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CHAPTER - I
NUMBERS & THEIR CLASSIFICATIONS
INTRODUCTION :
The
word
number
has
no
generally
agreed
upon
primitive
conception
of
number
seems
to
be
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The religious texts of the Vedic period provide evidence for the
use of numbers and large numbers. In the classical period of
Indian
mathematics
contributions
in
(400
numbers
A.D
to
were
1200
made
A.D.)
by
important
scholars
like
Aryabhata, Brahmagupt&Bhaskar-II.
Accepting
natural
numbers
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as
the
basic
stuff,
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construction
numbers
include
the
quaternions,
the
octonions
ordinal
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infinities which are beyond the scope of the real number system
and hence an extension of real number system is essential such
system may be called ultra-real number system or hyper real
number
system
whose
arithemetic
and
analysis
can
be
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2. Integers
The negative of a positive integer is defined as a number
that produces zero when it is added to the corresponding
positive integer. Negative numbers are usually written with a
negative sign (a minus sign). As an example, the negative of 7 is
written -7, and 7+ (-7) = 0. When the set of negative numbers is
combined with the set of natural numbers (which includes zero),
the result is defined as the set of integer numbers, also called
integers, Z also written Z. Here the letter Z comes from German
Zahl, meaning number.
The set of integers forms a ring with operations addition
and multiplication.
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3. Rational Numbers
A rational number is a number that can be expressed as a
fraction with an integer numerator and a non-zero natural
number denominator. Fractions are written as two numbers, the
numerator and the denominator, with a dividing bar between
or
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. The
4. Real Numbers
The real numbers include all of the measuring numbers.
Real numbers are usually written using decimal numberals, in
which a decimal point is placed to the right of the digit with
place value one. Each digit to the right of the decimal point has
a place value one-tenth of the place value of the digit to its left.
Thus,
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be written as
) can be written as
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. On the other
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ways
of
representing
the
number
1,
for
example
and so on.
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5. Complex numbers.
Moving to a greater level of abstraction, the real numbers
can be extended to the complex numbers. This set of numbers
arose, historically, from trying to find closed formulas for the
roots of cubic and quartic polynomials. This led to expressions
where a and b are real numbers. In the expression a+bi, the real
number a is called real part and b is called the imaginary part.
If the real part of a complex number is zero, then the number is
called an imaginary number or is referred to as purely
imaginary; if the imaginary part is zero, then the number is a
real number. Thus the real number are a subset of the complex
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of
the
next
number
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system.
Symbolically,
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6. Computable numbers
Moving to problems of computation, the computable
numbers are determined in the set of the real numbers. The
computable numbers, also known as the recursive numbers or
the computable reals, are the real numbers than can be
Turing
machines
or
-calculus
as
the
formal
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Hyperreal
numbers
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are
used
in
the
non-standard
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where
where is an
integer.
A perfect number is a positive integer that is the sum of
its proper positive divisors- the sum of the positive divisors not
including the number itself. Equivalently, a perfect number is a
number that is half the sum of all of its positive divisors, or
. The first perfect number is 6, because 1,2 and 3 are
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(tetrahederal numbers).
(Pentatopicnumbers ).
9. Numerals
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CHAPTER II
History of Numbers
1 First use of numbers :
Bones and other artifacts have been discovered
with marks cut into them that many believe are tally
marks. These tally marks may have been used for counting
elapsed time, such as numbers of days, lunar cycles or
keeping records of quantities, such as of animals.
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limits
its
representation
of
large
numbers.
how
can
nothing
be
something?
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Brahmagupta,
in
Brahma-Sphuta-
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fraction
notation
for
rational
numbers
in
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Simiarly,
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Babylonian
math
texts
had
always
used
attributed
to
Pythagoras,
more
specifically
to
the
so
he
sentenced
Hippasus
to
death
by
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brought
publication
of
the
theories
of
Karl
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prominence
through
the
writings
of
Joseph
Louis
determinants,
resulting
with
the
subsequent
cannot be
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(unless n = 0).
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represented
infinity
by
numbers and
b.History of Infinitesimal
An infinitesimal is a number that is smaller than every
positive real number and is larger than every negative real
number, or, equivalently, in absolute value it is smaller than
for all
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for all
. It
is called
infinitesimal if
and
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numbers.
The
Indian
mathematician
in
Prior
to
the
invention
of
calculus
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While
eventually
infinitesimals
disappeared
from
the
negative
numbers
occurred
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in
the
work
of
the
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by
Italian mathematicians
time.
When
Rene
Descartes
coined
the
term
capriciously
inconsistent
identity.
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with
the
algebraic
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to guard against
this mistake.
The 18th century saw the work of Abraham de Moivre and
Leonhard Euler, deMoivres formula (1730) states:
and to Euler (1748) Eulers formula of complex analysis :
The existence of complex numbers was not completely
accepted until Caspar Wessel described the geometrical
interpretation in 1799. Carl Friedrich Gauss rediscovered
and popularized it several years later, and as a result the
theory of complex numbers received a notable expansion.
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classes
(called
cyclotomatic
fields)
of
complex
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Goldbach
and
Riemanns
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conjectures
remain
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CHAPTER - III
NUMBER CONCEPTS IN GREEK AND INDIAN
PHILOSOPHY
very
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is
made.[53].Just
as
Thales
(6th
century
B.C.)
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more
extensive
bodies
are
composed
of
several
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the
concrete
form
one,
two,
.....
many
when
they
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occur
in
Pali
Grammar
asamkhyeya (10140)
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of
Kaccayan
number
[2]
large
as
and
scientists.
Hence it is clear that number has been an essential object
for the creation of universe. Philosophers have been thinking
whether to put number in the class of individuals or of
attributes and there has not been an unanimous opinion on
this issue. But the universally accepted fact is that the concept
of number is fundamental and most important for the existence
of the universe.
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CHAPTER - VI
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[15].
According to the Budhist philosophy number is not
an independent attribute and the basis of the cognition of one,
two, etc. is the intuition of the attribute colour etc. But this view
is not proper since due to the principle of momentarinesss [7] of
the similarity between two attributes no attribute can produce
any other attribute and more so number. Further it is seen that
if a blue coloured door be repainted with green colour, its colour
is changed but its number unity does not change. Hence the
existence of number must be real and different from colour.
Bhushan holds that unity is nondifference from
itself and the difference from itself is duality. Udayanacarya has
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but
they
do
challenge
the
view
of
the
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in the substances of
the flower so
closely that its unity is cognized also with its colour; thus in the
above use of number with attribute, the latter represents the
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understanding
and
are
also
destroyed
with
the
(ii)
(iii)
in the form of
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(iv)
moment,
cognition of the genus inherent in duality in the
(v)
fifth moment,
cognition of the attribute duality as qualified with
(vi)
(vii)
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especially
the
Vaisesikas,
have
attempted
to
define
and
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zero. He gave a relational rather than half - scientific and halfintuitive definition of zero. Since zero is the number smaller
than any one of the numbers unity, duality, etc. which are used
for counting purposes, it is desirable and proper to define zero
first and then to define other numbers with the help of zero. The
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the close of the nineteenth century when mathematician cumlogicians like Peano, Frege and Russell etc. took up the work
and tried to give a logical definition of number.
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CHAPTER - V
Frege-Russells
as
well as
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accepting
that
numbers
are
applicable
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entities such that any class, and all other classes similar to
it, have a certain many one relation to one and only one of
the entities of the set. But there may be many such sets of
entities and hence the definition of Peano by abstraction
fails to define the number of a class. The axioms of Peano
do not enable us to know whether there exists any set of
terms verifying the axioms. We want our numbers to be
such that can be used for counting and this requires that
our numbers should have a definite meaning, not merely
that they have certain formal properties only. This definite
meaning is defined only by the logical theory of arithmetic.
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logic.[40]
3. Axiom of Infinity :
Russell further claimed that not only finite but infinite
collections also exist in this universe. For, if it be assumed
that there exists only finite number of objects, say 1000
only, in the whole universe, then there would be no class of
1001 or 1002 individuals and hence 1001 and 1002 will
each belong to the empty class and thus will be identical.
This means that two different numbers, viz .1000 and 1001,
have the same successor. But this contradicts the third
axiom of Peano. To remove this difficulty Russell introduced
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universe
class
consisting
of
infinitely
many
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we
can
verify the
similarity
between
these
saucer
is
left
without
cup.
Here
one-one
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between
these
collections.
Hence
the
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the
number;
for,
while
establishing
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ones will appear without his notice. At best he can say that
there are many stars. Hence we find that sometimes we
have to indicate the number of a collection by numerals
many, very many and few. But Frege seems to pay no
attention towards this aspect.
form.
Frege-Russell
definition
unnecessarily
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of
proposition
is
equally
difficult
to
be
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number may be
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CHAPTER - VI
CRITICAL STUDY OF PEANOS AXIOMS ON NATURAL
NUMBERS
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is
contained in M, Sx is also
is
pushed
forward
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it
knocks
the
block
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for all
so that
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Which means that the system M verifies the first four
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suppose that P(u) does not hold for u= (2x+1)/2 for a certain
m N
holds for the latter, it also holds for the former, which is the
successor of the latter and similarly proceeding we can show
that P(u) does not hold for any element of M-N before and upto
(2m+1)/2. This means that P does not hold for an infitie subset
of M and at the same time it holds also for an infinite subset of
M, which contradicts the admissibility of P. Hence P(u) must
hold for all u and since it holds for all natural numbers, it
must hold for all u . Thus we have proved that M verifies the
Induction axiom of Peano also. Hence the Peano system
possesses a model M which is not isomorphic with its standard
model N.
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system is complete
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noncategorical.
Uptill now we have been engaged in dealing with natural
numbers only. We now propose to introduce a theory of Real and
Complex numbers with the knowledge of natural numbers in the
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