electricity may pass in the same time, in at the
same surface, into the same decomposing body in the same state, and yet differ in in-

tensity, decomposingin one case and in the other not. For taking a source of too low
an intensity to decompose, and ascertaining the quantity passed in a given time, it
is easy to take another source having a sufficient intensity, and reducing the quantity
of electricity from it by the intervention of bad conductors to the same proportion
as the former current, and then all the conditions will be fulfilled to produce the result described.

? iii.

On associated Voltaic circles, or the Jloltaic battery.


989. Passing from the consideration of single circles (875. &c.) to their association
in the voltaic battery, it is a very evident consequence, that if matters are so arranged
that two sets of affinities,in place of being opposed to each other as in figg. 1, 4. (880.
891.), are made to act in conformity, then, instead of either interfering with the

QUANTITY OF ELECTRICITY NOT INCREASED WITH NUMBER OF PLATES.

455

other, it will rather assist it. This is simply the case of two voltaic pairs of metals
arranged so as to form one circuit. In such arrangements the activity of the whole
is known to be increased, and when ten, or a hundred, or any larger number of such
alternations are placed in conformable association with each other, the power of the
whole becomes proportionably exalted, and we obtain that magnificent instrument of
philosophic research, the voltaic battery.
990. But it is evident from the principles of definite action already laid down, that
the quantity of electricity in the current cannot be increased with the increase of the
quantity of metal oxidized and dissolved at each new place of chemical action. A
single pair of zinc and platina plates throws as much electricity into the form of a
current, by the oxidation of 32'5 grains of the zinc (868.) as would be given by the
same alteration of a thousand times that quantity, or nearly five pounds of metal
oxidized at the surface of thle zinc plates of a thousand pairs placed in regular battery order. For it is evident, that the electricity which passes across the acid from
the zinc to the platina in the first cell, and which has been associated with, or even
originated by, the decomposition of a definite portion of water in that cell, cannot
pass from the zinc to the platina across the acid in the second cell, without the decomposition of the same quantity of water there, and the oxidation of the same quantity of zinc by it (924. 949.). The same result recurs in every other cell; the electrochemical equivalent of water must be decomposed in each, before the current can
pass through it; for the quantity of electricity passed, and the quantity of electrolyte
decomposed, must be the equivalents of each other. The action in each cell, therefore, is not to increase the quantity set in motion in any one cell, but to aid in urging
forward that quantity, the passing of which is consistent with the oxidation of its own
zinc; and in this way it exalts that peculiar property of the current which we endeavour to express by the term intensity, without increasing the quantity beyond that
which is proportionateto the quantity of zinc oxidized in any single cell of the series.
991. To prove this, I arranged ten pairs of amalgamated zinc and platina plates
with dilute sulphuric acid in the form of a battery. On completing the circuit, all
the pairs acted and evolved gas at the surfaces of the platina. This was collected
and found to be alike in quantity for each plate; and the quantity of hydrogen
evolved at any one platina plate was in the same proportion to the quantity of metal
dissolved from any one zinc plate, as was given in the experiment with a single pair
(864. &c.). It was therefore certain, that, just as much electricity and no more had
passed through the series of ten pair of plates as had passed through, or would have
been put into motion by, any single pair, notwithstanding that ten times the quantity
of zinc had been consumed.
992. This truth has been proved also long ago in another way, by the action of the
evolved current on a magnetic needle; the deflecting power of one pair of plates
in a battery being equal to the deflecting power of the whole, provided the wires
used be sufficierntlylarge to cary the current of the single pair freely; but the cause
3 N2

456

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES IN ELECTRICITY.

of this equality of action could not be understood whilst the definite action and evolution of electricity (783. 869.) remained unknown.
993. The stperior decomposing power of a battery over a single pair of plates is
rendered evident in two ways. Electrolytes held together by an affinity so strong as

to resist the action of the current from a single pair, yield up their elements to the
current excited by many pairs ; and that body which is decomposed by the action of
one or of few pairs of metals, &c., is resolved into its ions the more readily as it is
acted upon by electricity urged forward by many alternations.
994. Both these effects are, I think, easily understood. Whatever intensity may
be, (and that nlust of course depend upon the nature of electricity, whether it consist of a fluid or fluids, or of vibrations of an ether, or any other kind or condition of

matter,) there seems to be no difficulty in comprehending that the degree of intensity


at which a current of electricity is evolved by a first voltaic element, shall be increased when that current is subjected to the action of a second voltaic element,

acting in conformity and possessing equal powers with the first: and as the decompositions are merely opposed actions, but exactly of thle same kind as those which
generate the current (917.), it seems to be a natural consequence, that the affinity
which can resist the force of a single decomposing action shall be unable to oppose the
energies of many decomposing actions, operating conjointly, as in the voltaic battery.
995. That a body which can give way to a current of feeble intensity should give
vay more freely to one of stronger force, and yet involve no contradiction to the
All the facts and also the
law of definite electrolytic action, is perfectly consistent.
theory I have ventured to put forth, tend to show that the act of decomposition

opposes a certain force to the passage of the electric current; and that this obstruction should be overcome nlore or less readily, in proportion to the greater or less

intensity of the decomposing current, is in perfect consistency with all our notions
of the electric agent.

996. I have elsewhere (947.) distinguished the chemical action of zinc and dilute
sulphuric acid into two portions; that which, acting effectually on the zinc, evolves
hydrogen at once upon its surface, and that which, producing an arrangemenet of the
chemical forces throughout the electrolyte present, (in this case water,) tends to take

oxygen from it, but cannot do so unless the electric current consequent thereon can
have free passage, and the hydrogen be delivered elsewhere than against the zinc.
The electric current depends altogether upon the second of these; but when the
current can pass, by favouring the electrolytic action it tends to diminish the former
and increase the latter portion.

997. It is evident, therefore, that when ordinary zinc is used in a voltaic arrangement, there is an enormous waste of that power which it is the object to throw into
the form of an electric current; a consequence which is put in its stiron-gest point of
view when it is considered that three ounces and a half of zinc, properly oxydized,
can circulate enough electricity to decompose nearly one ounce of water, and cause

VOLTAIC BATTERY

OF AMALGAMATED

ZINC.

457

the evolution of about 2400 cubic inches of hydrogen gas. This loss of power not
only takes place during the time the electrodes of the battery are in communication,
being then proportionate to the quantity of hydrogen evolved against the surface of
any one of the zinc plates, but includes also all the chemical action which goes on
when the extremities of the pile are not in communication.
998. This loss is far greater with ordinary zinc than with the pure metal, as M. DE
LARIVEhas shown *. The cause is, that when ordinary zinc is acted upon by dilute
sulphuric acid, portions of copper, lead, cadmium, or other metals which it may contain, are set free upon its surface; and these, being in contact with the zinc, form
small but very active voltaic circles, which cause great destruction of the zinc and
evolution of hydrogen, apparently upon the zinc surface, but really upon the surface
of these accidental metals. In the same proportion as they serve to discharge or convey the electricity back to the zinc, do they diminish its power of producing an electric current wvhichshall extend to a greater distance across the acid, and be discharged
only through the copper or platina plate which is associated with it for the purpose
of forming a voltaic apparatus.
999. All these evils are removed by the employment of an amalgam of zinc in the
manner recommended by Mr. KEMPt, or the use of the amalgamated zinc plates of
Mr. STURGEON(863.), who has himself suggested and objected to their application in

galvanic batteries ; for he says, " Were it not on account of the brittleness and other
inconveniences occasioned by the incorporation of the mercury with the zinc, amalgamation of the zinc surfaces in galvanic batteries would become an important improvement; for the metal would last much longeir,and remain bright for a considerable time, even for several successive hours ; essential considerations in the employment of this apparatus +.
1000. Zinc so prepared, even though impnre, does not sensibly decompose the
water of dilute sulphuric acid, but still has such affinity for the oxygen, that the
moment a metal which, like copper or platina, has little or no affinity, touches it in
the acid, action ensues, and a powerful and abundant electric current is produced.
It is probable that the mercury acts by bringing the surface, in consequence of its
fluidity, into one uniform condition, and preventing those differences in character
between one spot and another which are necessary for the formation of the minute
voltaic circuits referred to (998.). If any difference does exist at the first moment,
with regard to the proportion of zinc and mercury, at one spot on the surface, as
compared with another, that spot having the least mercury is first acted on, and, by
solution of the zinc, is soon placed in the same condition as the other parts, and the
* Quarterly Journal of Science, 1831, p. 388; or Bibliotheque Universelle, 1830, p. 391.
t JAMESON'SEdinburgh Journal, October 1828.
+ Recent Experimental Researches, p. 42, &c. Mr. STrRGEoNis of course unaware of the definite production of electricity by chemical action, and is in fact quoting the experiment as the strongest argument against
the chemical theory of galvanism.

458

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMIENTAL RESEARCHES

IN ELECTRICITY.

whole plate rendered superficially uniform. One part cannot, therefore, act as a
discharger to another; and hence all the chemical power upon the water at its surface

is in that equable condition (949.), which, though it tends to produce an electric current through the liquid to another plate of metal which can act as a discharger (950.),
presents no irregularities by which any one part, having weaker affinities for oxygen,
can act as a discharger to another. Two excellent and important consequences follow upon this state of the metal. The first is, that thefull equivalent of electricity is
o-btained for the oxidation of a certain quantity of zinc; tle second, that a battery
constructed with the zinc so prepared, and charged with dilute sulphuric acid, is

active only wbilst the electrodes are connected, and ceases to act or be acted upon
by the acid the instant the communication is broken.
1001. I have had a smlall battery of ten pairs of plates thus constructed, and am
convinced that arrangements of this kind will be very important, especially in the
development and illustration of the philosophical principles of the instrument. The
metals I have used are amalgamated zinc and platina, connected together by being
soldered to platina wires, the whole apparatus having the form of the couronne

des tasses. The liquid used was dilute sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1'25. No action
took place upon the metals except when the electrodes were in communication, and
then the action upon the zinc was only in proportion to the decomposition

in the

experimental cell; for when the current was retarded there, it was retarded also in
the battery, and no waste of the powers of the metal was incurred.
1002. In consequence of this circumstance, the acid in the cells remained active
for a very much longer time than usual. In fact, time did not tend to lower it in
any sensible degree; for whilst the metal was preserved to be acted upon at the

proper moment, ttle acid also was preserved almost at its first strength.

Hence a

constancy of action far beyond what can be obtained with the use of common zinc.
1003. Another excellent consequence was the renewal, during the interval of rest,
between two experiments of the first and most efficient state. When an amalgamated

zinc and a platina plate, immersed in dilute sulphuric acid, are first connected, the
current is very powerful, but instantly sinks very much in force, and in some cases

actually falls to only an eighth or a tenth of that first produced (1036.). This is due
to the acid which is in contact with the zinc becoming neutralized by the oxide
formed; the continued quick oxidation of the metal being thus prevented. With
ordinary zinc, the evolution of gas at its surface tends to mingle all the liquid together, and thus bring fresh acid against the metal, by which the oxide formed there
can be removed. With the amalgamated zinc battery, at every cessation of the current, the saline solution against the zinc is gradually diffused amongst the rest of
the liquid; and upon the renewal of the contact with the electrodes, the zinc plates
are found most favourably circumstanced for the production of a ready and powerful
current.
1004. It might at first be imagined that amalgamated zinc would be much inferior

IMPROVEMENTS

IN THE VOLTAIC BATTERY.

459-

in force to common zinc, because of the lowering of its energy, which the mercury

might be supposed to occasion over the whole of its surface; but this is not the
case. When the electric currents of two pairs of platina and zinc plates were opposed,
the difference being that one of the zincs was amalgamated and the other not, the
current from the amalgamated zinc was most powerful, although no gas was evolved
against it, and much was evolved at the surface of the unamalgamated metal. Again,
as DAVYhas shown*, if amalgamated and unamalgamated zinc be put in contact,
and dipped into dilute sulphuric acid, or other exciting fluids, the former is positive
to the latter, i. e. the current passes from the amalgamated zinc, thlroughthe fluid,
to the unprepared zinc. This he accounts for by supposing that " there is not any
inherent and specific property in each metal which gives it the electrical character,
but that it depends upon its peculiar state-on that form of aggregation which fits it
for chemical change."
1005. The superiority of the amalgamated zinc is not, however, due to any such

cause, but is a very simple consequence of the state of the fluid in contact with it;
for as the unprepared zinc acts directly and alone upon the fluid, whilst that which

is amalgamated does not, the former (by the oxide it produces) quickly neutralizes
the acid in contact with its surface, so that the progress of oxidation is retarded,
whilst, at the surface of the amalgamated zinc, any oxide formed is instantly removed
by the free acid present, and the clean metallic surface is always ready to act with
full energy upon the water. Hence its superiority (1037.).
1006. The progress of improvement in the voltaic battery and its applications, is

evidently in the contrary direction at present to what it was a few years ago; for in
place of increasing the number of plates, the strength of acid, and the extent altogether of the instrument, the change is rather towards its first state of simplicity, but

with a far more intimate knowledge and application of the principles which govern
its force and action. Effects of decomposition can now be obtained with ten pairs of
plates (417.), which required five hundlledor a thousand pairs for their production in
the first instance. The capability of decomposing fused chlorides, iodides, and other
compounds, according to the law before established (380. &c.), and the opportunity
of collecting certain of the products, without any loss, by the use of apparatus of the
nature of those already described (789. 814. &c.), render it probable that the voltaic
battery may become a useful and even economical manufacturing instrument;

for

theory evidently indicates that an equivalent of a rare substance may be obtained at


the expense of three or four equivalents of a very common body, namely, zinc: and
practice seems thus far to justify the expectation. In this point of view I think it
very likely that plates of platina or silver may be used instead of plates of copper
with advantage, and that then the evil arising occasionally from solution of the copper, and its precipitation on the zinc, (by which the electro-motive power of the zinc
is so much injured,) will be avoided (1047.).
* PhilosophicalTransactions,1826, p. 405.

460

? iv.

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES IN ELECTRICITY.

On the Resistance of an Electrolyte to Electrolytic Action, anzdon Interpositions.

1007. I have already illustrated, in the simplest possible form of experiment


(891. 910.), the resistance established at the place of decomposition to the force active
at the exciting place. I purpose examining the effects of this resistance more generally; but it is rather with reference to their practical interference with the action
and phenomena of the voltaic battery, than with any intention at this time to offer a
strict and philosophical account of their nature. Their general and principal cause
is the resistance of the chemical affinities to be overcome; but there are numerous
other circumstances which have a joint influence with these forces (1034. 1040. &c.),
each of which would require a minute exanination before a correct account of the
whole could be given.
1008. As it will be convenient to describe the experiments in a form different to
that in which they were made, both forms shall first be explained. Plates of platina,
copper, zinc, and other metals, about three quarters of an inch wide and three inches
long, were associated together in pairs by means of platina wires to which they were
soldered, fig. 16, the plates of one pair being either alike or different, as might be
required. These were arranged in glasses, fig. 17, so as to form VOLTA'Scrown of
ps. The acid o fuid i the cups never covered the wlole of any plate; and occasionally small glass rods were put into the cups, between the plates, to prevent their
contact. Single plates were used to terminate the series and complete the connexion
with a galvanometer, or with a deconmposingapparatus (899. 968. &c.), or both. Now
if fig. 18 be examined and compared with fig. 19, the latteir may be admitted as representing the former in its simplest condition; for the cups i, ii, and iii of the former,
with their contents, arle represented by the cells i, ii, and iii of the latter, and the
metal plates Z and P of the former by the similari plates represented Z and P in the
latter. The only difference, in fact, between the apparatus, fig. 18, and the trough
represented fig. 19, is that twice the quantity of surface of contact between the metal
and acid is allowed in the first to what would occur in the second.
1009. When the extreme plates of the arrangementjust described, fig. 18, are connected metallically through the galvanometer g, then the whole represents a battery
consisting of two pairs of zinc and platina plates urging a current forward,which has,
however, to decompose water unassisted by any direct chemical affinity before it can
be transmitted across the cell iii, and therefore before it can circulate. This decomposition of water, which is opposed to the passage of the current, may as a matter of
convenience be considered as taking place either against the surfaces of the two platina plates which constitute the electrodes in the cell iii, or against the two surfaces
of that platina plate which separates the cells ii and iii, fig. 19, from each other. It
is evident that if that plate were away, the battery would consist of two pairs of plates
and two cells, arranged in the most favourableposition for the production of a current.
The platina plate therefore, which being introduced as at x, has oxygen evolved at one

RETARDING EFFECTS OF INTERPOSED PLATES.

461

surface and hydrogen at the other (that is, if the decomposing current passes), may be
considered as the cause of any obstruction arising from the decomposition of water
by the electrolytic action of the current; and I have usually called it the interposed
plate.
1010. In order to simplify the conditions, dilute sulphuric acid was first used in
all the cells, and platina for the interposed plates; for then the initial intensity of the
current which tends to be formed is constant, being due to the power which zinc has
of decomposing water; and the opposing force of decomposition is also constant,
the elements of the water being unassisted in their separation at the interposed plates
by any affinity or secondary action at the electrodes (744.), arising either from the
nature of the plate itself or the surrounding fluid.
1011. When only one voltaic pair of zinc and platina plates were used, the current
of electricity was entirely stopped to all practical purposes by interposing one platina
plate, fig. 20, i. e. by requiring of the current that it should decompose water, and
evolve both its elements, before it should pass. This consequence is in perfect accordance with the views before given (910. 917. 973.). For as the whole result depends upon the opposition of forces at the places of electric excitement and electrodecomposition, and as water is the substance to be decomposed at both before the
current can move, it is not to be expected that the zinc should have such powerful
attraction for the oxygen, as not only to be able to take it from its associated hydrogen, but leave such a surplus of force as, passing to the second place of decomposition, should be there able to effect a second separation of the elements of water.
Such an effect would require that the force of attraction between zinc and oxygen
should under the circumstances be at least twice as great as the force of attraction
between the oxygen and hydrogen.
1012. When two pairs of zinc and platina exciting plates were used, the current
was also practically stopped by one interposed platina plate, fig. 21. There was a
very feeble effect of a current at first, but it ceased almost immediately. It will be
referred to, with many other similar effects, hereafter (1017.).
1013. Three pairs of zinc and platina plates, fig. 22, were able to produce a current
which could pass an interposed platina plate, and effect the electrolyzation of water
in cell iv. The current was evident, both by the continued deflexion of the galvanometer, and the production of bubbles of oxygen and hydrogen at the electrodes in
cell iv. Hence the accumulated surplus force of these plates of zinc, which are active
in decomposing water, is more than equal, when added together, to the force with
which oxygen and hydrogen are combined in water, and is sufficient to cause the
separation of these elements from each other.
1014. 'The three pairs of zinc and platina plates were now opposed by two intervening platina plates, fig. 23. In this case the current was stopped.
1015. Four pairs of zinc and platina plates were also neutralized by two interposed
platina plates, fig. 24.
MDCCCXXXIV.

3o

462

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCHES

IN ELECTRICITY.

1016. Five pairs of zinc and platina, with two interposed platina plates, fig. 25,
gave a feeble current; there was permanent deflexion at the galvanometer, and de-

composition in the cells vi and vii. But the current was very feeble; very much less
than when all the intermediate plates were removed and the two extreme ones only
retained; for when they were placed six inches asunder in one cell, they gave a
powerful current. Hence five exciting pairs, with two interposed obstructing plates,
do not give a current at all comparable to that of a single unobstructed pair.
1017. I have already said that a veryfeeble current passed when the series included
one interposed platina and two pairs of zinc and platina plates (1012.). A similarly feeble current passed in every case, and even when only one exciting pair and
four intervening platina plates were used, fig. 26, a current passed which could be
detected at x., both by chemical action on the solution of iodide of potassium, and by
the galvanometer. This current I believe to be due to electricity reduced in intensity
below the point requisite for the decomposition of water (970. 984.); for water can
conduct electricity of such low intensity by the same kind of power which it possesses
in common with metals and charcoal, tlhoughit cannot conduct electricity of higher
intensity without suffering decomposition, and then opposing a new force consequent
thereon. With an electric current under this intensity, it is probable that increasing
the number of interposed platina plates would not involve an increased difficulty of
conduction.
1018. In order to obtain an idea of the additional interfering power of each added

platina plate, six voltaic pairs and four intervening platinas were arranged as in
fig. 27; a very feeble current then passed (985. 1017.). When one of the platinas
was removed so that three intervened, a current somewhat stronger passed. With
two intervening platinas a still stronger current passed; and with only one intervening platina a very fair current was obtained. But the effect of the successive plates,
taken in the order of their interposition, was very different, as might be expected;

for the first retarded the current more powerfully than the second, and the second
more than the third.
1019. In these experiments both amalgamated and unamalgamated zinc were used,
but the results generally were the same.
1020. The effects of retardationjust described were altered altogether when changes
were made in the nature of the liquid used between the plates, either in what may be
called the exciting or the retarding cells. Thus, retaining the exciting force the same,
by still using pure dilute sulphuric acid for that purpose, if a little nitric acid were
added to the liquid in the retarding cells, then the transmission of the current was
very much facilitated. For instance, in the experiment with one pair of exciting
plates and one intervening plate (1011.), fig. 20, when a few drops of nitric acid were
added to the contents of cell ii, then the current of electricity passed with consider-.
able strength (though it soon fell from other causes (1036. 1040.),) and the same
good effect was produced by the nitric acid when many interposed plates were used.

RETARDATION PRODUCED BY INTERPOSED PLATES.

463

1021. This seems to be a consequence of the diminution of the difficultyof decomposing water when its hydrogen, as in these cases, instead of being absolutely expelled, is transferredto the oxygen of the nitric acid, producing a secondary result at
the cathode (752.); for in accordance with the chemical views of the electric current
and its action already advanced (913.), the water, instead of opposing a resistance to
decomposition equal to the full amount of the force of mutual attraction between its
oxygen and hydrogen, has that force counteracted in part, and therefore diminished
of the nitric acid
for the
by the attraction of the hydrogen at the cathode
toxygen
which surrounds it, and with which it ultimately combines instead of being rendered
in its free and independent state.
1022. When a little nitric acid was put into the exciting cells, then again the circumstances favouring the transmission of the current were strengthened, for the intensity of the current itself was increased by the addition (906.). When therefore a
little nitric acid was added to botl the exciting and the retarding cells, the current
of electricity passed with very considerable freedom.
1023. When dilute muriatic acid was used, it produced and transmitted a current
more easily than pure dilute sulphuric acid, but could not compete with nitric acid.
As muriatic acid appears to decompose more freely than water (765.), and as the
affinity of zinc for chlorine is very powerful, it might be expected to produce a current more intense than that from the use of dilute sulphuric acid; and also to transmit it more freely by undergoing decomposition at a lower intensity (912.).
1024. In relation to the effect of these interpositions, it is necessary to state that
they do not appear to be at all dependent upon the size of the electrodes, or their
distance from each other in the acid, except that when a current can pass, changes
in these facilitate or retard its passage. For on repeating the experiment with one
intervening and one pair of exciting plates (1011.), fig. 20, and in place of the interposed plate P using sometirnes a mere wire, and sometimes very large plates (1008.),
and also changing the terminal exciting plates Z and P, so that they were sometimes
wires only and at others of great size, still the results were the same as those already
obtained.
1025. In illustration of the effect of distance, an experiment like that described
with two exciting pairs and one intervening plate (1012), fig. 21, was arranged so
that the distance between the plates in the third cell could be increased to six or
eight inches, or diminished to the thickness of a piece of intervening bibulous paper.
Still the result was the same in both cases, the effect being no greater, sensibly,
when the plates were merely separated by the paper, than when a great way apart;
so that the principal opposition to the current does not depend upon the quantity of
intervening electrolytic conductor, but on the relation of its elementsto the intensity of
the current, or to the chemical nature of the electrodes and the surrounding fluids.
1026. When the acid was sulphuric acid, increasing its strength in any of the cells,
caused no change in the effects; it did not produce a more intense current in the
3o2

464

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCHES

IN ELECTRICITY.

exciting cells (908.), or cause the current produced to traverse the decomposing cells
more freely. But if to very weak sulphuric acid a few drops of nitric acid were added,
then either one or other of those effects could be produced; and, as might be expected
in a case like this, where the exciting or conducting action bore a direct reference
to the acid itself, increasing the strength of this (the nitric acid), also increased its
powers.
1027. The nature of the interposedplate was now varied to show its relation to the
phenomena either of excitation or retardation, and amalgamated zinc was first substituted for platina. On employing one voltaic pair and one interposed zinc plate,
fig. 28, there was as powerful a current, apparently, as if the interposed zinc plate
was away. Hydrogen was evolved against P in cell ii, and against the side of the
second zinc in cell i; but no gas appeared against the side of the zinc in cell ii, nor
against the zinc in cell i.
1028. On interposing two amalgamated zinc plates, fig. 29, instead of one, there
was still a powerful current, but interference had taken place. On using three intermediate zinc plates, fig. 30, there was still further retardation, though a good
current of electricity passed.
1029. Considering the retardation as due to the inaction of the amalgamated zinc
conseence of the slight th
general effect of diminished
upon the dilute acid, in coough
the
on
the
chemical power produced by
surface, and viewing this inaction
mercury
as the circumstance which rendered it necessary that each plate should have its tendency to decompose water assisted slightly by the electric current, it was expected
that plates of the metal in the unamalgamated state would probably not requiresuch
assistance, and would offer no sensible impediment to the passing of the current. This
expectation was fully realized in the use of two and three interposed unamalgamated
plates. The electric current passed through them as freely as if there had been no
such plates in the way. They offered no obstacle, because they could decompose
water without the current; and the latter had only to give direction to a part of the
forces, which would have been active whether it had passed or not.
1030. Interposed plates of copper were then employed. These seemed at first to
occasion no obstruction, but after a few minutes the current almost entirely ceased.
This effect appears due to the surfaces taking up that peculiar condition (1040.) by
which they tend to produce a reverse current; for when one or more of the plates
were turned round, which could easily be effected with the couronne des tasses form
of expeIiment, fig. 18, then the current was powerfully renewed for a few moments,
and then again ceased. Plates of platina and copper, arranged as a voltaic pile with
dilute sulphuric acid, could not form a voltaic trough competent to act for more than
a few minutes, because of this peculiar counteracting effect.
1031. All these effects of retardation, exhibited by decomposition against surfaces
for which the evolved elements have more or less affinity, or are altogether deficient
in attraction, show generally, though beautifully, the chemical relations and source

GENERAL

REMARKS ON THE VOLTAIC BATTERY.

465

of the current, and also the balanced state of the affinities at the places of excitation
and decomposition. In this way they add to the mass of evidence in favour of the
identity of the two; for they demonstrate, as it were, the antagonism of the chemical
powers at the electromotive part with the chemical powers at the interposed parts;
they show that the first are producing electric effects, and the second opposing them;
they bring the two into direct relation; they prove that either can determine the
other, thus making what appears to be cause and effect convertible, and thereby
demonstrating that both chemical and electrical action are merely two exhibitions of
one single agent or power (916. &c.).
1032. It is quite evident that as water and other electrolytes can conduct electricity without suffering decomposition (986.), when the electricity is of sufficiently
low intensity, it may not be asserted as absolutely tlue in all cases, that whenever
electricity passes through an electrolyte, it produces a definite effect of decomposition.
But the quantity of electricity which can pass in a given time through an electrolyte
without causing decomposition, is so small as to bear no comparison to that required
in a case of very moderate decomposition; and with electricity above the intensity
required for decomposition, I have found no sensible departure as yet from the law
of definite electrolytic action developed in the preceding series of these Researches
(783. &c.).
1033. I cannot dismiss this division of the present Paper without making a reference to the important experiments of M. AUG. DE LA RIVEon the effects of interposed plates*. As I have had occasion to consider such plates merely as giving rise
to new decompositions, and in that way only, causing obstruction to the passage of
the electric current, I was freed from the necessity of considering the peculiar effects
described by that philosopher. I was the more willing to avoid for the present
touching upon these, as I must at the same time have entered into the views of
Sir HUMPHRY DAVY upon the same subject-, and also those of MARIANINIt and
RITTER?,which are connected with it.
[ v. General Remarkson the active Voltaic Battery.
1034. When the ordinary voltaic battery is brought into action, its very activity
produces certain effects, which re-act upon it, and cause serious deterioration of its
power. These render it an exceedingly inconstant instrument as to the quantity of
effect which it is capable of producing. They are already, in part, known and understood; but as their importance, and that of certain other coincident results, will
be more evident by reference to the principles and experiments already stated and
* Annales de Chimie, tom. xxviii. p. 190; and Memoires de Geneve.
+ Philosophical Transactions, 1826, p. 413.
, Annales de Chimie, tom. xxxiii. pp. 117, 119, &c.
? Journal de Physique, tom. Ivii. pp. 349, 350.

466

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCHES

IN ELECTRICITY.

described, I have thought it would be useful, in this investigation of the voltaic pile,
to notice them briefly here.
1035. When the battery is in action, it causes such substances to be formed and
arrayed in contact with the plates as very much weaken its power, or even tend to
produce a counter current. They are considered by Sir HUMPHRYDAVYas sufficient
to account for the phenomena of RITTER'S secondary piles, and also for the effects
observed by M. A. DE LA RIVE with interposed platina plates*.

1036. I have already referred to this consequence (1003.), as capable, in some


cases, of lowering the force of the current to one eighth or one tenth of what it was
at the first moment, and have met with instances in which its interference was very
great. In an experiment in which one voltaic pair and one interposed platina plate
were used with dilute sulphuric acid in the cells (fig. 31.), the wires of communication
were so arranged, that the end of that marked 3 could be placed at pleasure upon
paper moistened in the solution of iodide of potassium at x, or directly upon the platina
plate there. If, after an interval during which the circuit had not been complete, the
wire 3 were placed upon the paper, there was evidence of a current, decomposition
ensued, and the galvanometer was affected. If the wire 3 were made to touch the
metal of p, a comparatively strong sudden current was produced, affecting the galvanometer, but lasting only for a moment; the effect at the galvanometer ceased,
and if the wire 3 were placed on the paper at x, no signs of decomposition occurred.
On raising the wire 3, and breaking the circuit altogether for a while, the apparatus
resumed its first power, requiring,however, from five to ten minutes for this purpose;
and then, as before, on making contact between 3 and p, there was again a momentary current, and immediately all the effects apparently ceased.
1037. This effect I was ultimately able to refer to the state of the film of fluid in
contact with the zinc plate in cell i. The acid of that filn is instantly neutralized by
the oxide formed; the oxidation of the zinc cannot, of course, go on with the same
facility as before; and the chemical action being thus interrupted, the voltaic action
diminishes with it. The time of the rest was required for the diffusion of the liquid,
and its replacement by other acid. From the serious influence of this cause in experiments with single pairs of plates of different metals, in which I was at one time
engaged, and the extreme care required to avoid it, I cannot help feeling a strong
suspicion that it interferes more frequently and extensively than experimenters are
aware of, and therefore direct their attention to it.
1038. In considering the effect in delicate experiments of this source of irregularity
of action in the voltaic apparatus,it must be rememberedthat it is only that very small
portion of matter which is directly in contact with the oxidizable metal which has to be
considered with referenceto the change of its nature; and this portion is not very readily
displaced from its position upon the surface of the metal (582. 605.), especially if that
*

Philosophical Transactions, 1826, p. 413.

CAUSES

OF DIMINISHED

ACTIVITY

OF THE BATTERY.

467

metal be rough and irregular. In illustration of this effect, I will quote a remarkable
experiment. A burnished platina plate (569.) was put into hot strong sulphuric acid
for an instant only: it was then put into distilled water, moved about in it, taken
out, and wiped dry: it was ut into a second portion of distilled water, moved about
in it, and again wiped: it was put into a third portion of distilled water, in which it
thenhout
wit
was moved about for nearly eight seconds; it was then,
wiping, put into a
fourth portion of distilled water, where it was allowed to remain five minutes. The
ter for sulphuric acid; the third gave no
two latter portions of water were then tested
sensible appearance of that substance, but the fourth gave indications which were not
merely evident, but abundant for the circumstances under which it had been
introduced. The result sufficiently shows with what difficulty that portion of the
substance which is in contactwith the nietal leaves it; and as the contact of the fluid
formed against the plate in the voltaic circuit must be as intimate and as perfect as
possible, it is easy to see how quickly and greatly it must vary from the general fluid
in the cells, and how infuenal in diminishing the force of the battery this effect
must be.
1039. In the ordinary voltaic pile, the influence of this effect will occur in all variety of degrees. The extremities of a trough of twenty pairs of plates of WOLLASTONS
construction were connected with the volta-electrometer, fig. 1. (711.), of the Seventh
Series of these Researches, and after five minutes the number of bubbles of gas issuing
in consequence of the decomposition of the water, noted.
from the extremy
trtube, of the
Without moving the plates, the acid between the copper and zinc was agitated by the
introduction of a feather. The bubbles were immediately evolved more rapidly, above
twice the number being produced in the same portion of time as before. In this instance it is very evident that agitation by a feather must have been a very imperfect
mode of restoring the acid in the cells against the plates towards its first equal condition; and yet imperfect as the means were, they mnorethan doubled the power of
the battery. The first effect of a bat,terywhichl is known to be so superior to the
action which the battery can sustain, is almost entirely due to the favourable condition of the acid in contact with the plates.
1040. A secondcause of diminution in the force of the voltaic battery, consequent
upon its own action, is that extraordinary state of the surfaces of the metals (969.)
which was first described, I believe, by RITTER *, to which he refers the powers of his
secondary piles, and which has been so well experimented upon by MARIANINI, and
also by A. DE LARIVE. If the apparatus, fig. 31. (1036.), be left in action for an
hour or two, with the wire 3 in contact with the plate p, so as to allow a free passage
for the current, then, though the contact be broken for ten or twelve minutes, still,
upon its renewal, only a feeble current will pass, not at all equal in force to what
might be expected. Further, if P' and P2 be connected by a metal wire, a powerful
momentary current will pass from P2 to P1 through the acid, and therefore in the
* Journalde Physique,Ivii. p. 349.

468

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES IN ELECTRICITY.

reverse direction to that produced by the action of the zinc in the arrangement; and
after this has happened,the general current can pass through the whole of the system as
at first, but by its passage again restores the plates P2 and P1 into the former opposing
condition. This, generally, is the fact described by RITTER, MARIANINI, and DE LA
RIVE. It has great opposing influence on the action of a pile, especially if the latter
consist of but a small number of alternations, and has to pass its current through
many interpositions. It varies with the solution in which the interposed plates are
immersed, with the intensity of the current, the strength of the pile, the time of
action, and especially with accidental discharges of the plates by inadvertent contacts
or reversions of the plates during experiments, and must be carefully watched in
every endeavour to trace the source, strength, and variations of the voltaic current.
Its effect was avoided in the experiments already described (1036. &c.), by making
contact between the plates P' and p2 before the effect dependent upon the state of the
solution in contact with the zinc plate was observed, and by other precautions.
1041. When an apparatus like fig. 26. (1017.) with several platina plates was used,
being connected with a battery able to force a current through them, the power
which they acquired, of producing a reverse current, was very considerable.
1042. Weak and exhausted charges should never be used at the same time with
strong andfresh ones in the different cells of a trough, or the different troughs of a
battery: the fluid in all the cells should be alike, else the plates in the weaker cells,
in place of assisting, retard the passage of the electricity generated in, and transmitted across, the stronger cells. Each zinc plate so circumstanced has to be assisted
in decomposing power before the whole current can pass between it and the liquid.
So that, if in a battery of fifty pair of plates, ten of the cells contain a weaker charge
than th
te others, it is as if ten decomposing plates were opposed to the transit of the
current of forty pairs of generating plates (1031.). Hence a serious loss of force, and

hence the reason why, if the ten pairs of plates were removed, the remaining forty pairs
would be much more powerful than the whole fifty.
1043. Five similar troughs, of ten pairs of plates each, were prepared,four of them
with a good uniform charge of acid, and the fifth with the partially neutralized acid
of a used battery. Being arranged in right order, and connected with a volta-electlometer (711.), the whole fifty pairs of plates yielded 1 1 cubic inch of oxygen and
hydrogen in one minute: but on moving one of the connecting wires so that only
the four well-charged troughs should be included in the circuit, they produced
with the same volta-electrometer 8*4 cubical inches of gas in the same time. Nearly
seven eighths of the power of the four troughs had been lost, therefore, by their association with the fifth trough.
1044. The same battery of fifty pairs of plates, after being thus used, was connected with a volta-electrometer (71 1.), so that by quickly shifting the wires of communication, the current of the whole of the battery, or of any portion of it, could be
made to pass through the instrument for given portions of time in succession. The

INJURIOUS ARRANGEMENTS OF THE VOLTAIC BATTERY.

469

whole of the battery evolved 0-9 of a cubic inch of oxygen and hydrogen in half a
minute; the forty plates evolved 4-6 cubic inches in the same time; the whole then
evolved 1 cubic inch in the half minute; the ten weakly charged evolved 0'4 of a
cubic inch in the time given: and finally the whole evolved 1*15 cubic inch in the
standard time. The order of the observations was that given: the results sufficiently
show the extremely injurious effect produced by the mixture of strong and weak
charges in the same battery*.
1045. In the same manner associations of strong and weak pairs of plates should
be carefully avoided. A pair of copper and platina plates arranged in accordance
with a pair of zinc and platina plates in dilute sulphuric acid, were found to stop the
action of the latter, or even of two pairs of the latter, as effectually almost as an interposed plate of platina (1011.), or as if the copper itself had been platina. It, in
fact, became an interposed decomposing plate, and therefore a retarding instead of
an assisting pair.
1046. The reversal, by accident or otherwise, of the plates in a battery has an ex-

ceedingly injurious effect. It is not merely the counter action of the current which the
reveirsedplates can produce, but their effect also in retarding even as indifferentplates,
and requiring decomposition to be effected upon their surface, in accordancewith the
course of the current, before the latter can pass. They oppose the current, therefore,
in the first place, as platina interposed plates would do (1011- 1018.); and to this
they add a force of opposition as counter-voltaic plates. I find that, in a series of
four pailr of zinc and platina plates in dilute sulphuric acid, if one pair be reversed, it

very nearly neutralizes the power of the whole.


1047. There are many other causes of reaction, retardation, and irregularity in the

voltaic battery. Amongst them is the not unusual one of precipitation of copper
upon the zinc in the cells, the injurious effect of which has before been adverted to

(1006.). But their interest is not perhaps sufficient to justify any increase of the
length of this paper, which is rather intended to be an investigation of the theory of
the voltaic pile than a particular account of its practical application.
Note.-Many

of the views and experiments in this Series of my Experimental Re-

searches will be seen at once to be corrections and extensions of the theory of electrochemical decomposition, given in the Fifth and Seventh Series of these Researches,
The expressions I would now alter are those which relate to the independence of the
evolved elernents of the poles or electrodes, and tlle reference of their evolution to

powers entirely internal (524. 537. 661.).

The present paper fully shows my present

views; and I would refer to paragraphs 891. 904. 910. 917. 918. 947. 963. 1007.

1031. &c., as stating what they are. I hope this note will be considered as sufficient
* The gradual increase in the action of the whole fifty pairs of plates was due to the elevation of temperature in the weakly charged trough by the passage of the current, in consequence of which the exciting energies

of the fluidwithin were increased.


MDCCCXXXIV.

3 P

470

DR. FARADAY'S EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES IN ELECTRICITY.

in the way of correction at present for I would rather defer revising the whole
theory of electro-chemical decomposition until I cain obtain clearer views of the
way in which the power under consideration can appear at one time as associated
with particles giving them their chemical attraction, and at another as free electricity (493. 957.).-M. F.

Royal Institution,
March 31, 1834.

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