Review of Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop in Single and Two-Phase Microchannels

International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 79 (2014) 3453
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhmt
Review
A review of heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of single

and two-phase microchannels
Masoud Asadi a, Gongnan Xie b,, Bengt Sunden c
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Azad Islamic University, Science and Research Branch, Tehran, Iran
School of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xian 710129, PR China
c
Division of Heat Transfer, Department of Energy Sciences, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 14 November 2013
Received in revised form 24 June 2014
Accepted 28 July 2014
Available online 20 August 2014
Keywords:
Pressure drop
Heat transfer
Single-phase
Two-phase
Microchannel
a b s t r a c t
An impressive amount of investigations has been devoted to enhancing thermal performance of microchannels. The small size of microchannels and their ability to dissipate heat makes them as one of the
best choices for the electronic cooling systems. In this paper, a comprehensive review of available studies
regarding single and two-phase microchannels is presented and analyzed. 219 articles are reviewed to
identify the heat transfer mechanisms and pressure drops in microchannels. This review looks into the
different methodologies and correlations used to predict the heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of microchannels along the channel geometries and ow regimes. The review shows that earlier
studies (from 1982 to 2002) were largely conducted using experimental approaches, and discrepancies
between analytical and experimental results were large, while more recent studies (from 2003 to
2013) used numerical simulations, correlations for predicting pressure drop and heat transfer coefcients
were considerably more accurate.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Single-phase flow and heat transfer in microchannels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
Pressure drop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.
Multi-phase flow and heat transfer in microchannels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Pressure drop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.
Summary and conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conflict of interest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
In early 1981, Tuckerman and Pease [1] rst explained the concept of microchannel heat sinks and predicted that single-phase
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: xgn@nwpu.edu.cn (G. Xie), Bengt.Sunden@energy.lth.se
(B. Sunden).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2014.07.090
0017-9310/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
34
36
36
40
43
43
47
49
49
49
49
forced convective cooling in microchannels could potentially

W
remove heat at a rate of the order 1000 cm
2 . Forced convection in
channels and liquid injection has been used for faster and larger
scale cooling in industry for decades. Microchannel heat transfer,
however, has become increasingly popular and interesting to
researchers due to high heat transfer coefcients, with potential
for record-high heat transfer coefcients and low to moderate
pressure drops when compared to conventional air and liquid
M. Asadi et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 79 (2014) 3453
35
Nomenclature
a
b
BL
Bo
C
CP
Co
dh
f
Fr
F
G
h
j
k
Ma
Nu
P
Pr
Re
S
T
u
Y
We
channel height (m)

channel width (m)
boiling number
Bond number
LockhartMartinelli parameter
specic heat (J/kg K)
convective number
hydraulic diameter (m)
friction factor
Froude number
uid-surface parameter
mass velocity
heat transfer coefcient (W/m2 K)
total mixture volumetric ux
thermal conductivity (W/m K)
Mach number
Nusselt number
pressure (Pa)
Prandtl number
Reynolds number
Chens suppression factor
temperature (K)
velocity (m/s)
Chisholm parameter
Weber number
Greek symbols
s
shear stress (Pa)
l
dynamic viscosity(Pa s)
q
density (kg/m3)
a
channel aspect ratio
j
Hagenbach factor
ULO
two-phase multiplier (for liquids only)
r
surface tension
Subscripts
app
apparent
crit
critical
f
frictional, forced convection
FD
fully developed
Gn
Gnielinskis method
L
liquid
m
momentum, mean
s
static
sat
saturation
TP
two-phase mixture
tot
total
V
vapor
W
wall
cooled systems [27]. For example, microchannel heat sinks have

been demonstrated for high-power laser diode array cooling and
W
have achieved a heat ux removal rate of 500 cm
2 [810].
W
In most cases when the cooling requirement is over 100 cm
2 the
cooling cannot be easily met either by simple air-cooling or watercooling systems. In many applications, where high heat ux of the
components has to be dissipated, the required heat sinks must be
larger than the components themselves. Nevertheless, hot spots
usually appear, and non-uniform heat ux levels are observed at
the heat sink level. This has motivated researchers to develop
new heat sinks that can be directly embedded on the back of the
heat source for uniform heat ux removal. Such a heat sink is
usually made of silicon, with a silicon oxide layer to keep the component electrically insulated. Very narrow rectangular channels are
formed with ns in the micrometer range that ensure uniform heat
ux removal by circulating cold uid through the rectangular
microchannels.
Several investigators have proposed different criteria for
minichannels. Serizawa et al. [11] described one criterion for
classication of microchannels as follows:
k P dh where k and dh are the Laplace constant and channel
diameter, respectively.
Mehendale et al. [12] classied micro heat exchangers based on
the hydraulic diameter as:
8
Micro heat exchangers
>
>
>
<
Macro heat exchangers
>
Compact heat exchangers
>
>
:
Conventional heat exchangers
: 1 lm 6 dh 6 100 lm
: 100 lm 6 dh 6 1 mm
: 1mm 6 dh 6 6 mm
: dh P 6 mm
Kandlikar and Grande [13] used the hydraulic diameter for classication of single-phase and two-phase heat exchangers as,
8
: 10 lm 6 dh 6 200 lm
>
< Microchannels
Minichannels
: 200 lm 6 dh 6 3 mm
>
:
Conventional channels : dh P 6 mm
Also, Palm [14] described the microchannels as heat transfer

elements where the classical theories cannot correctly predict the
friction factor and heat transfer characteristics. Stefan [15] used a
microscale system as one whose typical phenomena are absent in
a macro system. Therefore, it is not always suitable to differentiate
mini- and microchannels by a specic diameter like other researchers, although this denition is often used nevertheless.
Halelfadl et al. [16] focused on analytical optimization of a rectangular microchannel heat sink using aqueous carbon nanotubes
based nanouids as coolant. The optimized results showed that
the use of the nanouid as a working uid reduces the total
thermal resistance and can enhance signicantly the thermal performances of the working uid at high temperatures. Warrier et al.
[17] proposed and analyzed a novel two-phase microchannel cooling device that incorporates perforated side walls for potential use
as an embedded thermal management solution for high heat ux
semiconductor devices. Yu and Zhang [18] focused on the hydraulic and thermal characteristics of fractal tree-like microchannels
with different aspect ratios for Reynolds numbers ranging from
150 to 1200. The experimental results showed that the fractal
tree-like microchannels had a much higher heat transfer coefcient than the straight microchannels. Wang and Wu [19], Wang
et al. [20], Revellin et al. [21], and Senn and Poulikakos [22] performed similar studies on the thermal performance of tree-like
microchannels.
The impacts of periodic reversed ow and induced boiling uctuations on the performance of a microchannel evaporator used in
air-conditioning system can cause some problems [2330]. Tuo
and Hrnjak [23] proposed a novel solution to reduce these effects
by venting and bypassing back ow vapor accumulated in the inlet
header. Frost formation on a louvered n microchannel heat
exchanger was experimentally investigated by Moallem et al.
[31]. They developed a novel methodology to measure frost
thickness and frost weight at intervals during the frosting period.
The experimental data showed that at a given air dry bulb temperature, the n surface temperature and air humidity are the primary
36
parameters that inuence the frost growth rates. The cycle frosting
and defrosting performance of two types of microchannel heat
exchangers were investigated by Xu et al. [32]. Liu et al. [33]
presented an experimental study of two-phase boiling heat transfer of the liquid methanol in co- and counter current microchannel
heat exchangers with gas heating. There are a large number of
studies which have used the microchannel to enhance the thermal
performance of heat exchangers [3445].
Morini et al. [46] numerically studied a heat sink consisting of
microchannels of rectangular cross-section through which a polar
uid was circulated by means of an electro-osmotic pump. Sarangi
et al. [47] numerically modeled the boiling heat transfer in microchannels. They studied two-phase forced convection in microchannels using water as the uid medium microchannel. Aluminum at
tubes have attracted more and more attention in recent years, especially in the air-conditioning and refrigeration industries [4855].
Zhang et al. [48] conducted numerical and experimental studies
on in-plane bending of a microchannel aluminum at tube. They
concluded that the degradation of the tube channel is relatively
small under common process conditions. The bending radius is the
main factor which inuences the forming quality of the at tubes,
the tool-tube clearance mainly affects the wrinkling of the at tubes,
and channel diameter has little effect on the formability of the tube.
Research on convective heat transfer and pressure drop on
internal microtube and microchannel has been extensively
conducted in the past decade [5659]. Szczukiewicz et al. [56]
measured the heat transfer coefcient of refrigerants in multimicrochannel evaporators. A two phase microgap heat sink has a
large potential to minimize the drawbacks associated with two
phase microchannel heat sinks, especially ow instabilities, ow
reversal and lateral variation of ow and wall temperature
between channels. Alam et al. [57] conducted some experiments
to investigate the heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics
of deionized water in a microgap heat sink and compared these
experimental results with similar data obtained for a microchannel
heat sink. Fani et al. [58] studied on size effects spherical nanoparticles on thermal performance and pressure drop of a nanouid in a
trapezoidal microchannel heat sink. They showed that with an
increase in the nanoparticle diameter, the average Nusselt number
of the base uid decreases more than that of the nanoparticles and
this signies that the base uid has more efcacy on thermal performance of cooper-oxide nanouid.
For rectangular ow channels, the hydraulic diameter is dened
dh
4ab
2a b
There are several different denitions of the channel aspect ratio.

Here, the channel aspect ratio is dened as,
a
b
Many researchers used the laminar theory as the most common

observation of discrepancy.
C
f Reexp
f Retheory
where f Re number is non-dimensionalized, and is calculated theoretically and experimentally. Obviously, the desired value of C is 1,
but our research indicated that the majority of data falls between
0:6 6 C 6 1:4. Although an explanation for this behavior could
come from experimental uncertainties, many authors have not
discussed the entrance and exit losses or the ow developing length
and reported great discrepancy. The theoretical values of the
friction factor for a circular tube are:
f 64
Re
: Laminar flow
0:25
f 0:316Re
: Turbulent flow
Hwang and Kim [67] studied the pressure drop characteristics in

microtubes with inner diameters of 0.244, 0.430, and 0.792 mm
using R-134a as the working uid in the Reynolds number range
of 15010,000. Yen et al. [68] conducted an experimental investigation for microtubes of diameters 0.19, 0.30, and 0.51 mm using
HCFC123 and FC-72 as the working uids and reported results of
uid ow and heat transfer. They showed that the friction factor
in microtubes is well matched with its analytical laminar ow value
in the Reynolds number range of 20265. Celata et al. [69] investigated water ow in a microchannel both experimentally and analytically, in the Reynolds number range from 20 to 4000 and
hydraulic diameters from 30 to 344 lm, as listed in Table 1.
For laminar ow, the Poiseuille number, Po = f Re is constant.
This number is a function of the aspect ratio of rectangular channels. Shah and London [105] presented a correlation to determine
it. This correlation reads

f Re 24 1 1:3553a 1:9467a2 1:7012a3 0:9564a4 0:2537a5
2. Single-phase ow and heat transfer in microchannels

2.1. Pressure drop
Wu and Little [60] performed several experiments with a gas
owing instead of a liquid in a trapezoidal-shaped silicon/glass
microchannel in order to measure the ow friction and heat transfer characteristics. They reported that the transition from laminar
to turbulent ow occurs at the Reynolds numbers of 400900
depending on the test conditions. They suggested that reducing
the transition Reynolds number improved the heat transfer characteristics. Pfahler et al. [61] experimentally investigated three
microchannels of rectangular cross-section ranging in between
area 807200 lm2 using N-propanol as the working uid and
reported the results of uid ow and friction factor. Later, they
continued a series of experiments to measure friction factors by
different liquids and gases in microchannels. Peng et al. [62], Wang
et al. [63], Peng and Wang [64], and Peng and Peterson [65]
performed studies on heat transfer and uid ow characteristics
for different microchannel structures. Yu et al. [66] presented
results for ow of nitrogen gas and water in microtubes with
diameters of 19.52 and 102 lm.
where the channel aspect ratio must be less than unity. If it is

greater than unity, the inverse is taken.
For the turbulent regime, Nikuradse [106] presented a correlation, where the friction factor is seen upon a non-dimensional wall
roughness as
h
e i2
f 3:48 1:737 ln
D
The friction factor can also be determined using the implicit

Colebrook et al. [107] equation.
Table 1
Characteristic values of laminar ow in circular and noncircular channels [69].
Channel cross section
Channel geometry
Hydraulic diameter
Constant
Circle
Rectangular
Rectangular
Rectangular
Rectangular
Rectangular
Square
Diameter, d
a, b, a/b = 0.1
a, b, a/b = 0.2
a, b, a/b = 0.4
a, b, a/b = 0.6
a, b, a/b = 0.8
Side a
dh
2ab/(a + b)
2ab/(a + b)
2ab/(a + b)
2ab/(a + b)
2ab/(a + b)
a
64
85.76
76.8
65.28
60.16
57.6
56.96
1
p 3:48 1:737 ln
f
(
e
D
37
9:35
p
Re f
Steinke and Kandlikar [101] used two components to determine the

friction factor. The rst was the friction factor from the theory of
fully developed ow, and the second one was the Hagenbach factor.
DP
2f RelVL
2
dh
jxqV 2
2
10
where j(x) is the Hagenbach factor given by,
jx f app f FD
4 x
dh
11
where fapp and fFD are the apparent and fully developed friction factor, respectively. The experimental data shows that the proposed
correlation just can predict the friction factor for the laminar ow
regime, but for the turbulent regime there is a considerable discrepancy. In general, because of this correlation has been developed for
fully developed ow and in microchannels due to the temperature
variation along the duct, the temperature prole cannot be considered to be fully developed, the proposed correlation may have
relatively high deviation from experimental data.
The Hagenbach factor will begin at a value of zero and increase
to some fully developed constant value j(1). For a rectangular
passage, the fully developed Hagenbach factor is:

j1 0:6796 1:2197a 3:3089a2 9:5921a3 8:9089a4 2:9959a5
12
Kandlikar and Grande [13] presented an equation for both developing and fully developed turbulent ow.
f app

0:2680:3293
1:01612
L=dh
Re
0:0929
L=dh
13
where the laminar-equivalent Reynolds number, Re, was proposed

by Jones [108] for rectangular channels as

2 11
Re Re
a2 a
3 24
14
It is necessary to notice that this correlation is presented for

minichannels. However, Kumar et al. [202] reported that it can be
used for microchannels.
Fig. 1 shows the experimental friction factor vs. Reynolds number presented by different authors. The data covers a wide range of
hydraulic diameters for different gases, cross-sections as well as
process conditions. For the laminar ow regime, there is a reasonable agreement among the results presented by Morini et al. [46],
Kohl et al. [195], Morini et al. [196], Tang et al. [197] and
Vijayalakshmi et al. [198]. However, there is a great deviation
between Wu and Little [60] and Yang et al. [199]. This might be
due to the usage of different working uids, materials and surface
roughness. It is interesting to note that both of them expressed the
same Reynolds number range for the critical Reynolds number.
The remarkable works in single-phase pressure drop of gases
and liquids from 1981 to now are shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. Celata et al. [69] reported that their experimental predictions in the laminar ow regime are in good agreement with the
conventional theory and are independent of the relative roughness
of the microchannel (up to De < 1%). A similar statement has been
h
reported by Morini et al. [46,196], Tang et al. [197], and Liu et al.
[200], although Tang and co-authors observed that for smaller
microtubes with the inner diameter ranging from 10 to 20 lm,
there is a reduction in the friction factor values. In the turbulent
regime, Morini et al. [46] stated that the experimental data are
lower than the predictions of the Blasius correlation for smooth
tubes, even if one considers the compressibility effects. These
Fig. 1. A comparison of experimental friction factor by Wu and Little [60], Yang

et al. [199], Kohl et al. [195], Morini et al. [46,196], Tang et al. [197], and
Vijayalakshmi et al. [198].
results conrm the ndings of other researchers like Yu et al.

[66], Li et al. [86], Choi et al. [117], Vijayalakshmi et al. [198], Yang
et al. [199], and Kumar et al. [202]. The difference between the
experimental friction factors and the Blasius correlation might be
due to the fact that the Blasius correlation corresponds to
incompressible-turbulent ow through a circular channel, while
some authors used compressible ow in their studies.
The compressibility effects become signicant for gaseous ow
when one of the below inequalities is satised:
Ma > 0:3
DP
> 0:05
P
15
in
where Ma is the average Mach number along the duct and Pin is the
pressure at the inlet section. For the rst inequality, the gas ow
Fig. 2. A comparison of different correlations for the Nusselt number proposed by

Wu and Little [60], Yu et al. [100], Adams et al. [111], and Gnielinski et al. [112].
38
Table 2
Selected literature for single-phase pressure drop: liquids.
Year
Fluid
Shape
dh (lm)
Re
L/dh
Remarks
Tuckerman and Pease [1]

Harley and Bau [170]
Missaggia et al. [70]
Pfahler et al. [171]
1981
1989
1989
1990
Water
Isopropanol and uorocarbon
Water
Isopropanol, silicon oil
R
R, T
R
R, T
9296
49.7566.67
160
1.665
0.170.19
0.53.1
0.25
0.0080.4
291638
25250
2350
0.0001300
0.731.06
>1.0
33.54
<1.0
104109
Riddle et al. [71]

Rahman and Gui [72]
Rahman and Gui [73]
Urbanek et al. [172]
1991
1993
1993
1993
Water
Water
Water, R11
Isopropanol
R
R
R
T,Ti
8696
299491
299491
525
0.060.16
3.006.00
3.006.00
96982
2753234
2753234
0.794.06
121.89507.10
121.89507.10
0.794.06
156180
94154
94154
Gui and Scaringe [74]
1993
Water
338388
0.730.79
8349955
1.285.33
119136
Peng et al. [62]
1993
Methanol
311646
0.290.86
153013455
ID
70145
Wilding et al. [173]

Wang and Peng [174]
1994
1994
Water, biological uids

Water, methanol
T
R
2663
311747
1.07.5
0.291.14
17126
803600
185.25438.75
60145
Peng and Peterson [75]
1995
Water
311
0.29
214337
ID
145
Jiang et al. [175]

Cuta et al. [176]
Cuta et al. [76]
Peng and Peterson [65]
1995
1995
1996
1996
Water
Water, R124
R124
Water
R,T
R
R
R
2065
425
425
133200
0.111.31
0.27
0.27
0.51.0
0.0061.6
101578
101578
136794
0.981.56
0.392.04
0.392.04
13.5027.70
39500
48
48
25338
Jiang et al. [77]
1997
Water
C, T
868
0.380.44
728
0.223.05
69276
Harms et al. [177]
1997
Water
R,T
4041923
0.044.10
17312900
136164
Tso and Mahulikar [78]
1998
Water
728
NA
16.637.5
ID
7689
Vidmar and Barker [79]

Adams et al. [111]
Mala and Li [80]
1998
1999
1999
Water
Water
Water
C
T
C
131
131
50254
NA
ID
NA
24527194
389921429
1322259
1.775.58
ID
1.3820.07
580
141
150490
fRe decreases with the Reynolds number in the

smallest channel. The polar nature of uid has
signicant effect of friction factor
Temperature variation affects the Poiseuille

number
Relative surface roughness affects the friction
factor
In laminar regime, the Poiseuille number
depends on the Reynolds number
Considered the variation of thermophysical

properties of the uids. Earlier laminar-toturbulent transition.
Fluid temperature, velocity and microchannel
size have strong effects on ow transition
Transition regime changes with aspect ratio of

channel
Flow resistance in non-circular microchannels
is smaller than the conventional predictions by
classical theory and varied with cross-section
sizes
The channel shows better ow and heat
transfer performance with decreasing channel
width
Reported ow transition using heat transfer
analysis
Papautsky et al. [81]

Meinhart et al. [178]
1999
1999
Water
Water
R
R
4447
54.5
5.6926.42
0.1
0.0024
0.981.41
164177
458.33
Pfund et al. [82]
2000
Water
253990
19.1978.13
55.33501
0.011.81
101396
Qu et al. [83]
2000
Water
51169
1.5414.44
6.21447
0.551.68
165543
Qu et al. [84]
2000
Water
62169
2.1611.53
941491
ID
178482
Rahman [85]
2000
Water
299491
3.006.00
2753234
4872028
94154
Xu et al. [32]
2000
Water
30344
0.5824.53
54620
0.533.18
1451070
In low Reynolds number regime, there is a

nonlinear trend between pressure drop and
ow rate. Relative surface roughness has
strong effects on friction factor
Flow characteristics deviated from classical

theory for channel dimensions < 100 lm
Critical Reynolds number decreases with
decreasing channel depth. Transition is sudden
but not discontinuous in microchannels
Friction factor depends on relative surface
roughness in laminar ow regime
A roughness viscosity model to interpret
experimental data has been developed
Laminar-to-turbulent transition is somewhat
gradual because of small channel dimension
Experimental predictions are in good
agreement with the conventional theory when
Author
Table 2 (continued)
Year
Fluid
Shape
dh (lm)
Re
L/dh
Ren et al. [179]
2001
Water
28.180.3
124335
160
>1.0
10.67347
Chung et al. [86]

Gao et al. [180]
2002
2002
Water
Water
C
R
100
199.21923
NA
25250
1.93237
1008000
0.892.08
>1.0
875
42.6411.6
Judy et al. [87]
2002
Water, methanol, isopropyl
C, R
14149
1.00
7.62251
0.831.27
12035657
Lee et al. [88]
2002
Water
85
0.25
119989
1.062.39
118
Qu and Mudawar [89]
2002
Water
349
0.32
1371670
0.701.94
128
Celata et al. [181]
2002
R114
130
1008000
>1.0
92
Li et al. [86]
2003
Water
79.9205.3
3002500
0.851.9
182519
Bucci et al. [90]
2003
Water
172520
NA
25272
0.873.24
ID
Jung and Kwak [91]

Lee and Garimella [92]
Park et al. [93]
2003
2003
2003
Water
Water
Water
R
R
R
100200
318903
73
1.002.00
0.170.22
4.44
50325
5583636
4.219.1
0.692.15
ID
ID
75150
2880
654
Tu and Hrnjak [94]

Wu and Cheng [95]
2003
2003
R134a
Water
R
T, Ti
69305
26291
4.1111.61
ID
1123500
11.13060
0.892.35
0.731.98
131288
ID
Wu and Cheng [96]

Baviere et al. [97]
Hsieh et al. [98]
2003
2004
2004
Water
Water
Water
T
R
R
169
14593
146
1.5426.20
83.33
1.74
161378
0.17985
45969
0.581.88
0.913.04
0.963.39
192467
138429
164
Lelea et al. [99]
2004
Water
125.4, 300, 500
50800
0.921.1
410857
Hao et al. [100]
2005
Water
237
0.361
502800
127
Steinke et al. [101]
2006
Water
227
0.8
14789
1.153.75
45
Shen et al. [102]
2006
Water
436
2.67
1621257
12.84
16754
Hrnjak and Tu [103]
2007
R134a
69.5304.7
0.090.24
1129180
1.021.09
315691
Remarks
dh > 30 lm
Pressure drop depends on the channels height
and the ionic concentration of the liquids
The transition observed varies between 2500

and 4000 depends on the conditions
Friction factor predictions are in good
agreement with the conventional theory for
rectangular channels. Friction factor affects by
the material of construction of microchannel
and test uid
The discrepancy between the experimental
results and conventional theory is mainly due
to the uncertainty involved in the pressure
drop measurement
Variation of pressure drop with respect to Re is
depends on thermal variation of uid viscosity
and pressure losses at inlet and outlet sections
Friction factor is in good agreement with the
conventional theory for Re < 585. Relative
surface roughness affects the friction factor
and laminar-to-turbulent transition
For Re < 1700 friction factor in rough
microtubes (34%) is 1537% higher than the
conventional theory. Inaccurate diameter
measurement of microtubes dominates the
overall error of experiments
Friction factor depends on the surface
roughness when ow is in the laminar regime
PIV velocity measurement is used to

investigate the ow characteristics. Thermal
variation affects the velocity proles in the
microchannel
Geometrical parameters have considerable

inuences on the apparent friction factor
constant of the trapezoidal microchannels
Hydrodynamic developing length is smaller in

comparison with the conventional theory
The friction factor and the entrance effects
predictions are in good agreement with the
classical theory
f Re relationship deviates from the linear
behavior when Re > 700
Uncertainty in fRe is dominated by the
microchannel width and height measurements
In rough microchannels, surface roughness has
a considerable inuences on the laminar ow.
For high Reynolds number values, f Re is higher
than the conventional theory predictions and
increasing with growing Re
Surface roughness results in increasing the
39
(continued on next page)
Author
98142
NA = not applicable, ID = insufcient data; C = circular, R = rectangular, T = trapezoid, Ti = triangle; Y = Yes, N = No.
1592303
438635
Water
Mirmanto et al. [104]
2012
0.230.78
0.784.24
185.34208.63
12003000
127.74143.9
Water
Wibel and Ehrhard [185]
2009
0.231.02
107320
652800
100300
Water
Gamrat et al. [184]
2008
0.331.00
75150
50350
100200
Water
Jung and Kwak [183]
2008
1.002.00
0.692.15
L/dh
C
Re
a
dh (lm)
Shape
Fluid
Year
Author
Table 2 (continued)
friction factor in microchannels as well as

affects the laminar-to-turbulent transition
Introduced a correlation for pressure drop in
microchannels
Pressure drop is signicantly higher (about
20%) for a relative roughness of about 0.15
Mean axial velocity eld and turbulent
characteristics can be used to predict the
laminar-to-turbulent transition
When entrance effects, inlet and exit losses
were considered, the results indicate that
equations developed for ow and heat transfer
in conventional size channels are applicable for
water ows in microchannels
Remarks
40
cannot be incompressible, and the momentum and energy equations have to be solved as coupled. While for the second inequality,
the density variation along the microchannel cannot be ignored.
The result of Vijayalakshmi et al. [198] shows that for Reynolds
numbers up to 1600, the pressure distribution is linear as expected
in incompressible ow, but for Re beyond 1600, the pressure
distribution tends to show a non-linear behavior. Vijayalakshmi
and co-authors believed that this is due to the compressibility
effects. This is in agreement with Kumar et al. [202] who observed
that the compressibility effects are less important for Re < 2000
with an inner diameter larger than 20 lm. However, Araki et al.
[203] expressed that the compressibility effects in gas ows become
important when the pressure drop of the duct is around 10 kPa,
even if the Mach number is less than 0.1.
Hrnjak and Tu [103] stated that the roughness may not be
signicant in the laminar regime, but it can have a dramatic effect
on the turbulent ow friction factor in microchannels. Similarly,
Tang et al. [197] and Vijayalakshmi et al. [198] concluded that
the friction factor is independent of the roughness in the laminar
regime as they found their results to have discrepancy compared
to the conventional theories. However, many authors believed that
the friction factors depend on the relative roughness in the laminar
ow regime [13,66,69,82,83,186,203,205].
The experimental data proposed by Morini et al. [46,196],
Hrnjak and Tu [103], Kohl et al. [195], and Sharp and Adrian
[121] indicated no evidence of early transition from the laminar-to-the turbulent ow regime. In contrast, some researchers
expressed an earlier transition with respect to the predictions
of the conventional theories [60,62,65,74,80,174,203,205]. The
critical Reynolds number ranges for liquids and gases are shown
in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively. In general, the laminar-to-turbulent transition seems to be inuenced by the geometry of the
cross-section, the roughness of the microchannel walls, the
compressibility effects and the length-to-hydraulic diameter
(DL ) ratio.
h
2.2. Heat transfer

The Nusselt number of a fully developed laminar ow is 4.364
when there is a constant heat ux boundary condition at the
tube wall. Grigull and Tratz [109] considered the thermal
entrance problem for laminar ow with a constant wall heat ux.
They evaluated the Nusselt number as a function of the dimensionless axial distance, Reynolds number, and Prandtl number
and found
Nu 4:364
0:00668dh =xRe Pr
1 0:04dh =xRe Pr
2=3
16
Shilder et al. [110] conducted an experimental investigation for single phase ow in a microchannel that had a hydraulic diameter of
0.6 mm. Admas et al. [111] conducted experimental work in the
turbulent region with water ow in circular microchannels of diameters 0.76 and 0.109 mm. Based on their data, they proposed the
following equation,
Nu NuGn 1 F
17
where,
NuGn
f =8Re 1000Pr

1=2
1 12:7f =8
Pr2=3 1
18
is the Gnielinski for value with f as
f 1:82 logRe 1:64

5
2
19
2
F 7:6 10 Re1 dh =d0
20
NuGn represents the Nusselt number predicted by Gnielinskis

[112] correlation. The least-squares t to all the data sets studied
by Adams et al. [111] resulted in d0 = 1.164 mm. According to
Fig. 5, the correlations are well matched with the experimental

data for the 0.102, 0.76 and 1.09 mm microchannels of Yu et al.
[66], within 18.
Table 3
Selected literature for single-phase pressure drop: gases.
Author
Year
Fluid
Shape
dh
(lm)
Re
L/dh
Remarks
Wu and little
[60]
Pfahler et al.
[171]
Choi et al.
[117]
Pong et al.
[187]
Arklic et al.
[188]
Yu et al. [66]
1983
Ar, H2, N2
R,T
1990
Ar, H2, N2
R, T
55.8
83.1
76.12
N2
1.1
3.9
0.8
0.9
0.83
Relative surface roughness affects the friction factor. Earlier laminar-toturbulent transition has been observed
Friction factor depends strongly on the material of construction and the
test eld
Critical Reynolds number decreases with hydraulic diameter
1994
N2, He
100
15000
0.0009
300
30
20000
100
720
1991
2.37
4.75
0.008
0.4
0
1994
He
N2
<1.00
Friction factor values depend on relative surface roughness
Shih et al.
[189]
Stanley et al.
[190]
Wu et al. [191]
1996
N2, He
1717
Friction factor decreases with Knudsen number
1997
N2
0.35
0.45
0.79
4.06
0.3
0.45
2892
1995
For dh > 150 lm, critical Reynolds number is between 2300 and 3000
1998
N2
Results are agreement with the predictions of Arklic et al. [188]
2000
H2, N2
T, Ti
2001
2005
Air, N2,
He
N2
2005
0.3
0.4
0.78
1.18
0.8
1.1
0.78
1.56
0.5
1.5
0. 9
1.2
0.77
1.32
0. 9
1.2
1305
Araki et al.
[192]
Turner et al.
[193]
Asako et al.
[194]
Kohl et al.
[195]
Morini et al.
[46]
Tang et al.
[197]
Morini et al.
[196]
0.0014
0.012
250
20,000
0.001
0.1
50
10,000
0.1
1.00
0.0065
0.0345
0.1
1000
1508
2188
6.8
18,814
100
10,000
36200
Pressure distribution along the microchannel is not linear mainly because

of rarefaction and compressibility effects
Friction factor decreases with Knudsen number
1.59
3.83
263
5176
206
327
220
533
575
3759
333
3000
167
5000
In trapezoidal microchannel, friction factor is smaller than prediction by

conventional theory due to the rarefaction effects
Mach number has dominant inuence on f while the differences due to
surface roughness are likely masked by uncertainty
Developed a correlation for computing friction factor with the help of
Much number as ow parameter
When compressibility effects become signicant critical Reynolds number
depends upon L/dh
Effects due to acceleration of the uid become important for large
Reynolds numbers
In circular tube when the Reynolds number is low, high roughness
increases the friction factor
For Re < 1000, results are in good agreement with the conventional theory.
However, for Re > 1000, the friction factor tends to deviate from the
Poiseuille law
At low hydraulic diameter, compressibility affects transition from laminarto-turbulent due to the ow acceleration
Vijayalakshmi
et al. [198]
3.00
81.2
0.03
2.33
2.59
0.03
0.24
39
19
102
2.33
56
256
3.37
R, T
3.92
10.3
596
150
1.41
19.71
20
435
Air
2006
N2
1.03
3.90
2007
N2
C, R
2009
N2
24.9
99.8
133
730
50
300
100
300
100
25,000
2009
N2
60.5
211
2.6
3.6
0.04
0.18
33.33
10.3
<1.00
41
640
8100
246
860
Fig. 3. The critical Reynolds number ranges for liquids.
42
Fig. 4. The critical Reynolds number ranges for gases.
They found the Nusselt numbers higher than those predicted by

the conventional theories. Then Choi et al. [117] concluded that
Wu and Littles correlation is not in agreement with their experimental data. Admas et al. [111] tested Gnielinskis correlation for
the prediction of the Nusselt number in the turbulent ow regime,
in order to complement the data presented by Yu et al. [66]. Their
experimental data suggested a modication factor for the Gnielinskis correlation based on Re and hydraulic diameter. Going
through many papers conducted on heat transfer characteristics
of single-phase ow reveals that:
The experimental Nusselt numbers are lower than those predicted by conventional theories [62,64,65,75,78,83,174,
180,206].
The experimental Nusselt numbers are higher than those predicted by conventional theories [13,60,72,76,77,85,90,100,111,
117,148,175].
The experimental data are in good agreement with the conventional correlations for laminar and turbulent ow regimes
[17,89,90,95,177,207].
Fig. 5. Comparison between the experimental results of Yu et al. [68] and the
correlation proposed by Adams et al [111].
Garimella and Vishal [119] reported that there is little agreement between the results from different investigations for heat
transfer in both laminar and turbulent regimes, because most of
the experimental results deviate from theoretical predictions that
assume macroscale behavior. They concluded that transition from
the laminar to turbulent regimes appears to occur at relatively low
Reynolds numbers in many of the experimental studies relative to
expectations from conventional analysis. Mala and Li [80] reported
that ow in microtubes experience an early transition at Re >
300900 depending on the test conditions, whereas Peng et al.
[62] suggested that transition occurs at 700. Silverio and Moreira
[120] showed that transition does not occur below Re = 1800, in
agreement with what Sharp and Adrian [121] reported. Table 4
shows a complete list of literature about single-phase heat
transfer.
As can be seen from Fig. 2, there is a great deviation between
different correlations. Wu and Little [60] analyzed the heat transfer
characteristics in both the laminar and turbulent ow regimes.
Despite the publication of a very large number of dedicated

papers, considerable discrepancies between the results still exist.
It may be due to the following reasons:
In the entrance region, the temperature and velocity proles are
developing, and so the Nusselt number changes along the
microchannel. Based on the classical uid dynamics analogy,
the two entry lengths are; hydrodynamic and thermal entry
lengths. When the velocity prole is considered as fully developed, the thermal entry length effects need to be considered.
This is the most typical situation for ows with Pr > 1. The Graetz number is dened as a criterion for neglecting the entrance
effects. Morini [208] reported that for Graetz numbers larger
than 10, the entrance effects have to be considered, though Rosa
et al. [209] suggested that the entrance effects might be
relevant at moderate or higher Reynolds numbers.
The difference in uid temperature between the inlet and outlet
sections could be relatively high in microchannels. Therefore,
the variation of the thermophysical properties along the microchannel could be one of the candidate reason for the apparent
deviations of the Nusselt numbers.
43
The rarefaction effects have to be checked with the help of the

Knudsen number. In fact, for rareed gases (Kn > 0.001), slip
ow and temperature jump conditions at the wall have to be
considered. Generally, the slip ow condition tends to increase
the Nusselt number, whereas temperature jump tends to
decrease it.
Because of density variations, compressibility effects may be
relevant only for gas ows. As a criterion, when the Mach number is lower than 0.3, the ow is treated as incompressible.
However, this is a necessary but not sufcient condition to
allow the ow to be considered approximately incompressible.
In some cases, strong pressure losses may lead to density variations with signicant inuence on the velocity and temperature proles, and hence on the heat transfer.
For very small hydraulic diameters, the internal heat generation
due to the viscous forces can produce a temperature rise even if
the ow is adiabatic. This temperature variation because of the
viscous forces changes the values of the uid thermophysical
properties along the channel and can considerably affect the
heat transfer. The Brinkman number, which is dened as the
ratio of the viscous heating rate to the average heat transfer
rate, can be employed to evaluate the viscous heating effects.
A possible explanations for the discrepancies between the
experimental data and conventional correlations might be the
experimental uncertainties. In this regard, much of the earlier
published results may be unreliable and not useful for
comparison.
3. Multi-phase ow and heat transfer in microchannels

3.1. Pressure drop
For gasliquid two-phase ow, most of the available pressure
drop correlations are based on the traditional homogenous ow
model (HFM) or separated ow model (SFM). In HFMs, the two
phases are assumed to be thoroughly mixed and thus the twophase frictional pressure drop can be computed from the correlations presented in the single-phase ow case. The mean properties
that are weighted relative to the vapor and liquid contents, and
that only latent heat may be exchanged between the phases are
assumed. Hence, a lot of two-phase mixture viscosity correlations
have been suggested. An intelligent selection of such correlations
is crucial for the successful application of this model.
The two-phase pressure drop consists of frictional, acceleration,
and gravitational terms.

dP
dP
dP
dP
dZ TP
dZ frictional
dZ acceleration
dZ gravitational
When the ow is horizontal, the gravitational term is neglected.

Also, the acceleration term is neglected when the ow is adiabatic.
Therefore, the total pressure drop is the frictional term, which can
be dened using the HFM method.

dP
dP
2f G2
TP
dZ TP
dZ frictional
qTP Dh
22
Table 4
Selected literature for single-phase heat transfer.
Author
Conditions
Channel
geometry
Flow regime
Correlation
Kays and
Crawford
[113]
Incropera and
DeWitt [114]
Incropera and
DeWitt [114]
Incropera and
DeWitt [114]
Incropera and
DeWitt [25]
Stephan and
Preuer [115]
Stephan and
Preuer [115]
Shah and London
[105]
Shah and London
[105]
Kakac et al. [116]
Re < 2200
Rectangular
Fully developed

1 1:883=a 3:767=a2 5:814=a3
Nufd 8:235
5:361=a4 2=a5
Re < 2200
Circular
Simultaneously developing

1=3 lf 0:14
Nu 1:86 RePrD
l
L
Re < 2200
Circular
Nu 3:66
Re > 10000
Circular
Thermally developing laminar

(constant wall temperature)
Fully developed turbulent
Re > 10000
Circular
Fully developed turbulent
Nu
0.7 < Pr < 7 or RePrD/

L < 33 for Pr > 7
0.7 < Pr < 7 or RePrD/
L < 33 for Pr > 7
Re < 2200
Circular
Nu 3:657 0:0677RePrD=L0:3
Re < 2200
Circular
Simultaneously developing (constant

wall temperature)
Simultaneously developing (constant
wall temperature)
Thermally developing laminar
(constant wall heat ux)
Fully developed laminar
Circular
Transitional
2200 < Re < 10000
Circular
Circular
0:19RePrD=L0:8
10:117PrReD=L0:467
Nu = 0.023Re0.8Pr1/3
f =8RePr
;
K12:7f =81=2 Pr2=3 1
Nu
f =8RePr
K12:7f =81=2 Pr2=3 1
1:33
10:1PrReD=L
1:33
Nu 3:657 0:0677RePrD=L0:3
10:1PrReD=L
1:953RePrD=L1=3 : RePrD=L P 33:3

4:364 0:0722RePrD=L : RePrD=L 33:3

1 3:656a 12:821a2 27:441a3 37:373a4
Nu 4:861
5
6
28:365a 8:888a

h
i l 0:14
Nu 0:116 Re2=3 125 Pr 1=3 1 D=L2=3 l f
Nu
Gnielinski [112]
3000 < Re < 5 10
Circular
Wu and Little
[60]
Choi et al. [117]
Choi et al. [117]
Yu et al. [100]
Peng et al. [62]
Peng et al. [62]
Grigull and Tratz
[109]
Admas et al [111]
Re > 3000
Rectangular
Transitional and fully developed

turbulent
Laminar ow
Re < 2200
2500 < Re < 20,000
6000 < Re < 20,000
Re < 2200
Re > 10,000
Re < 2200
Rectangular
Rectangular
Rectangular
Rectangular
Rectangular
Circular
Laminar ow
Turbulent ow
Turbulent ow
Laminar ow
Turbulent ow
Laminar ow with constant heat ux
Nu 4:36
Re > 10,000
Circular
Turbulent ow
Nu = NuGn + (1 + F); NuGn
Thermally and hydrodynamically

developing laminar ow
f = (1.82log(Re) 1.64)2; F = 7.6 105Re(1 (dh/d0)2)

0:5
h
Nu C 0 L=d
RePr
Bejan et al [118]
ID = insufcient data.
Re < 2200
ID
21
Nu
f =8Re1000Pr
;
1=2
112:7f =8 Pr2=3 1
1
2
1:82 lnRe1:64
Nu = 0.00222Re1.09Pr0.4
Nu = 0.000972Re1.17Pr1/3
Nu = 3.82 106Re1.96Pr1/3
Nu = 0.007Re1.2Pr0.2
Nu = 0.1165(D/P)0.81(b/w)0.79Re0.62Pr0.33
Nu = 0.072(D/P)1.15[1 2.421(z 0.5)2]Re0.8Pr0.33
0:00668dh =xRePr
2=3
10:04dh =xRe:Pr
f =8Re1000Pr
1=2
112:7f =8 Pr2=3 1
44
where fTP is a two-phase friction factor, and G and qTP are the mass
velocity and two-phase density, respectively.
qTP
qG
1x
1
23
qL
The two-phase friction factor can be dened as
(
f TP
16
ReTP
: ReTP 2000
0:079Re0:25
TP
: ReTP > 2000
24
With
ReTP
GDh
25
lTP
where lTP is the two-phase viscosity.

Numerous two-phase viscosity models have been introduced.
Recently, Cioncolini et al. [186] proposed a new correlation
approach based on the vapor core Weber number, capable of providing physical insight into the ow. This new macroscale method
was then extended to cover microscale conditions for both laminar
and turbulent regimes. Costa-Patry et al. [167] conducted ow
boiling experiments in 85 lm wide multi-microchannels. They
showed that Cioncolinis correlation well agrees with their
pressure drop results.
f TP 0:0196We0:372
Re0:318
c
L
26
Other two-phase viscosity models are as following:

McAdams et al. [122]:
lTP
lG
1x
1
lL
27
Owens [182]:
lTP lL
28
Cicchitti et al. [123]:
lTP xlG 1 xlL
29
Dukler et al. [124]:
lTP blG 1 blL
30
Beattie and Whalley [201]:
lTP blG 1 b1 2:5blL
31
Lin et al. [210]:
lTP
lL lG
lG x1:4 lL lG
32
Awad and Muzychka [211]:
lTP
2lG lL 2lG lL 1 x
2lG lL lG lL 1 x
33
According to two-phase ow patterns observed in the research by

Venkatesan et al. [162], Cioncolini et al. [186], and Choi and Kim
[212], indicate that the HFM may be only applicable to bubbly ow
in which the liquid ow eld is thought to be less disturbed by the
pressure of small bubbles. Liu et al. [213] stated that this ow
pattern typically takes place at relatively high liquid velocities
and low gas velocities. However, the deviation from the HFM
assumption can be observed in the Taylor ow (also known as slug
ow), where gas bubbles with lengths greater than the tube diameter move along the capillary separated from each other by liquid
slugs. However, Taylor ow cannot be considered as SFM because
of the alternate movement of Taylor bubbles and liquid slugs down
the channel. In other words, this ow pattern has been eliminated
from consideration in the SFM.
Choi and Kim [212] reported that the most accurate viscosity
model is the Beattie and Whalleys model, which is based on the
volumetric quality. Their experimental data showed that the
two-phase pressure drop was over-predicted by Duklers model
and under-predicted by other models. Chung and Kawaji [151]

found that the Duklers viscosity model predicts the data poorly
for the 530 and 250 lm channels, but produces reasonable agreement with the 100 and 50 lm microchannel data. On the other
hand, the HFM with the Beattie and Whalley model roughly predicts the two-phase pressure drop data for 530 and 250 lm channels but signicantly over-predicts the data for the 100 and 50 lm
channels. Table 5 shows the mean deviation of the two-phase pressure drop between experimental data and theoretical models.
From Choi and Kims data for Dh = 490 lm, it is observed that the
predictions by Duklers model is poor, while for Dh 141 lm it
can predict the two-phase pressure drop reasonably well. This
result is in agreement with the statement of Chung and Kawaji
[151]. However, no considerable difference is observed between
the performance of the Beattie and Whalleys model for 490 and
141 lm.
Lee and Mudawar [134] expressed that the trend prediction by
the Cicchitti two-phase viscosity model is somewhat different
from that of the other models because this model is quality
weighted and therefore provides signicantly higher estimates of
the two-phase mixture viscosity at low quality than the other
models. Because of the low exit quality data are associated with
smaller viscosity, the HFM with Cicchitti over-predicts these data,
but under-predicts the high exit quality data. Lee and Mudawar
[134] concluded that the combination of overprediction at low
quality and underprediction at high quality yields a relatively
favorable mean deviation for the Cicchitti method. This also can
be found from the results of Cioncolini et al. [186], Yue et al.
[214], and Kawahara et al. [136]. It is noteworthy that the best
model for predicting the two-phase pressure drop for each study
differs from each other. It is important to note that the hydraulic
diameter and two-phase uids are the key notes for selection of
a successful model. From the various studies conducted by different authors, it can be found that the Dukler and Cioncolini models
can predict the data reasonably in microchannels, while the
Beattie and Whalley and McAdams can be used at mini and
macroscales.
In the separated ow model (SFM), gas and liquid are considered to ow separately in the channel with each phase occupying
a sector of the channel cross-section. The SFM has been tested successfully for airwater ow in miniature triangular channels with
Dh 0:87 2:89 mm [219], and for N2 water in both a circular
microchannel Dh 100 lm [136] and a square microchannel with
a hydraulic diameter of 96 lm [151]. SFMs are based on a
two-phase multiplier, which is dened as follows,
/2L

dP
dP
dP
dP
or /2LO
dZ TP
dZ L
dZ TP
dZ LO
34
where dP
is the pressure drop for all liquid ow (liquid only)
dz LO
dened as follows,

dP
2G2
f LO
dz LO
DqL
35
and for the gas side,

dP
2G2
f VO
dz VO
Dqv
36
Lockhart and Martinelli [126] also used a two-phase multiplier to

relate the two-phase pressure drop to the single-phase pressure
drop for liquid ow:
C
1
X X2
s
dP=dzL
X
dP=dzV
U2L 1
37
38
45
Table 5
Mean deviation between experimental data and HFM models.
Choi and Kim [212], Dh = 490 lm

Cioncolini et al. [186]
Lee and Mudawar [134]
Yue et al. [214], Dh = 528 lm
Yue et al. [214], Dh = 333 lm
Kawahara et al. [136], distilled water
Kawahara et al. [136], ethanol 4.8 wt%
Kawahara et al. [136], ethanol 49 wt%
Kawahara et al. [136], ethanol 100 wt%
Average
Mc Adams
Owens
Cicchitti
Dukler
Beattie and Whalley
Lin
Awad and Myuztchka
40.81
169.87
43.6
28.26
19.31
18.15
28.00
59.1
46.6
71.2
52.4
352.1
709.07
40.0
244.38
201.92
40.5
114.9
99.9
110.9
212.62
300.7
650.12
26.6
15.98
221.14
187.96
40.3
113.6
99.3
110.1
196.2
66.84
42.1
47.7
30.61
33.9
27.7
10.4
8.3
33.43
30.69
43.5
39.2
26.79
49.0
55.2
95.1
93.4
54.11
111.99
346.56
26.44
67.54
76.91
39.2
101.6
90.9
104.5
107.29
107.87
298.29
27.8
144.65
The two-phase multiplier, U2L is determined by the coefcient C and

the LockhartMartinelli parameter, X2, which is the ratio of the
single-phase liquid and gas pressure gradients.
Friedel et al. [125] presented a correlation for the two-phase
pressure gradient multiplier as
2
LO
Fr
0:045
E 1 x x
39
0:035
We
qL f VO
qV f LO
40
where Fr and We are the Froude and Weber numbers, respectively, F

and H are also Friedel parameters. fLO and fVO are the friction factors
for the total mass ux G owing as gas and liquid properties,
respectively.
Because most of the experiments were conducted under the
condition that ReL and ReG were lower than 1000, according to
Lockhart and Martinellis model the C value should be 5. However,
the results of Yue et al. [214,215], Chung and Kawaji [151], and
Fukano and Kariyasaki [216] observed that the data are not well
predicted by a single value of 5. Chung and Kawaji stated that
the value of C is seen to decrease as the channel diameter is
reduced from 530 to 50 lm. A similar behavior was observed by
Yue et al. [214], although they believed that the Lockhart
Martinelli model fails to describe the dependence of the C value
on mass ux as well as on gas and liquid supercial velocities.
Some researchers have suggested empirical correlations for the
coefcient C to determine the two-phase multiplier. Table 6 shows
a list of these C values. Cavallini et al. [129] have recently reported
that Mishima and Hibikis method can predict the two-phase pressure drop for ow condensation of refrigerants R-134a and R-236a
in 1.4 mm tubes. The correlation of Mishima and Hibiki [127]
evidently assumes that C depends on channel size. There is based
on the observation that C depends on phase mass uxes, and using
experimental data from several sources as well as their own data
that covered channel gaps from 0.4 to 4 mm.
Chisholm et al. [130] introduced the following equation for the
two-phase multiplier:
2n
U2LO 1 Y 2 1 Bx 2 1 x
2n
2
x2n
41
where the exponent n = 0.25 and the Chisholm parameter Y is:
dP=dzVO
dP=dzLO
42
If the Chisholm parameter is 0 < Y 6 9:5, the parameter B is:
8
>
< 4:8
>
:
2400
G
55
G0:5
: G 6 500 kg=m2 s
: 500 < G 6 1900 kg=m2 s
: G > 1900 kg=m2 s
when 9.5 < Y < 28,
43
520
YG0:5
21
Y
: G 6 600 kg=m2 s
44
: G > 600 kg=m2 s
for Y P 28,
3:24FH
(
B
15; 000
45
Y 2 G0:5
Zhang and Web [131] measured adiabatic two-phase ow pressure

drops for R-134a, R-22, and R-404a owing in a multi-port extruded
aluminum tube with a hydraulic diameter of 2.13 mm, and in two
copper tubes with inside diameters of 6.25 and 3.25 mm, respectively. They found that the Friedels correlation cannot predict the
two-phase data accurately. Therefore, they proposed a new correlation for the two-phase pressure gradient multiplier as follows,
U2LO 1 x2 2:87x2
P
Pcrit

1:68x0:8 1 x0:25
1
P
Pcrit
1:64
46
where Pcrit is the critical pressure, a constant for each uid.

Muller-Steinhagen and Heck [133] used a data bank containing
9300 measurements of frictional pressure drop to develop a new
correlation as:

dP
dP
F1 x1=3
x3
dz f
dz VO

dP
dP
dP
x
2

F
dz LO
dz VO
dz LO
47
48
where dP
is given by Eq. (35), and dP
by Eq. (36).
dz LO
dz VO
Concerning the ow pattern, such as annular ow and churn
ow, the SFM seems to be more realistic. In slug-annular ow
regimes, small bubbles are also present in the liquid slugs (this is
a feature that is not seen in Taylor ow) [159161]. Churn ow
occurs at very high gas velocities. It includes the very long gas bubbles and relatively small liquid slugs. The annular ow regime is
observed at excessively high gas velocities and very low liquid
velocities [154]. Venkatesan et al. [162] used a common nomenclature for the denition of the basic ow patterns. The intermittent
ow regime is used to cover slug, slug-annular, and annular ow,
while the dispersed regime consists of bubbly and dispersed bubbly ow. Lee and Mudawar [134], Yue et al. [214,215], and Chung
and Kawaji [151] also used the ow patterns to analysis the twophase pressure drop. However, Lee and Mudawar [134] expressed
that the churn ow patterns are rarely detected in the SFM, in contrast to the statement of Yue et al. [214].
Venkatesan et al. [162] reported that for a 3.4 mm tube, the
mean deviation with the HFM with Duklers model in the bubbly
ow regime is 10%, while Chisholm correlation predicts the pressure drop with 17% mean deviation. Slug ow was predicted by the
46
Table 6
Summary of two-phase pressure drop multiplication factors.
Year
Fluid
Shape
dh (lm)
Re
Model used
Mishima and Hibiki [127]
1996
Water, air
1000
4000
Lockhart
Martinelli
Lee and Lee [128]
2001
Water, air
7806670
0.30317700
Lockhart
Martinelli
2 q
l
lI j
s
C A q rLDh
r ReLO
L
Kawahara et al. [136]
2002
Water, N2
100
25020,000
Qu and Mudawar [218]
2003
Water
349
Lockhart
Martinelli

C 21 1 e0:319Dh
0:00418G 0:0613
Yue et al. [214]
2004
Water, N2
333528
101000
Lockhart
Martinelli
C aX b RecLO
a 0:411822;
b 0:0305; c 0:600428
Coleman and Krause [152]
2004
R134a
830
40040,000
Chung and Kawaji [151]
2004
Water, N2
50100
0.0014
0.012
Mechanistic model
dP
Correlation developed
0:319Dh
C 211 e
dz F=B
fB
qG U B U 1 2
2DB
Remarks
It should be noted that the value of parameter C
becomes zero when the hydraulic diameter is as small as
0.2 mm
The new correlation can be used in laminarlaminar,
laminarturbulent, turbulentlaminar, and turbulent
turbulent regimes
The agreement between the experimental data and
homogeneous ow model is generally poor, with
reasonably good predictions (within_20%) obtained only
with Duklers model for the mixture viscosity
This correlation is based on the combination of laminar
liquid and laminar vapor ow. Pressure drop increases
appreciably upon commencement of boiling in
microchannels
The LockhartMartinelli method generally
underpredicts the frictional pressure drop. Among the
homogenous ow models, the viscosity correlation of
McAdams indicates the best performance in correlating
the frictional pressure drop data
The experimentally determined pressure drops in the
microchannel headers were signicantly higher than
any of the existing models including the homogeneous
model and the separated model
The modied model was applied to all ow conditions
and ensuing ow patterns in the microchannels, since
the ow patterns in a microchannel of 100 lm diameter
have been observed to be entirely intermittent
LL: laminarliquidlaminarvapor
2005
R134a
349
Lockhart
Martinelli
0:23
C 1:45Re0:25
fo Wefo : LT
LT: laminarliquidturbulentvapor
Pamitran et al. [217]
2008
CO2, R22
1500
3000
Lockhart
Martinelli
C 1:2897 106 Re0:5674

We3:3271
tp
tp
Yue et al. [215]
2008
CO2, water
200667
0.42300
SFM
/2L 0:217bL
2008
Water
160538
Lockhart
Martinelli
C 2566G0:5466 D0:8819
1 e0:319Dh
h
Kawahara et al. [136]
2009
Water,
ethanol
250500
Lockhart
Martinelli
C 1:38Bo0:04 Re0:52
We0:12
: without
L
G
contraction
The homogeneous model with two-phase viscosity

suggested by Dukler predicted the experimental data
better than the other models
Two-phase frictional pressure drop in microchannels
should be described by different models depending on
the ow pattern investigated. For ow patterns such as
slug-annular ow, annular ow and churn ow, the
traditional separated ow model is more realistic
The pressure drop across the microchannels increases
rapidly with heat ux when the incipience heat ux is
exceeded
The correlation was developed by using data for twophase ows in 50250 lm diameter microchannels.
Megahed and Hassan

[135]
2009
FC-72
70304
194443
Lockhart
Martinelli
0:6
C 2:16Re0:047
Wefo
: LL
fo
1=2
0:3
ReLS
We0:12
: with contraction
C 0:55Bo0:04 Re0:52
L
G
C
C
0:0053Re0:934
fo
0:175
Co0:73 X 2
0:0002Re1:7
fo
0:7
2 1:24
Co
; laminar liquidlaminar vapor
; laminar liquidlaminar vapor
Choi et al. [117]
2009
Propane
1500
3000
Lockhart
Martinelli
C 1732:953Re0:323
We0:24
tp
tp
Venkatesan et al. [162]
2011
N2
600
Lockhart
Martinelli
C 4WeL 0:3
C

ReG
ReL
G
2WeL 0:5 Re
ReL
0:5
0:5
; Bo
1
; Bo < 1
The Qu and Mudawar correlation gives the best

prediction among the all methods. The two-phase
pressure drop depends strongly on the mass ux, and
increases almost linearly with increasing exit quality at a
constant mass ux
The pressure drop models of Mishima and Hibiki, Friedel
and Chang gave a better prediction, among the other
methods, with a mean deviation less than 40%
Friedels correlation over predicts the entire data for all
tube diameters with mean deviation greater than 100%
Author
47
Table 7
Mean deviation between experimental data and SFM models.
LM
Kawahara et al. [136], distilled
water
Kawahara et al. [136], ethanol
4.8 wt%
Kawahara et al. [136], ethanol
100 wt%
Qu and Mudawar [218]
Megahed and Hassan [135]
Cioncolini et al. [186]
Average
Chisholm
Mishima and
Hibiki
Lee and
Lee
Qu and
Mudawar
Kawahara
Zhang and
Web
Trant
Lee and
Mudawar
Li and
Wu
21.6
25.8
36.0
25.8
22.8
23.9
17.0
27.6
17.8
15.4
45.4
12.5
8.3
24.4
18.8
27.50
71.13
51.8
26.65
45.32
73.00
43.3
45.0
29.24
60.18
41.07
19.75
30.52
92.99
23.7
29.37
100.84
42.91
18.88
23.7
12.40
283.17
19.42
11.12
28.6
378.4
91.93
13.9
34.37
11.7
21.7
47.2
23.02
19.1
16.04
14.7
34.5
26.79
12.7
10.4
16.4
19.73
19.00
50.07
34.58
828.3
185.0
292.4
28.47
30.3
27.3
41.3
37.49
5.62
23.00
LM: LockhartMartinelli.
Chisholm correlation within 14% mean deviation compared to 43%

with the HFM. For a channel with D = 1.7 mm, the bubbly ow
regime is well predicted by the HFM with 7% mean deviation, while
Chisholms correlation predicts the slug and Taylor ow regimes
with 22% and 28% mean deviation, respectively. These results tell
that the SFM method is more realistic for the slug and churn ow
regimes, while the HFM model can predict the data for the bubbly
and Taylor ow regimes well. However, Venkatesan et al. [162]
found that the annular ow regime is not observed in the
0.6 mm tube even at high gas velocities, similar to with Chung
and Kawajis results. May be this is due to the stronger surface
tension effects in a microchannel that allows the liquid lm to
bridge the gas core more easily than in a minichannel so that the
formation of annular ow would be less likely.
In microchannels in two-phase ow, the capillary force is typically negligible compared to the viscous and inertia forces [132].
However, by decreasing the hydraulic diameter the capillary force
starts to play a key role in determining the behavior of the
two-phase ow patterns. Li and Wu [140] expressed that there
are theoretically four forces related to two-phase ow in channels;
gravitational, viscous, inertia, and surface-tension forces. The comparison of the channel dimension and the nominal bubble size can
be expressed in terms of the Bond number, which is a measure of
the importance of body forces compared to the surface-tension
forces. The signicance of the inertia force to viscous force ratio
is determined by the liquid and gas Reynolds numbers, while that
of the inertia force to surface-tension force is known from the
Weber number [204]. Also, the ratio of the viscous force to the
surface-tension force is called the Capillary number. Lee and Lee
[128], Yue et al. [214,215], Lee and Mudawar [134], Pamitran
et al. [217], Kawahara et al. [136], Megahed and Hassan [135], Choi
et al. [117], and Venkatesan et al. [162] used surface-tension and
inertial forces to determine the two-phase pressure drop.
It is observed from Table 7 that Qu and Mudawar [218]
predicted the two-phase pressure drop with a reasonable mean
deviation among all models for microchannels. After that, Mishima
and Hibiki [127] and Lee and Lee [128] models have the best performance with the average mean deviation of 23.03% and 26.79%,
respectively. Megahed and Hassan [135] also reported that the
Qu and Mudawars model gives the best prediction. Note that this
correlation has been developed for microchannel sizes, compared
to Mishima and Hibiki [127] and Lee and Lee [128] models that
cover a wide range of conventional and mini size channels. Therefore, in order to select a proper model for predicting the two-phase
Table 8
Values of the uid-surface parameter in the correlation of Kandlikar et al. [158].
Fluid
FfL
Fluid
FfL
Water
R-11
R-12
R-13BI
R-22
R-113
R-114
R-32
1.00
1.30
1.50
1.31
2.20
1.30
1.24
3.30
R-1132
R-124
R-141b
R-134a
R-152a
Kerosene
Nitrogen
Neon
3.30
1.00
1.80
1.63
1.10
0.488
4.70
3.50
pressure drop, it is important to notice the hydraulic diameter of

model and experimental apparatus.
3.2. Heat transfer
The correlation of Chen [137] is among the oldest, most successful and widely used correlations for saturated boiling. It works well
for water at relatively low pressure and has been applied to variety
of uids. The correlation can be used for dh P 1 mm,
P = 0.093.45 MPa, x = 00.7 and
q00 0 2:4MW=m2
49
h hNB hFC
50
The forced convection component can be found from,

0:4
hFC 0:023Re0:8
f Pr f F

K
dh
51
where,
Ref G1 xdh =lf
52
Prf lC p =Kf
53
The enhancement factor F is represented by (ReTP/Ref)0.8 and this

was correlated by Chen [137] empirically in a graphical form.
The nucleate boiling is based on the correlation by Forster and
Zuber [138], modied to account for the reduced average
superheat in the thermal boundary layer for bubble nucleation
on wall cavities.
hNB
( 0:79 0:45
)
K f C pf q0:49
g 0:43
c
f
0:75
0:00122
DT 0:24
sat DP sat S
0:24
r0:5 l0:29
hfg q0:24
g
f
54
48
Table 9
Selected literature for two-phase heat transfer.
Author
Year
Fluid
Channel
Nature of work
General outcome
Lazarek and Black [141]

Cornwell and Kew [142]
Moriyama and Inoue [143]
Bowers and Mudawar [144]
Wambsganss et al. [145]
Mertz et al. [146]
Kew and Cornwell [147]
Ravigururajan et al. [148]
Mehendale and Jacobi [149]
Kawahara and Chung[150]
Zhao et al. [153]
Yue and Luo [103]
Agostini et al. [155]
Megahed and Hassan [135]
Ergu and Sara [156]
Alapati and Kang [157]
Na and Chung [163]
Megahed et al. [164]
Liu and Fu [33]
Autee and Rao [165]
Ide and Kimura [166]
Costa-Patry et al. [167]
Szczukiewicz and Magnini [168]
Nascimento et al. [169]
Goss and Passos [170]
1982
1992
1992
1993
1993
1996
1997
1998
2000
2002
2005
2006
2008
2008
2009
2009
2009
2011
2012
2012
2012
2012
2012
2013
2013
2013
R113
R113
R113
R113
R113
Water, R141b
R141b
R124
R134a
Water, Nitrogen
R134a
Water, Kerosene
Water, CO2
R236fa
FC-72
Water
NA
ID
FC-72
Methanol, Helium
Water, Air
Water, Nitrogen,
R245fa
R236fa, R245fa
R134a
R134a
Circular
Rectangular
Rectangular
Minichannels
Circular
Rectangular
Circular
Rectangular
Rectangular
Circular
Rectangular
Rectangular
Rectangular
Rectangular
Rectangular
Rectangular
Rectangular
Circular
Rectangular
Rectangular
Circular
Circular
Rectangular
Circular
Rectangular
Circular
Experimental,
Analytical
Analytical
Analytical
Experimental
Experimental
Experimental
Experimental,
Experimental
Experimental,
Experimental
Experimental,
Experimental,
Experimental
Experimental,
Experimental
Numerical
Numerical
Experimental
Experimental
Experimental,
Experimental
Experimental
Experimental,
Experimental
Experimental
Plot, Correlation
Plot
Plot, Numerical data
Plot
Plot
Plot
Plot, Correlation
Plot
Plot
Plot
Plot, Correlation
Plot, Correlation
Plot
Plot, Correlation
Plot
Numerical data
Plot
Plot, Numerical data, Correlation
Plot
Plot
Plot
Plot
Analytical
Analytical
Analytical
Analytical
Analytical
Analytical
Analytical
Numerical
NA = not applicable.
where DTsat = TW Tsat, and DPsat = Psat(TW) P. The parameter S is

0:99
eff
, where
Chens suppression factor and is represented as S DDTTsat
DTeff is the effective liquid superheat in the thermal boundary layer.

The correlation of Kandlikar et al. [158] is based on 10,000 data
points for water, refrigerants and cryogenic uids. The correlation
can be used for dh P 1 mm.
h max hNBO ;hCBC
h
i
hNBO 0:6683Co0:2 1 x0:8 f 2 Frf 0 1058BL0:7 1 x0:8 F fL hf 0
h
i
hCBC 1:136Co0:9 1 x0:8 f 2 Frf 0 667:2BL0:7 1 x0:8 F fL hf 0
55
56
57
where,
hf 0

Ref 1000 f =2Prf
Kf
h

i
dh 1 12:7 Pr2=3 1 f =20:5
f
Co qg =qf
0:5
1 x=x
0:8
E2
: Fr f 0 P 0:05
12Fr
Frf 0 f 0
: Fr f 0 < 0:05
Shah and London [105] presented some correlation, to be used in

mini and microchannels. They considered nucleate and convective
boiling both to be important for the two-phase ow evaporative
heat transfer. Their method is applicable for both horizontal and
vertical tubes. When N > 1.0 and BL > 0.0003, then h is calculated as,
h 230BL0:5 hf
!0:5

0:8
qg
1x
N
x
qf
h 1 46BL0:5 hf
h F s BL0:5 exp2:74N 0:1hf
BL q00w =Ghfg
60
here, Fs is Shahs constant:
Fr f 0 G2 =q2f gdh
61
Fs
FfL is the uid-surface parameter and is shown in Table 8.
: Fr f 0 P 0:4
0:3
25Frf 0
: Fr f 0 < 0:4
62
Gungor and Winterton [139] presented a correlation based on the

3700 data points for water, refrigerants, and ethylene glycol. The
correlation is used for dh P 1 mm.
n
o
h hf 1 3000BL0:86 1:121 x=x0:75 qg =qf 0:41 E2
66
63
67
68
and when N < 0.1,
h F s BL0:5 exp2:74N 0:15hf
65
when 0.1 < N < 1.0,
59
f 2 Fr f 0
64
when N > 1.0 and BL < 0.0003, then h is calculated from,
58
The parameters in Kandlikars correlation are the convection

number Co, the boiling number BL, and the forced number when
all mixture is saturated liquid, Frf0:
15:43 : BL < 0:0011

14:7
: BL > 0:0011
69
70
Recently, Li and Wu [140] obtained a correlation using the boiling

number, Bond number, and Reynolds number. The correlation is
presented based on the 3744 data points, covering a wide range
of working uids, operating conditions, and different microchannel
dimensions. They showed that the Bond number in predicting heat
transfer coefcients can be used as a criterion to classify a ow path
as a microchannel or as a conventional macrochannel. The
correlation can be used for 0:19 mm 6 dh 6 2:01 mm:
0:4
h 334BL0:3 BoRe0:36
K f =dh
f
Bo
2
g dh
gqL q
71
Acknowledgements
72
This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (11202164) and NPU Foundation for Fundamental
Research (NPU-FFR-JC20130115). The authors are grateful to the
authors whose articles were reviewed in this manuscript for their
valuable research and ndings.
Table 9 summarizes some works related to two-phase heat transfer

in microchannels.
From much results published on the pressure drop and heat
transfer characteristics of single- and two-phase ows, it is evident
that if the experimental results are used to validate the conventional theories for microchannels, the answer obtained is not univocal (especially for heat transfer characteristics). In fact, some
authors found their experimental data in agreement with the conventional theory. On the other hand, for the same range of hydraulic diameter and working uid, some found the opposite results.
Those authors who reached the opposite results proposed new
correlations to predict the Nusselt number and friction factor.
The proposed correlations are in general based on a limited number of data points and no theoretical analysis originated them,
hence, the reliability of the new correlation is yet questionable.
4. Summary and conclusion
In this paper a comprehensive review has been performed on
single and two-phase microchannels. The investigation has been
carried out on heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics. For
single-phase channels, in the fully developed, incompressible,
and isothermal laminar ow regime, the uid behavior in microchannels with diameter of several hundred micro meters obeys
the classical theory. At low Reynolds numbers the experimental
results matched the predictions for thermally developing ows
as the Reynolds number increases the experimental results depart
from the laminar predictions. It is noteworthy that when the
hydraulic diameter increases the experimental measurements follow the predicted thermal developing behavior. However, for the
pressure drop there is a little agreement between the results from
different investigations in both the laminar and turbulent regimes.
The measurements lie above or below the predictions, and show
different trends relative to conventional predictions in the laminar
and turbulent regimes, mainly due to this fact that many researchers assumed macroscale behavior for deriving correlations.
Another reason is that, just 57% of the researchers considered
entrance and exit losses in their investigations for calculating the
pressure drops, and investigators who considered these effects
reported a better C parameter values. About 76% of the investigators studied heat transfer and pressure drop of single-phase
microchannels in the laminar region, and this shows that the
behavior of uids in the turbulent region remained unexplored
and this is the main reason why the experimental results of many
researchers were over-predicted or under-predicted.
For two-phase microchannels, we found that choosing a reasonable and proper mixture viscosity correlation is crucial to a successful interpretation of the two-phase frictional pressure drop
data. We found that all relevant correlations except that of McAdams et al. [122] over predict the two-phase pressure drop. For heat
transfer characteristics, the correlations by Chen [137], Kandlikar
et al. [158], and Gungor and Winterton [139] predict experimental
data well for cases where the channel hydraulic diameter is larger
than 500 lm, but they are not accurate for microchannels.
Nevertheless, our study indicated that the correlation proposed
by Li and Wu [140] can predict the experimental data well for
the range of hydraulic diameters from 190 to 2000 lm.
Conict of interest
None declared.
49
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International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 79 (2014) 3453

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

A review of heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of single

forced convective cooling in microchannels could potentially

channel height (m)

cooled systems [27]. For example, microchannel heat sinks have

Also, Palm [14] described the microchannels as heat transfer

For rectangular ow channels, the hydraulic diameter is dened

There are several different denitions of the channel aspect ratio.

Many researchers used the laminar theory as the most common

Hwang and Kim [67] studied the pressure drop characteristics in

2. Single-phase ow and heat transfer in microchannels

where the channel aspect ratio must be less than unity. If it is

The friction factor can also be determined using the implicit

Steinke and Kandlikar [101] used two components to determine the

where j(x) is the Hagenbach factor given by,

where the laminar-equivalent Reynolds number, Re, was proposed

It is necessary to notice that this correlation is presented for

Fig. 1. A comparison of experimental friction factor by Wu and Little [60], Yang

results conrm the ndings of other researchers like Yu et al.

Fig. 2. A comparison of different correlations for the Nusselt number proposed by

Tuckerman and Pease [1]

Riddle et al. [71]

Gui and Scaringe [74]

Peng et al. [62]

Wilding et al. [173]

Water, biological uids

Peng and Peterson [75]

Jiang et al. [175]

Jiang et al. [77]

Harms et al. [177]

Tso and Mahulikar [78]

Vidmar and Barker [79]

fRe decreases with the Reynolds number in the

Temperature variation affects the Poiseuille

Considered the variation of thermophysical

Transition regime changes with aspect ratio of

Papautsky et al. [81]

Pfund et al. [82]

In low Reynolds number regime, there is a

Flow characteristics deviated from classical

Ren et al. [179]

Chung et al. [86]

Judy et al. [87]

Water, methanol, isopropyl

Lee et al. [88]

Qu and Mudawar [89]

Celata et al. [181]

Bucci et al. [90]

Jung and Kwak [91]

Tu and Hrnjak [94]

Wu and Cheng [96]

Lelea et al. [99]

125.4, 300, 500

Hao et al. [100]

Steinke et al. [101]

Shen et al. [102]

Hrnjak and Tu [103]

The transition observed varies between 2500

PIV velocity measurement is used to

Geometrical parameters have considerable

Hydrodynamic developing length is smaller in

F 7:6 10 Re1 dh =d0

The rarefaction effects have to be checked with the help of the

3000 < Re < 5 10

f = (1.82log(Re) 1.64)2; F = 7.6 105Re(1 (dh/d0)2)

C 1:2897 106 Re0:5674