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Chapter two

2.0 Literature review


2.1 Introduction
Mushongahande, (2007), pointed out that, Zimbabwe is a land locked country in
Southern Africa covering more than thirty nine million hectares. Of the thirty nine
million hectares, one hundred and eight thousand two hundred and fourteen or (three
percent) of the total area is under commercial plantations which are mainly found in
the eastern highlands. The distribution of commercial tree species, is as follows:
pines occupies seventy one thousand seven hundred and seventy one hectares
(66.32%), eucalyptus occupies twenty six thousand two hundred and seventy four
hectares (24.28%), wattle have ten thousand and nine (9.25%) and popular has one
hundred and sixty hectares (0.15%).

As noted by Kammen, (2001), Zimbabwe’s economy depends heavily on natural


resources for employment creation, generation of foreign currency and sustenance
of livelihoods. The forestry sector contributes about three percent of the gross
domestic product largely from exotic plantations and commercial indigenous timber.
The formal forestry sector in Zimbabwe employed a total of fourteen thousand two
hundred and fifty three people in the year 2005.

2.1.1 Decline in timber production.


According to Mahonye and Makate, (2008), timber production declined from a peak
of four hundred and fifty cubic meters to less than one hundred and fifty thousand
cubic meters due to: influx of illegal settlers in Chimanimani plantations who are
building houses in plantations, power outages and collapse of cluster industries,
prevented foresters from accessing plantations to replant or carry out other forestry
operations, and fire outbreaks

Muchinguri, (2007), also added that timber exports during the 2006/07 season
declined by 15.2% to US$36 448 329, against a backdrop of mounting challenges in

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the sector. A total of nine thousand six hundred and twenty cubic meters of sawn
timber was exported during the period under review, the bulk of it to the grossly
under supplied South African market. Gonad, (2008), explained that, as a result of
veld fires the timber industry had lost a lot of man hours in terms of production as
more time was being committed to fighting the fires. Production had nearly
grounded to a halt from the ten to thirty percent capacity that the industry was
operating. The table below shows a simple illustration of how production have been
declining since 2005.

Table 2.1.1 (a) forestry production output between 2005 and 2008
Type of Number of Production Production Production Production
plant plants 2005 2006 2007 2008

Sawmill and 41 400000m3 390000m3 370000m3 365000m3


processed
timber

Treated 6 95000m3 92000m3 90000m3 85500m3


poles

Wattle 1 4500tonnes 4480tonnes 4460tonnes 4455tonnes


extract

Charcoal 1 9200tonnes 9190tonnes 9180tonnes 9178tonnes

Source: Mabugu, (2007), Accounting for forestry resources.

2.1.2 Causes of decline in timber production.


The Zimbabwean timber production have been affected by theft, animals and fire
resulting in low timber out put in the country. Kanyekanye, (2005), cited that, about
twenty two million United States Dollars of export timber was lost to forest fires and

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baboons since the beginning of the year 2008. According to Hammond, (2006), vast
areas of forestry land in Zimbabwe have been destroyed by uncontrolled fires. One
thousand six hundred and twenty three hectares of timber owned by Border Timbers
Private Limited and two hundred hectares of timber belonging to Forestry Company
of Zimbabwe had been destroyed.

Zaikowski, (2008), cited that, the total global area burned annually between 2005
and 2006 was in the range of three hundred to four hundred million hectares, and
about half of this was in Africa. Southern Africa accounted for about thirty one
percent of the forest loss on the continent. Kadzere M, (2005), also added that due to
the fires, animals and theft, trees of all ages have been destroyed and consequently
log shortages will occur for many years. Added to that the new farmers were
preventing foresters from replanting in the fire damaged areas.

It can be noted from the above argument that the timber producing companies in
Zimbabwe were experiencing a decline in timber output since the year 2005. The
Wattle Company Limited is failing to meet the demands of the customers especially
the South African market which is the major importer of Zimbabwean timber.
Failure to meet demands may result in the company loosing its customers. The
decline is said to result from damages caused by fire, animals and theft.

2.2 Major threats on plantations


According to Fichani, (2009), low timber production is a result of damages caused
by fire, animals and theft. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), explained that once a
plantation has been established it will be necessary to protect it against fire, animals
and thieves. Evans, (1992), pointed out that the nature of a plantation, its uniformity
in age and species, often along with the kind of site it occupies, renders it more
susceptible to some forms of damage.

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The above authors considers fire, theft and animals as the major threats on
plantations hence plantations managers are required to take considerable measures
to protect their plantations from the damage caused by these threats. These threats
are the major reason why the management designs plantation security systems to
protect their plantations from any danger.

2.2.1 Fire
Evans, (1992), cited that fire will often be the most important danger facing
plantations. He pointed out that the greatest danger of fire is when the plantation is
young before the canopy have closed and suppressed the ground vegetation, though
in dry conditions with strong winds, mature plantations can also be destroyed.
According to Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), many plantations suffer from fires every
year in the dry season though how much is burnt can vary enormously. Lara, (1993),
pointed out that damage by fire impose a serious threat to plantations. Fire can
originate from natural causes such as lightning but many result of the activities of
man. Lara , (1993), added that, plantation fires can start from fires spreading from
farmland on the perimeter, from activities of hunters or from burning by herdsman
to improve livestock grazing.

Fire danger is most high when the plantation is young and in the dry season as
mentioned by the above authors meaning that the security managers should
implement tight security strategies during this period of time when the risk is very
high. It can also be noted that fire can originate either from natural causes such
lighting or from human activities such as farming, hunting, transportation and
children play. Human causes can either be deliberate or by mistake.

2.2.2 Animals
2.2.2.1 Wild animals.
Evans, (1992), pointed out that, there are three orders of wild animals responsible
for damage; rodents (rats, mice, moles and squirrels); lagomorphs (hares and

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rabbits); and artiodactyls (deer, antelopes, pigs and buffaloes). Evans, (1992), added
that damage from wild animals can threaten the quality of the trees. Baboon damage
to plantations has resulted in high tree mortality and significantly reduced log
recoveries per hectare.

2.2.2.2 Domestic animals.


“Grazing domestic animals has and continues to be a most destructive agent of
forest, both natural and plantations”, said Evans, (1992:152). Rathfon and Farlee,
(2002), advised that , because cattle, sheep, goats and camels, eat tree foliage, they
must be excluded from a plantation while it is young. Inevitably this means that a
young plantation often has dense ground vegetation growing between the trees,
which further increases the attractiveness for grazing. McKenna and Woeste, (2009),
explained that, cattle sheep and horses tend to congregate beneath certain trees for
shade and to rest, a behavior that causes both direct and indirect injuries to trees.

Both wild and domestic wild animals have some effects on the timber production.
As mentioned by the authors above they affect both quality and quantity of timber to
be harvested. Baboons tend to be the most dangerous wild animals that affect the
Wattle Company’s timber plantations. Domestic animals like goats, cattle and sheep
eat the tree foliage of young plantations.

2.2.3 Theft.
Evans, (1992), noted that, in areas where there are shortages of firewood for cooking
and heating, stealing from a nearby plantation is almost inevitable. In some cases the
right to collect firewood is granted but often the villagers demand outstrips supply.
Sometimes villagers cut trees for poles used for the construction of houses, kraals
and fencing. Kanyekanye, (2007), stated that, resettled farmers are illegally cutting
down timber from plantations in the process of clearing land for farming.

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People poach timber from plantations for different reasons as suggested by the
above authors. Some people are engaged in timber poaching as way to make money;
others for the construction of their houses, kraals and fencing; and others illegally
harvest timber as they will be clearing land for farming.

2.3 Plantation security system


To protect plantations from the mentioned threats, the forestry companies have the
necessary security systems in place. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), explained that once
a plantation has been established it will be necessary to protect it against fire, thieves
and animals. Evans, (1992), argued that successful plantation is only possible
provided there is adequate protection.

A plantation need to be protected from the damage caused by animals, thieves and
fire as a result the management should make sure that they have designed effective
plantation security systems are. The more efficient the plantation security system is
the lesser the damages by fire animals and thieves.

2.3.1 Security.
According to O’Brien, (2005), security is a condition that result from the
establishment and maintenance of protective measures that ensure a state of
inviolability from hostile acts or influence. Security measures should be
implemented, monitored and maintained to ensure that there is enough protection of
the plantation from any hostile acts. The hostile acts are the threats mentioned
above.

2.3.2 A system.
O’Brien, (2005), defined a system as a group of interrelated components working
together toward a common goal by accepting inputs and producing outputs in an

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organized transformation process. According to Schulthers and Summer, (1999), a
system is an integrated set of components or entities, that interact to achieve
particular function or goal. A system has characteristics such as boundaries, outputs
and inputs, methods of converting inputs into outputs and system interfaces.

O’Brien, (2005), explained that a system has three basic interacting components or
functions which are: inputs – which involve capturing and assembling elements that
enter the system to be processed; processing – which involve transformation
processes that convert input into out put; output – which involve transferring
elements that have been produced by a transformation process to their unlimited
destination.

From the above authors it can be noted that a system consist of components. These
components should be related in one way or another. There should be inputs,
processing and outputs.

2.3.4 Security system.


Schulthers and Summer, (1999), defined a security system as a device or multiple
devices designed, installed and operated to monitor, detect and communicate about
activity that may pose a security threat in a location or locations on a vessel or
facility.

2.3.5 Plantation security system.


From the above definition one may have a view of what a plantation security system
is. It can be noted that a security system is a device or devices designed, installed
and operated to monitor, detect and communicate about activity or activities that
may pose a security threat in a location or locations.

On a plantation security system the, devices are the inputs of the system which
include the employees, community, neighboring companies, machinery and

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equipment. The activities that may pose security threat on a plantation security
system are fire, animals and theft. These are the activities that the system has to
monitor, detect and communicate.
The location on the plantation security system is the plantation. So a plantation
security system consist of employees, community, neighboring companies,
equipment and machinery that are put together and operated to monitor, detect and
communicate about the fires, animals and theft on a plantation.

Fig 2.3.5 (a) a plantation security system.

Processing
Inputs Observations- patrol,
lookout towers, cameras,
Employees, binoculars
Community,
Neighboring Communication – two
way radios, siren, bells, Output
companies,
Equipment, phones
Machinery Timber
Protection – firebreaks, production
fencing, fuel breaks,
guards, repellents

Action – fire fighting,


chasing, arresting

Source: Nicolas and Beebe, (1999).

2.3.5.1 Inputs.

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According to Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), the inputs of the plantation security
system consist of employees, the community, neighboring companies, equipment
and machinery.

Employees.
The security department should have enough employees who are well trained and
experienced in the field. These employees may consist of; foresters, fire fighters and
guards. Foresters are responsible for patrolling throughout the plantations during the
day for early detection of danger. Firefighters are those individuals who are trained
to deal with any kind of fire. Young plantations are usually guarded by some
individuals who will be chasing away animals from the plantation.

The community.
The community refers to those people who are close to the plantations or those who
benefit from the plantation resources. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), argued that, it is a
major step forward if the forestry companies integrate key communities into the
protection management of forests. Key communities are those with access to the
area to hunt and collect forestry produce, or simply because they are close to the
plantations boundaries.

Neighboring companies.
Most fires starts outside concessions and enter as wildfires. It is essential if security
management is to be successful, that neighboring companies cooperate and
coordinate to protect their areas from fire, animals and theft. The companies as
suggested by Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), need to discuss: communications to
coordinate protection operations, early warning and danger issues, plans for
patrolling along the borders of the plantations, approaches to and cooperation with
local communities, training and awareness campaigns; sharing of equipment and
personnel.

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Equipment and machinery.
Lara, (1993), noted that, the company should buy the necessary equipment and
machinery to be used in the protection program. Firefighting vehicles, motor bikes,
bulldozers, surveillance cameras, two way radios, chainsaws, rakes, and so on are
very important in the system. Without enough equipment and machinery the security
system will have a lot of loopholes with which the threats can use to damage the
plantations.

2.3.5.2 Processing.
Observations.
The functions of the process as stated by Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), starts by
observations which is meant to detect any threat on plantation security. Rapid
detection and movement of the security teams to the scene will greatly reduce
damage. For large plantations detection is usually by watchers posted at times of
high danger in lookout towers. Where there are no towers observers can be posted at
good vantage points with views over the plantation. From the diagram it can be seen
that observation is done through patrols, lookout towers, surveillance cameras or
binoculars. The community, employees or workers from neighbor companies should
be equipped with the necessary skills and equipment to do some observations in the
plantations.

Communication.
Communication is the second function of the system. Lara, (1993), stated that, if
there is any threat detected, it should be communicated immediately to everyone
involved in the plantation security system. According to Nicolas and Beebe, (1999),
communication can be done through two way radios, sirens, bells or phones. Evans,
(1992), added that, rapid detection is the first step, the alarm must be raised and
information about a threat, its location and possible size, relayed to the security
department. Rapid detection of fire and raising the alarm are first two essentials of
good communication, the third is enabling the firefighting teams to reach the scene

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quickly. Thus a plantation requires at least a rudimentary system of roads and tracks
passable by vehicles.

Protection.
The third function is protection. Lara, (1993), argued that, as the managers
anticipate damage from any of the discussed threats at any time, they are then forced
to put some protection measures to reduce the effects of the threats. As suggested by
Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), firebreaks, fuelbreaks, security fence, guards and
repellents can be used as protection measures.

Action.
According to Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), when the threat is detected and all the
people are informed, the necessary action should be taken. If it is the fire outbreak,
people should fight the fire; wild animals must be chased away from plantation and
thieves arrested.

2.3.5.3 Output.
The output of a plantation security system is the reduction of losses caused by fire,
animals and theft. When the system is operating at high level of efficiency, the
effects of the mentioned threats will be very low and as a result the loss of timber
will be reduced.

Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), noted that the plantation security system is a group of
interrelated components that are designed to monitor, detect and communicate any
activity that may pose a security threat on a plantation.

For the system to operate efficiently it should have all the necessary resources. For
firefighting purposes water is the major resource required. Roads leading to the
plantation boundary are of special value as is a track running along a boundary so
that access is gained to where the danger may be approaching. When everything is

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in place the management are then required to effectively manage the system so as to
yield good results. The main objective of designing a plantation security system is to
reduce the damages caused by humans and animals so as to increase timber output.

2.4 Challenges on managing security system


Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), noted that, once the security system is designed, it
needs to be effectively managed so as to reduce the lose caused by fire, animals and
thieves. However according to Fichani, (2009), managers are facing many
challenges in the process of managing these security systems. These challenges
include economic, political, environmental, social and legal challenges.

2.4.1 Physical environmental challenges.

2.4.1.1 Unpredictable weather


According to Kadzere, (2005), the occurrence of damaging weather phenomena is
usually unpredictable. Little can be done to protect timber plantations against the
damage caused by weather, except to grow tree species known to be resistant to the
detrimental effects of local weather patterns, or locating the stands of trees in
sheltered areas. High winds, rainfalls, temperatures, and so on are some of the
weather phenomena which causes damages to plantations. Gonda, (2008), also
added that, Zimbabwe’s timber industry is under threat amid projections that the
country could face shortages in the next fifteen years as a result of the tropical
cyclones of 2000 and 2002. high cyclone induced rainfall caused severe destruction
of forests, particularly in the eastern highlands.

2.4.1.2 Climatic changes.


The impacts of global climate change on forest distribution was evaluated using the
Holdridge life zone and Goddard Institute of Space studies (GISS) general
circulation model scenarios, Matarira and Mwamuka, (1996). Across Zimbabwe,
seventeen to eighteen percent of the total land area is projected to shift from

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subtropical thorn woodland and subtropical dry forest to tropical very dry forest
under the Goddard Institute of Space Studies scenario. The projected shift in forest
distribution is attributable to a future decline in precipitation patterns and an
increase in ambient temperatures.

2.4.1.3 Plantations are located at the exit points.


According to Mushongahande, (2007), most of the timber plantations in Zimbabwe
are located in the eastern highlands. Plantations are at the exit points to Mozambique
and as a result they are used by the border jumpers as they will be traveling to and
from Mozambique. Cooking fires, smoking stubs and other activities by the
travelers sometimes result in wild fires. The management of the Wattle Company
Limited is facing a great challenges from these travelers who are being very
careless.

2.4.1.4 Plantations are located in remote areas.


Kammen, (2001), added that, ninety percent of the timber plantations in Zimbabwe
are in rural remote areas in the eastern highlands where there are no telephone
facilities, electricity nor good roads. This makes communication very difficult.
Rathfon and Farlee, (2002), argued that communication is very important for the
security of plantations. Lara, (1993), also pointed out that, if any threat is detected
on the plantation it should be communicated quickly. Without good roads the
movement of vehicles is very slow, however the security is advised to reach the
scene of danger very quickly.

2.4.1.5 Plantations are located on sloppy ground.


According to Hammond, (2006), eastern highlands are characterized by a range of
mountains. Hirst, (2007), explained that, fire spreads far more quickly uphill than
along flatland or downhill. For every increase in slope a fire will double its rate of
speed traveling upslope. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), stated that, slope greatly
influence speed of fire spread. Fuel breaks planted on hillsides are much more

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quickly burned through than those on the flat ground. Slopes also affect the speed of
the fire fighting team. Uphill movement of the vehicles is very slow and due to the
steepness of the ground roads are sometimes affected by erosion during the rain
season.

2.4.1.5 Sources of water are limited.


Mushongahande, (2007), also stated that natural sources of water are very limited
within the plantations. Because of the slopes in the eastern highlands, water from the
rains usually run downhill to the river. The sources of water for fire suppression are
therefore limited to rivers and dams. Evans, (1992), argued that it is very important
for the plantations to have some sources of water inside the plantations. The Wattle
Company Limited do not have other sources of water inside their plantations. They
rely on water from nearby dams or rivers.

2.4.2 Social challenges.


2.4.2.1 Land conflicts with the community.
According to Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), many plantation fires undoubtedly arise
from disputes over land ownership, water supply, recreational, fishing and hunting
areas. The villagers from the Nyaruwa and Chinyai clans in Chimanimani, as stated
by Sifile, (2008), resettled themselves on the timber plantations of Border Timbers
Limited (BTL) at the height of the land invasions, arguing that the plantation was
situated on land that used to belong to their ancestors. Repeated attempts including a
high court order- to have the estimated five hundred families evicted have been in
vain.

2.4.2.2 Carelessness of the villagers.


It is true that most of the human causes of fire is deliberate, but it can also be argued
that in some cases it result from mistakes and carelessness. Evans, (1992), pointed
out that, sometimes fires occur as a result of the carelessness of the villagers.
Farmers usually burn their farms in preparation for the farming season or to improve

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their grazing pastures and such burning usually end up in wild fires. The Wattle
Company is facing so many fire outbreaks from the villagers’ farming and hunting
activities. Though the villagers are educated about the danger of fire, they are very
irresponsible.

2.4.2.3 Villagers hunting in the plantations.


Hirst, (2007), suggested that, hunting in plantations by the society also put the
plantation at a risk of fire. Hunters may leave their hunting fires burning, their
smoking stubs and they sometimes cut the young trees as they will be hunting
thereby disturbing the growth of the trees. Sifile, (2008), pointed out that, villagers
sometimes burn plantations in their process of searching mice and small animals to
avert pervasive hunger. Restricting villagers from entering plantations may result in
unwelcome reactions by the villagers and other hand allowing them to have access
into the plantation is putting the plantation at risk.

2.4.2.4 Playing village children.


Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), also talked of the children from the village who start
some plantation fires as they will be playing in the plantations. Since the
communities are located at the boundaries of the timber plantations the children
have easy access to the plantations and in most cases they find plantations a good
playing area.

2.4.2.5 Domestic animals of the villagers.


Evans, (1992), suggested that grazing domestic animals has and continues to be a
most destructive agent of forest. The community let their livestock into the
plantation to graze usually on young plantation where there is dense ground
vegetation growing between the trees. According to Nicolas and Beebe, (1999),
before planting, land acquired for afforestation may be casually grazed. This is of no
direct concern to a forester and may even be encouraged to keep down rank
vegetation, but when planting begins, the curtailment of this right may be deeply

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resented by grazers used to pasturing their animals on the land. The community will
let their animals into the plantations to graze and sometimes they cut the tree
branches for fodder.

2.4.2.6 Poaching of timber by villagers.


Evans, (1992), pointed out that, in areas where there are shortages of firewood for
cooking and heating, stealing from a nearby plantation is almost inevitable. In some
cases the right to collect firewood is granted but the villagers often demand
outstrips supply. Sometimes villagers cut trees for poles to construct houses, kraals
and fencing. Because of poverty many households have turned to timber poaching
as a way of survival. The Wattle Company Limited is facing this problem of timbers
but its very difficult to find out those responsible since the timber plantations are
very large.

2.4.3 Economic challenges.

2.4.3.1 High level of inflation.


According to Gumede, (2009), the hyper inflation in the recent years resulted in
many experienced workers leaving their employment in search for greener pastures.
Forestry companies in Chimanimani and Nyanga have been hit by a critical flight of
workers who abandoned their chainsaws for gold panning in nearby Mozambique.

Hammond, (2006), added that forestry companies experienced a critical shortage of


manpower. Most of the general hands abandoned work for gold panning, citing poor
remuneration and poor working conditions. Gumede, (2009), explained that, unless
something was done to rectify the problem, production at most timber estates could
be affected. According to Mahonye and Makate, (2008), over four million
Zimbabweans have fled the country. This massive brain drain of the most qualified

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Zimbabweans undermines any possibility of reversing the catastrophic collapse of
Zimbabwean economy.

According Gonda, (2008), in a number of cases employees were getting frustrated


with the lack of salaries and their living standards as a result they blamed their
employees for not responsible. It is the government that is responsible for the
collapse of the economy but it seems easier and in some cases safer to take their
frustrations out on their employers. Many plantations have been suffering fires from
the frustrated employees.

Inflationary period in the recent years kept on haunting the Wattle Company
Limited’s operations. During the period many of its experienced workers left to seek
for greener pastures in countries like South Africa and Botswana. From these
individuals there were some professionals from the security department. Because of
this the company is facing a shortage of experienced personnel in the security
department. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), pointed out that well trained and
experienced workers are part of the plantation security system. Without one of the
inputs the system may not work properly. This is one the reasons why the systems
are failing to produce quality results.

2.4.3.2 High level of unemployment.


Hammond, (2006), stated that, the increasing levels of unemployment and poverty
in Zimbabwe have led many households turning to timber poaching for survival.
Zimbabwe has a sixty percent unemployment rate as noted by Mushongahande,
(2007). Many people in the nearby communities turn to plantation burning as a way
to create employment for themselves in the fire suppression and subsequent
replanting. He added that, sixty two percent of Zimbabwean households are poor
with forty six percent of them living in absolute poverty as they can hardly afford
basic food requirements some of these households are turning to timber poaching for
survival.

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Forests are also being cleared for fuelwood fines imposed for breaching forestry
laws become increasingly meaningless and provide little deterrence. Much of the
illegally harvested timber has been exported to neighboring countries for below
market value. Under the Forestry Act, timber processing companies are only
permitted to export processed hardwood, but many have been exporting raw timber
to make quick profits.

The Forestry Commission has made attempts to clamp down on illegal exports,
working with the police and revenue authorities. Some truckloads of timber have
been seized. The authorities have also tried to prevent fuelwood collection by
providing guards for forested areas, but this has proved largely ineffective as
desperation has forced many to find ways to evade being apprehended.

2.4.3.3 The plantations are very large.


Timber plantations covers a very large area of land, one hundred and eight thousand
two hundred and fourteen hectares, according to Mushongahande. The size of the
timber plantations make it very expensive to enclose them using security fences or
employing security guards to man around the plantations. This means that though
there is high risk of plantation damage by both human and animals, plantations are
left unclosed and unprotected. Plantations size also makes it difficult to quickly
detect a threat.

2.4.4 Political challenges.

2.4.4.1 Political violence.


Zaikowski, (2008), stated that, political instability has forced many institutions to
close for long period. One consequence of this is that there is an acute shortage of
trained forestry practitioners. In many areas forestry management has been

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suspended and illegal loggers have at times devastated forest resources. Post-
conflict periods do not necessarily lead to more sustainable systems. There may, for
example, be an increased demand for wood during post-conflict reconstruction
which can worsen the situation.

2.4.4.2 Illegal settlement.


Kanyekanye, (2007), cited that, Zimbabwe’s timber industry was under threat from
resettled farmers who were causing fires when clearing land for farming or illegally
cutting down timber from plantations. Gonda, (2008), pointed out that, during the
year 2007 alone the resettled farmers cost the nation above one trillion Zimbabwean
dollars worth of timber through illegal harvests or fires. Two hundred and fifty two
fires occurred, damaging and destroying ten thousand hectares. The national forest
resource was diminished by ten percent. According to Hammond, (2006), due to
fires resulting from arson attacks or land clearing activities by unauthorized settlers
in the plantations trees of all ages have been destroyed and consequently log
shortages will occur for many years. Added to that, the new farmers were preventing
foresters from replanting in the fire damaged areas.

Mahonye and Makate, (2008), pointed out that the government was for political
reasons reluctant to act against the black farmers accused of causing fires. The
author went on to explain that many of the settlers occupying the plantations were
settled there by the government contrary to its earlier claims that it would not seize
plantations for redistribution to landless people. Muchinguri, (2007), argued that the
damage caused to timber plantation could take up to twenty years to correct. The
damage caused by forestry fires since year 2000 when the government began its
land redistribution exercise was greater than damage incurred in the previous thirty
years.

From the authors above it can be noted that, because of political reasons some
people seize some of the plantations that belonged to forestry companies. This is one

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of the challenge that the Wattle Company Limited is facing. Some of its plantations
were seized by some political activists. Though the management went to court they
were unable to remove the settlers from plantations who claimed the land to be their
ancestors’. Because of politics the timber producing companies are not getting
support from the government to protect their plantations. Those plantations that
were taken means that the will be a period in the future where there will be some
shortage of timber.

2.4.4.3 Land reform.


As noted by Gwaze, (2004), Zimbabwe’s commercial timber production has shrunk
by fifty percent, largely because of uncertainties caused by changes in land tenure
legislation, uncontrolled veld fires and increases in production costs. Uncertainty
brought about by the government’s chaotic land redistribution exercise has resulted
in non expansion of plantations.

2.4.5 Legal challenges.


Conversation of forest resources in Zimbabwe is responsibility of the Zimbabwe
forestry commission which was established by an act of parliament. The forestry
commission has four technical divisions namely research and development,
indigenous resources, commercial and forestry extension. These divisions
implement the different aspects of two acts (the forest act and the communal forest
produce act)

According to Katerere, (1996), the forestry act of 1996 forbids people from burning,
growing or standing vegetation on any land without prior notice to the occupants of
all adjourning land and the police. The act further stipulates that in the event that
one is found guilt in a court of law, the accused should be liable of either a fine or
imprisonment.

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The forestry act has been criticized as being inadequate. The fines that the people
are paying are very small that they can not stop people from poaching timber or
burning the plantations. the issue of Chimanimani settlers who were found guilt of
burning plantations as they were clearing land for farming and nothing was done to
those people, clearly shows that the laws are not functioning well. It seem laws and
politics are linked because the people in Chimanimani were let go because their
issue was politically based.

The communal land forest produce act restricts the use of forest products in
communal areas by the local people to “own use”. It further states that communal
people are not allowed to enter the plantations or use plantation resources like dams,
hunting, and so forth without permission from the owners. This act was criticized
for being too restrictive. The act in its present form fails to recognize the rights and
interests of communities. The community is left with no incentive to protect the
plantations and sometimes they end up burning those plantations because of
frustration.

The government is always imposing new rules and regulations some of which
directly or indirectly affect the security of timber plantations. Kanyekanye, (2006)
stated that, in the year 2000, the Forest Act was sidelined in favour of the land
reform programme. Since then , the plantations have had little protection against
fires. In many cases plantation managers have reported the illegal settlers to the
police for burning down plantations and illegally cutting down the trees but the
police have shown unwillingness to arrest the farmers because they considered the
matter to be political.

2.5 Relationship among plantation security system, timber output, threats and
challenges
It can be noted that plantation security system is directly related to the timber
output. By designing an effective system the management can reduce any losses

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thereby increasing timber output. However the effectiveness of the plantation
security system can be affected by economic, political, environmental and social
challenges. All these challenges are the contributing factors to the weaknesses in
the plantation security systems for the Zimbabwean timber producing companies.
The loopholes created in the plantation security systems by political, economic,
environmental and social challenges will create lines of weaknesses through which
the threats passes through to damage the plantations. When the plantations are
damaged this means the future output of timber will decrease by the percentage
damaged. This is the reason why the Wattle Company Limited is experiencing a
decline in timber output. If this problem is to be solved first the management should
deal with the discussed challenges otherwise the problem will persist.

2.6 Empirical evidence


Maunati, (2005), stated that, Indonesia has around 112.3 million hectares of state
forests, consisting of protected forest (29.3 million hectares), reserve forest (19
million hectares), and production forest (64 million hectares). Most of the
challenges that Zimbabwean timber companies are facing currently have been also
of concern in Indonesia in 1980s. the country have tried to deal with those
challenges as to improve its timber production.

2.5.1 Physical environmental challenges


The timber plantations in Indonesia most of them are in the Sumatra and
Kalimantan, where the terrain is sloppy. Just like the Zimbabwean timber companies
Indonesia also faced terrain problem. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), stated that, slope
greatly influences speed of fire spread. Fuel breaks planted on hillsides are much
more quickly burned through than those on flat ground.
To reduce the problem of fire on steep slopes the concessions are making very wide
fuel breaks ranging from 250 – 350 meters. A fuel break is a strip of land on which
the native vegetation has been permanently modified so that fires that burn into
them can be more readily contained. If it is an economic necessity to make narrower

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fuel breaks, these should be restricted to flat areas. Width must not be compromised
where the ground next to road is steep. Cleaning of the fuel breaks should be most
thorough where they are on slope.

Rathfon and Farlee, (2002), noted that , the installation of man made sources and
access of water are a part of a fire management planning where natural sources of
water within a concession are limited. Holes are dug within the plantations before
the dry season to help ensure a water supply in the dry season. Water tanks are also
constructed within the plantations to be filled with water pumped from the nearby
dam or river. Canals that run through the plantations are constructed to meet the
water problem.

A network of wide tarred roads is also constructed in the plantations to cater for the
movement of fire fighting teams. In some areas light railways channels are laid
within the plantation for access of the security teams to the point of danger.

2.5.2 Social challenges.


As noted by Maunati, (2005), just like in Zimbabwe the timber companies in
Indonesia have been facing problems with the community who claimed the land to
belong to their ancestors. These villagers would turn to plantation burning as a way
to show their disapproval of forestry policies. As a result the concession owners had
to do something to reduce lose of timber caused by the villagers. Concessions
encouraged the communities to participate in fire prevention. This involved the
employment of local villagers as prevention aides.

Local communities are compensated to prevent fires as well as paid to form


volunteers fire crews. As noted by Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), it is a major step
forward if the concessions and plantations integrate key communities into the
protection management of forests. According to Zaikowski, (2008), key
communities are those with access to the area to hunt and collect forestry produce,

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or simply because they are close to the plantation boundaries. The communities
need to be identified and included in plantation protection.

To gain involvement the concessions pay a sensible wage to groups of villagers to


man lookout positions every afternoon (the time of greater risk than the morning).
Equipped with radio they report every fire spotted. If a local fire does start they fight
it immediately and join concession crews who attend later. No additional pay is
given for fire fighting. The scheme has the merit that members of the community are
paid even if there are no fires and they thus do not have to work to earn. As a further
incentive to community involvement, properly trained and equipped village fire
crews are paid to patrol close to the village and to maintain the fuel breaks on the
plantation boundaries.

Participatory land use planning followed by participatory boundary mapping is of


essence. If this is to work the companies must demonstrate goodwill and be prepared
to concede more land than they wish. The success of community involvement
schemes depend on mutual trust, a commodity that has been singularly absent in the
past and which will thus take time and patience to develop in the future.

The companies called for the adoption of a plantation policy that was crafted by
the industry, which among other issues calls for settlement bordering estates to be at
least five kilometers away from the edge of the forest plantation.

2.5.3 Economic challenges.


The peasants in the local communities are the most threat to illegal logging of
plantation in Indonesia. The rate of illegal logging have been increasing since 1980.
The forestry companies are employing people from the neighboring communities
whenever vacancies exist. This is trying to reduce the poverty level of the
community so that in the future there may be no cases of illegal logging. This also
create a good relationship between the villagers and the companies.

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To retain most experienced workers from leaving the concessions are paying their
workers favorable wages better working conditions. Schools, hospitals, banking,
transport and other services are provided by the concessions in these remote rural
areas. The workers feel very comfortable with the environment they are working.

2.5.4 Legal challenges.


In the early 1980s laws for forestry protection in Indonesia were not effective just
like in Zimbabwe currently. Illegal loggers or those who were arrested for burning
plantations were given a very light sentence as a result people were not stopped
from poaching timber but encouraged to do so. However in 2004 according to
Maunati, the government designed policies to preserve the timber concessions. One
such a policy was to increase fine paid by illegal loggers and jail time.

2.5.5 Political challenges.


There was a time in Indonesia in early 1990s when people seize plantations for
political reasons. The government assisted the concession owners by sending
hundreds of police and paramilitaries with tear gas and guns to evict the illegal
settlers from timber plantations. the police and the army would guard the plantations
during the day and night to protect them from illegal loggers.

How successful were the strategies in Indonesia.


The strategies that were taken by the timber producing companies in Indonesia was
very successful since its timber production increased from 14000m3in 2004 to
26000m3 in 2008. The fire outbreaks have been reduced and illegal logging is no
longer a big problem to the forestry companies in Indonesia. The working
environment in the industry has attracted so many experienced personnel.

2.6 Chapter summary

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In this chapter the researcher gave reference to articles and books that covered key
factors in the research. The researcher analyzed the challenges faced in the
management of plantation security systems and how these challenges can affect the
effectiveness of a security system in trying to protecting a plantation from the such
threats as fire, animals and theft. Solutions to the challenges are also highlighted in
this chapter. Having discussed the various approaches and variables that are
available in the literature, the following chapter presents the methodological
approach to be used in this study.

Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 26

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