Chapter 1 - Sets, inequalities and functions

1.1 Sets of numbers

A set of a collection of distinct objects.

Objects in a set are called the elements of that set.

If

is an element of the set

A , we write

xA .

1.1.1 Commonly used sets

- Natural numbers {0, 1, 2, 3...}

- Integers (whole numbers) {.....-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3.....}

+
Z - Positive integers {1, 2, 3...}

- Rational numbers can be expressed as ratio of

integers

a
:b 0
b

- Real numbers can be represented as the number

line

- Complex numbers can be expressed in the form

a , b R , and

a+ib , where

i 2=1 .

- The null set has no elements at all. The set of all

real numbers that satisfy

x 2+1=0

is an empty set.

Interval Notation

Say

and

are the endpoints of an interval.

o
o
o
o
o

[ = include endpoint
( = exclude endpoint
[] = include both endpoints (closed interval)
() = exclude both endpoints (open interval)
(] or [) = exclude one endpoint and include the other
(neither open nor closed)

You cannot include

Examples

( a , b ) ={ x R :a< x< b }

because it isn't a number.

[a ,b ]= { x R :a x b }

= { x R :a x< b }
= { x R :a x }

=R

1.1.2 Subsets

Suppose

If

and

are 2 sets.

B , every element of

is a subset of

element of

B .
Set
B

Set
A

x A

i.e. If

If

If B contains A,

xB,

implies

B ,

is a subset of

A is a subset of B

A B

B A

1.2 Solving inequalities

For

x, y ,z R
1. If

x< y , then

2. If

x> y

3. If

x> y , and

4. If

y > x> 0 , then

and

x+ z < y + z

z> 0 , then

xz > yz

z< 0

xz < yz

than

y> x >0

is an

5. If

y > x> 0

6. If

0< x < y

then

1 1
0< <
y x

When multiplying by a negative number, the inequality sign

changes.
Note: In a question such as:
Solve the inequality

1
1
<
3 x1

To solve the inequality, you can't just multiply the inequality

through by

x1

x1

because you don't know whether

positive or not. You need to multiply both sides by

is

( x1 )2 and

then go on and solve it.

( x1 )
1
( x1 )2 <
3
x1

1
( x1 )2 <(x1)
3

1.3 Absolute values

The magnitude or absolute value of a real number
by

|x| and defined by:

{x if x <0

|x|= x if x 0

i.

|x|=|x|

ii.

|xy|=|x|| y|

iii.

| xy|=||xy|| y 0

is denoted

iv.

|x + y||x|+| y| (triangle inequality)

v.

xR ,

|x|= x 2

vi.

x R,

|x| =x 2

vii.

y R : y>0 ,
-

| y|< a , iff a< y <a

| y|> a , iff y <a or

y >a

Example:
Solve the following inequality:

<1
| x3
x1|

|x3|
<1
|x1|
|x3|<|x1|
Squaring both positive sides and using vi.,

( x3 )2 < ( x1 )2
Expanding and solving we have

1.4 Functions

x> 2 .

A function

f : AB

is a rule that assigns every element

to exactly one element

f ( x) B .

Set A: Domain
Codomain

Range

x A

FUNCTION f

Set A is the domain of Dom (f )

Set B:

f ( x)

of the function

f . It is

the set containing all of the inputs for the function.

Set B is the codomain or Codom (f )

f . It is the set

of

that contains all output values of the function.

o Whilst all outputs must lie in the codomain, not every
number in the codomain may be an output.
o There may be some elements in the codomain that
aren't an assignment of any element

in Set A.

Range (f )

The expression

f (x)

f (x)

{f (x) B : x A }
is the value of

at the point

is a unique number in the codomain that

corresponds to the input

in A.

The range is the set of all output values.

o Not necessarily equal to the codomain
o Is a subset of the codomain.
o Unlike the codomain, every value in the range is an
output value and is an assignment of an element

f (x)

x .

is a number NOT a function.

is the function.

To define a function precisely, we need a domain, a

codomain, and a rule. In MATH1131, the domain and
codomain are always

x .

.e.g.

f : RR
2

f ( x )=x x Dom( f )
1.4.1 Combining functions
f : AB

If

g:A B

and

are real valued functions, then

xA :

( f + g )( x )=f ( x ) + g ( x )

( f g ) ( x ) =f ( x )g( x )

( f g )( x )=f ( x ) g( x )

( gf ) ( x ) = fg(( xx)) , g ( x ) 0

1.4.2 Compositions
f :C D

Suppose,

Range(g)
f g :

and

is a subset of

A D

g:A B

are functions such that

Dom( f ) . Then the composition

is defined by the rule:

( f g )( x )=f ( g ( x ) ) x A

Note the composition only exists if the range of

subset of the domain of

f .

1.5 Polynomials
A function
n

f : RR

f ( x )=a n x +a n1 x

n1

is a polynomial if
2

+ +a2 x + a1 x +a o x R

Where:

n( degree) N
Odd degrees produce graph

is a

The constants

an

ao , . an R :an 0

is the leading coefficient of

The number of turning points is always < the degree

1.5.1 Rational functions

A function

is called a rational function if

polynomials and:

Dom ( f ) ={x R: q( x ) 0 }

f ( x )=

p (x )
, x Dom(f )
q(x)

1.6 Trigonometric functions

1.6.1 Exact values

and

are

sin
cos

30

45

60

1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

2
tan

1
3

1.6.2
Ratio

and reciprocal identities

tan =

sin
cos

sec =

1
cos

cosec =

cot =

1
sin

cos
sin

1.6.3 Graphs of sinx, cosx , tanx, secx, cosecx, cotx

1.6.4 Cofunction Identites

sin ( 90x ) =cos x cos ( 90x )=sin x

tan ( 90x )=cot x

sin ( 180x )=sin x cos ( 180x )=cos x tan ( 180x )=tan x

sin ( 180+ x )=sin x cos ( 180+ x )=cos x tan ( 180+ x )=tan x
sin ( 360x )=sin x cos ( 360x )=cos x tan ( 360x )=tan x
cosec ( 90x ) =sec x sec ( 90x )=cosec x cot ( 90x ) =tan x

1.6.5 Odd even identities

sin (x )=sin x cos (x )=cos x tan (x )=tan x
cosec (x )=cosec x sec (x )=sec x cot (x )=cot x

1.6.6 Pythagorean Identities

sin2 x+cos 2 x =1 tan 2 x +1=sec 2 x cot 2 x+1=cose c2 x

1.6.7 Sum and difference formulae

sin ( x y )=sin x cos y cos x sin y
cos ( x y )=cos x cos y sin x sin y
tan ( x y )=

tan x tan y
1 tan x tan y

1.6.8 Double angle identities

sin 2 x=2sin x cos x cos 2 x=cos 2 xsin2 x tan 2 x =

2 tan x
2
1tan x
2 cos2 x 1
12 sin 2 x

1.6.9 Auxillary formula

f ( x )=asin x+ bcosx

Any function

can be written in the following

forms:

y=Rsin ( x a ) y =Rcos(x a)

R= a 2+b2

and

b
a

tana=

1.7 Elementary functions

The following are known as elementary functions:

o polynomials

th

the n root function

the exponential function

f ( x )=e x

the natural log function

f ( x )=ln x

the absolute value function

f ( x )=x n ,n Z

f ( x )= x

o all trigonometric function (and their inverses)

Also any function obtained by combining a finite number of
the above functions via

+,, , ,

is also an elementary

function.

1.8 Important implicitly defined functions

You must be able to recognise these:

Chapter 1 - Difficult/Intermediate Examples

1. Sketch the graph of
(on the same diagram

y= x +1 and use your graph to sketch

y=

1
x+1

Solution
Start by drawing the graph of

Here we have

y=x +1

y=x +1 . Since we want

square root all the

values of

in a dotted line.

y= x +1 , we need to

y=x +1 . This doesn't have to

be exact, but we need to consider the graph at key points. When a

number

1 is square rooted, it increases, so we expect all the

values < 1 to increase slightly. When a number > 1 is square

rooted, it decreases. When 1 is square rooted, the result is 1. So
we get the following:

Start by drawing the

graph of

y=

Now we want to draw

whose y values are

over every y value of

y=0 , when

y= x +1 .

x=1 , there will be a vertical

x=1 .

asymptote at

1
x+1 , so we need to obtain the graph

y=0 , there is an issue. Since the graph is

Immediately, where
at

y=x +1 in a dotted line.

Since 1 over something is very

small, and 1 over

is very big, the large

something small
parts of

y= x +1 will get very

small parts will get very

small and the

large leading to the graph below:

2.

( x y )2 prove that

a) By expanding
numbers

and

b) Deduce that

and

x 2+ y 2 2 xy

for all real

a+b
ab
2

for all non negative real numbers

b . When does the equality hold?

c) Use the result above to find the minimum value of

Solution

y=x 2 +

1
2
x

a) We need to prove

x y

Because

x + y 2 xy

is squared,

by considering

( x y )2

( x y )2 must always be 0 .

So,

( x y )2 0
x 22 xy + y 2 0
x 2 + y 2 2 xy
b) Following the above process but letting

x= a ,

and

y= b ,

( a b ) 0
a2 ab+ b 0

a+ b
ab
2

c) Before we consider

a+b
2

that,

y , note the relation

a+b
ab . We see
2

ab

, but it can't be less

can be greater or equal to

than. Thus, the minimum value of

ab

a+b
2

is when it is equal to

Now, using this we can find the minimum value of

a=x2 , b=

Let

x +
2

1
2
x

= x (

1
2
x

1
)
2
x

y .

x 2+

1
=2
2
x

y min =2
(given when

x= 1 )

3. Prove that

( x+ y )2 4 xy

and hence that

1 1
4
+ 2 2 2
2
x y x +y

We know because it is a square that,

( x y )2 0
x 22 xy + y 2 0
4 xy

Adding

to both sides,

x 2+2 xy + y 2 4 xy
2

( x + y ) 4 xy

Now, starting with

1 1
4
+ 2 2 2
2
x y x +y

we modify it to make it equal

to something we know is definitely true to deduce the truth of this

relationship.

1 1
4
+ 2 2 2
2
x y x +y
x2 + y2
4
2 2
2 2
x y
x +y
2

( x 2+ y 2) 4 x 2 y 2
Square rooting both sides,

x 2+ y 2 2 xy

x 2 xy + y 0
Adding

4 xy

to both sides as above, we obtain

x 2+2 xy + y 2 4 xy
( x + y )2 4 xy
Which we know is true.

4.
a) Prove that

f ( x )=1+ x + x 2 is positive for all real numbers

b) By considering cases or otherwise, prove that

is always positive.
c) Generalise the above results.
Solution
a)
Case 1:
If

x=1

x=1 ,

Case 2:
So if

f ( 1 )=3

> 0,

x1

x 1 , then, using the high school formula,

x 31=( x1 ) (x 2 + x+ 1) ,

x .

1+ x+ x + x + x

f ( x )=

x 1
x1

Note in Case 1, we had to deal with

x=1

separately because

it's substitution into this formula would result in a division by 0.

Case 2a
When

x> 1 ,

x 31 and

x1

are both positive. So the

quotient gives a positive number and

f ( x ) >0

Case 2b
When

x< 1 ,

x 31 and

x1

are both negative. So the

quotient gives negative over a negative which is a positive, and

so

f ( x ) >0 .

f ( x) > 0

b)
Using the same argument,
Note,
Case 1:
If

x=1

x=1 ,

Case 2:

f ( 1 )=

x1

> 0,

x 1 , then, using the high school formula,

So if

x 51=( x1 ) ( x 4 + x 3 + x 2 + x+1) ,
5

x 1
f ( x )=1+ x + x 2+ x 3 + x 4 =
x1
Note in Case 1, we had to deal with

x=1

separately because

it's substitution into this formula would result in a division by 0.

Case 2a
When

x> 1 ,

x 51 and

x1

are both positive. So the

quotient gives a positive number and

f ( x ) >0

Case 2b
When

x< 1 ,

x 1 and

x1

are both negative. So the

quotient gives negative over a negative which is a positive, and

so

f ( x ) >0 .

f ( x) > 0
c) Generalising,
2

f ( x )=1+ x + x + .+ x

2n

x 2 n+11

x1
x1
We can use the same argument to prove that

f ( x ) >0