Running head: SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

The Relationship of Spiritual Intelligence and Decision-Making Styles of College Students

Pia Roelen C. Pahati
Bulacan State University

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

The Relationship of Spiritual Intelligence and Decision-Making Styles of College Students

Spiritual intelligence is one of the most controversial psychological construct today.
Gardner (1993) as cited in King (2008) disagreed when spiritual intelligence was proposed to be
a part of his Multiple Intelligences. He even noted that intelligence should not be confounded
with an individuals phenomenological experience, noting for most that spirituality involves
certain feelings of relatedness to a higher being. However, he himself made use of the
phenomenological experiences, such as the emotionality often involved in music, mathematics or
even personal intelligence. In a newer sense, Zohar and Marshall (2000), described spiritual
intelligence as the ultimate intelligence in which they placed it at the top of their hierarchy
model, undermining EQ and IQ. They noted that spiritual intelligence or what they termed as SQ
helps us to assess the most meaningful course of action that we people do especially when
solving our problems. In accordance to their claim that SQ is the ultimate intelligence of people,
Emmons (2000), describes spiritual intelligence as the way of people to adapt and to facilitate
everyday problem solving and goal attainment through the utilization of the spiritual
information.
However, there had been a misunderstanding when it comes to spirituality and spiritual
intelligence. To date spirituality has offered a wide variety of denitions for the term spirituality
(Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003). Generally, spirituality refers to the concern with or connection
to a transcendent being and often includes an individuals search for an ultimate purpose in life
(Fry,2003). Mitroff and Denton (1999, p. 15) dened spirituality as the basic desire to nd
ultimate meaning and purpose in ones life and to live an integrated life. Nonetheless, the fact
that spirituality is often indistinguishable from one's beliefs (religious or otherwise) says nothing

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

about spiritual intelligence. Simply put, these two constructs are not one in the same (King,
2008).
Spiritual intelligence, based on the Model of Spiritual Intelligence of King (2008), states
that spiritual intelligence is by far an intelligence as it has fulfilled all established criteria for an
intelligence: (1) it involves a set of interrelated mental capacities, as opposed to preferred ways
of behaving, which are distinct from other mental abilities and manifest to varying degrees
across the human population; (2) it appears to develop over the lifespan, emerging in childhood
and adolescence and, in many cases, continuing into old age; (3) it clearly facilitates adaptation
and problem-solving, not only in specific contexts (e.g., the existential crisis) but in a diverse
number of stressful situations; (4) it both involves and contributes to abstract-reasoning, aiding in
decision-making, judgments, appraisals, and planning; (5) although limited, it has demonstrated
potential biological foundations in the brain; (6) it has further displayed a high evolutionary
plausibility, likely playing a critical role in the recent history of our species; and (7) although
others have fallen short (e.g., Amram, 2007; Emmons, 2000a), the current model of spiritual
intelligence assembles capacities for which cognition and mental computation are theoretically
paramount.
Basing on the assumption of King (2008) that spiritual intelligence involves and
contributes to abstract-reasoning, aiding in decision-making, judgments, appraisals, and
planning (p. 121). It is therefore related to decision-making styles of individuals. However, this
assumption is still not tested using spiritual intelligence as the intelligence construct, as most of
the studies that have been conducted only tested it using emotional and intelligence quotients.
In our everyday lives, we are bombarded with different circumstances which requires us
the constant need to makes decisions. Although the decisions that we are all making are vastly

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

different from each other, researchers claimed that we, individuals have the habitual tendencies
to approach various problems in consistently similar ways, which was referred to as the decisionmaking styles (Wood, 2012). However, decision-making styles that we usually made are affected
by three factorsdecision features, situational factors and individual differences (Appelt, Milch,
Handgraaf & Weber, 2012; Thunholm, 2004).
As stated by Appelt et al. (2012), individual differences is a broad term, covering any
variable that differs between people, from decision style to cognitive ability to personality (p.
253). Cognitive style in decision-making often refers to the individual thinking of the persons
and is usually based on the person itself. College students in their senior years are faced with
many decision-making situations. In real world, this is the time that they are going to decide
what will they be in their future lives. Their choices of their future occupations for themselves as
they enter their intended future careers. More so, senior college students are the young adults
who must be prepared to make big or small decisions in their lives (DiDonato & Strough, 2013).
With that, this study will focus on finding if there is a relationship between spiritual
intelligence and decision-making styles of university instructors and professors.
Spiritual Intelligence
David King (2008) defined spiritual intelligence as a set of mental capacities which
contribute to the awareness, integration, and adaptive application of the nonmaterial and
transcendent aspects of one's existence, leading to such outcomes as deep existential reflection,
enhancement of meaning, recognition of a transcendent self, and mastery of spiritual states
(p.54). Four core components are proposed to comprise spiritual intelligence: (1) critical
existential thinking, (2) personal meaning production, (3) transcendental awareness, and (4)
conscious state expansion.

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

According to King (2008), critical existential thinking, the first construct of his model
refers to capacity of the person to critically contemplate the nature of existence, reality, the
universe, space, time, death, and other existential or metaphysical issues. From a basic
perspective, existential thinking refers to thinking about ones existence, like death and afterlife
(Nasel, 2004). As previously established, such existential thinking is commonplace in definitions
of spirituality (Koenig & Larson, 2000; Matheis, Tulsky & Matheis R., 2006; Wink & Dillon,
2002) as well as spiritual intelligence (Nasel, 2004; Vaughan, 2002; Wolman, 2001; Zohar &
Marshall, 2000). It was also assumed in his model that critical existential thinking can serve as a
multifaceted source of adaptation, coping, problem-solving, and abstract reasoning, particularly
in crises of an existential nature or in those crises which arouse such existential anxieties and
questions. This is accomplished by allowing an individual to critically analyze such issues and
circumstances, thereby more readily solving the existential frustration and averting its side
effects. It is further contended that there is no limit to such application, as any problem can be
approached from an existential perspective or related to one's existence. In addition, the
development of a personal philosophy on life can provide unique insight into problems and
dilemmas that might not otherwise be available.
The second factor of King (2008) is the personal meaning production. It is defined as the
ability to construct personal meaning and purpose in all physical and mental experiences,
including the capacity to create and master a life purpose. It is proposed that when faced with
stress, personal meaning production acts as a coping method by allowing an individual to
construct meaning and purpose within the stressful situation, thereby transforming the stressor
and reducing its negative impact. Similarly, when faced with a dilemma, personal meaning

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

production can lead to a meaning-based solution (i.e., a solution that considers the meaning and
purpose of the dilemma) and therefore act as a method of problem-solving as well.
The third factor that was proposed by King (2008) is the transcendental awareness. He
defined it as the capacity of a person to identify transcendent dimensions of himself (e.g., a
transpersonal or transcendent self), of others, and of the physical world (e.g., non-materialism,
holism) during the normal, waking state of consciousness, accompanied by the capacity to
identify their relationship to one's self and to the physical. Many may dismiss the appropriateness
of the word transcendence. Transcendence that was being determined in this factor is an
awareness of that which is beyond the physical or material. It is an awareness of that is
transcendent, not the self. Based on the model, this refers to any aspect of reality that is beyond
the physical. In terms of transcendent aspects of individuals, it should be clear that the concept of
the transcendent or transpersonal self serves as the best example. More recently, Lukey and
Baruss (2005) found that transcendent beliefs are associated with greater intelligence, further
suggesting a potential intellectual component underlying transcendence.
The final and last component of Kings Model of Spiritual Intelligence (2008) is the
conscious state expansion. According to King (2008), it is the ability to enter and exit higher
spiritual states of consciousness (e.g. pure consciousness, cosmic consciousness, unity, oneness)
at one's own discretion (as in deep contemplation, meditation, prayer, etc.). It involves some sort
of voluntary cognitive process and leads to the experience of a higher state. As such, the aforementioned research findings lend evidence to highly adaptive applications of this capacity.
Although the exact "how" and "why" will have to remain unanswered, this ability appears to lead
to stress reduction.

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

All in all, this model of Kings (2008) implied that spiritual intelligence validates a
universal characteristic of the human psyche which has long been dismissed by science as
nothing more than irrational nonsense founded on a fear of the unknown. His model suggests that
the spiritual condition of humankind is not entirely irrationalthat underlying human spirituality
and even some aspects of religiosity exists as a set of adaptive, cognitive capacities unique from
other manifestations of human intelligence, and that these capacities constitute a spiritual
intelligence. In line with his model, he also made an instrument measuring spiritual intelligence
named as The Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory (SISRI-24), which will also be used in
this study for measuring the spiritual intelligence of the participants in this study.
As a sort of intelligence, spirituality extends the psychologists conception of spirituality
and allows its association with rational cognitive processes like goal achievement and problem
resolution. The spiritual intelligence provides a general basis for the individual to be able to
consider his seeking for goals and meaning in life, and to move in the direction of the aims
which are personally meaningful. It aids the individual in directing his/her concerns to the wider
image and in focusing, consciously, his/her activities in a context that is wider ( Hosseini, Elias,
Krauss & Aishah, 2010).
Decision-Making Styles
Decision-making styles are theorized to be stable, trait-like patterns of approach to
situations that call for a decision. Like personality traits, these styles do not have perfect
predictive power, but instead represent likelihoods of behavior across situations and domains
(Leykin & DeRubeis, 2010). Decision-making styles are not absolute. Like in, Scott and Bruce
(1995) who suggested that there are ve decision styles in decision-making, whereas Harren
(1978) and Nygren (2000) identied three decision styles. Decision styles were found to be

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

associated with a variety of behaviors and attitudes, including life choices, such as career and
health-related decisions (Crossley & Highhouse, 2005; Galotti, 2007; Galotti, Ciner,), consumer
behavior (Mitchell & Walsh, 2004), evaluations of new technology (Selart, Johansen,
Holmesland, & Gron- haug, 2008), and cultural backgrounds (Mann, 1998). In this study, the
decision-making styles that is proposed by Scott and Bruce (1995) will be used to measure the
decisions made by college students.
Scott and Bruce (1995) proposed five decision-making models. The first decision-making
style is the rational decision-making style or thorough search for and logical evaluation of
alternatives. It has been found to correlate positively with internal locus of control like, when the
individual attributes the control over his own destiny to factors within himself (Scott & Bruce,
1995). The second decision-making style is intuitive or the reliance on hunches and feelings.
Next is dependent decision-making style or the reliance on research for advice and direction
from others. The fourth decision-making style is the avoidant decision-making style or the
attempt to avoid decision-making. Last is the spontaneous decision-making style or the sense of
immediacy and desire to get through the decision-making process as soon as possible.
Studies also found that affect, stress, and other non-rational internal events are capable
of inuencing peoples decisions (Bolte, Goschke, & Kuhl, 2003; Peters, Vstfjll, Grling, &
Slovic, 2006), even individual differences and personality (Appelt et al., 2012).Most importantly,
studies of emotional intelligence and decision-making states that EI, and intelligence variable,
significantly predicts decision-making styles (Rehman, 2011 &Atwood, 2012).
Current Study
Basing on the Model of Spiritual Intelligence proposed by King in 2008, which states that
spiritual intelligence is in fact an intelligence construct as it meets the qualifications of

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

intelligence. I will now test its assumptions, which no other study to date and to my knowledge
has not yet done basing from all the literature and researches that I have gathered, that spiritual
intelligence like any other forms of intelligence both involves and contributes to abstractreasoning, aiding in decision-making, judgments, appraisals, and planning. Basing on that
assumption, I want to know if spiritual intelligence has a relationship with decision-making
styles of individuals, pertaining to senior college students per se.
Another theory that can support my research question is the conflict theory of decision
making by Janis and Mann in 1977 which attempts to characterize the decision-maker in regard
to: (a) condence in the decision, (b) the coping strategies used to handle the internal conict of
a decision and to arrive at the most adaptive solution. It also states that an individuals most
prominent decision-making style is one that reects the default coping strategy employed when
making important decisions, in which coping strategies or even affect are found to be an outcome
or a related variable to spiritual intelligence (King, 2008).
Basing on the past studies that noted that decision-making styles are also related to life
choices, such as career and health-related decisions (Crossley & Highhouse, 2005; Galotti, 2007;
Galotti, Ciner, Altenbaumer, Geerts, Rupp, & Woulfe, 2006), also make way to my research
question as these variables are also found to be related to spiritual intelligence such as quality of
life and life satisfaction (Anema, 2006; Luecken, & Gunn, 2005), active coping styles (Baider et
al., 1999; Holland et al., 1999), goal seeking and goal attainment (Halama, 2003, as cited in
Halama & Strizenec, 2004).
The four factors of Kings Model of Spiritual Intelligence are also related to decision
making as it was assumed on the theory that (1) there is no limit to such application, as any
problem can be approached from an existential perspective or related to one's existence. In

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

10

addition, the development of a personal philosophy on life can provide unique insight into
problems and dilemmas that might not otherwise be available. (2) proposed that when faced with
stress, personal meaning production acts as a coping method by allowing an individual to
construct meaning and purpose within the stressful situation, thereby transforming the stressor
and reducing its negative impact. Similarly, when faced with a dilemma, personal meaning
production can lead to a meaning-based solution (i.e., a solution that considers the meaning and
purpose of the dilemma) and therefore act as a method of problem-solving as well. (3)
transcendent beliefs are associated with greater intelligence, further suggesting a potential
intellectual component underlying transcendence. (4) involves some sort of voluntary cognitive
process and leads to the experience of a higher state. With this, decision-making as a form of
solving the problem, either big or small, somehow states that it is related to spiritual intelligence.
The current study will focus on the relationship between spiritual intelligence and
decision-making styles. This will benefit the body of knowledge as this will be the first to test
Kings statements in his Model of Spiritual Intelligence. Spiritual intelligence extends the
psychologists conception of spirituality and allows its association with rational cognitive
processes like goal achievement, problem resolution and decision-making. The spiritual
intelligence provides a general basis for the individual to be able to consider his seeking for goals
and meaning in life, and to move in the direction of the aims which are personally meaningful. It
aids the individual in directing his/her concerns and decisions to the wider image and in
focusing, consciously, his/her activities in a context that is wider.
Research Questions
1. Does spiritual intelligence related to decision-making styles?
2. Do each of the four components of spiritual intelligence related to each decision-making
styles?

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

11

Hypotheses
1. Spiritual intelligence is related to decision-making styles.
2. Each of the four components of spiritual intelligence is significantly related to each of the
five decision-making styles.
Conceptual Framework
The figure below shows that college students spiritual intelligence is related to their decisionmaking styles.
Figure 1
The relationship of spiritual intelligence to decision-making styles.

Spiritual Intelligence

Decision-Making Styles

Critical Existential Thinking

Personal Meaning Production
Transcendental Awareness
Conscious State Expansion

Rational Decision Making Style

Intuitive Decision Making Style
Dependent Decision Making
Style
Avoidant Decision Making Style
Spontaneous Decision Making
Style

Method
Research Design
This study is a descriptive non-experimental quantitative research which entails providing
a description of the variables namely; spiritual intelligence and decision-making styles. I intend

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

12

to measure the variables without making any predictions on inferences regarding the possible
causes of information. The goal of this cross-sectional research is to verify the hypotheses that
spiritual intelligence is significantly related to decision-making styles, and that each of the four
components of spiritual intelligence is significantly related to each of the three decision-making
styles.
Participants
The study sample will contain 250 senior college students (4th year collge students)
enrolled in universities or colleges in Bulacan. The participating students will be selected using
a cluster sampling procedure based on their college level (4th year college students) as the
sampling unit. The study will examine at least three 4th year college class from different
universities or colleges in Bulacan. Male and female participants aged 18 and up will be included
in this study.
Instruments
Demographic Information. The participants will report basic demographic data: name
(optional), address, age, gender, and occupation.
Spiritual Intelligence. Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory (SISRI-24). The
SISRI-24 is a 24-item scale that consists of statements about behaviors, experiences, and ways of
being that represent four aspects of spiritual intelligence: Critical Existential Thinking, Personal
Meaning Production, Transcendental Awareness, and Conscious State Expansion. Participants
are asked to identify how much each statement is true for them on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging
from 0 (not at all true of me) to 4 (completely true of me). There are 7 items on the Critical
Existential Thinking subscale, allowing for a score between 0 and 28. Items include I have

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

13

developed my own theories about such things as life, death, reality, and existence and I have
spent time contemplating the purpose or reason for my existence. Five items make up the
Personal Meaning Production subscale, and the range for scores is between 0 and 20. Items
include I am able to define a purpose or reason for life and I am able to make decisions
according to my purpose in life. Seven items comprise the Transcendental Awareness Subscale,
allowing a range of scores from 0-28. Items include I am aware of a deeper connection between
myself and other people and Recognizing the nonmaterial aspects of life helps me feel
centered. The 5 items from the Conscious State Expansion subscale allow for scores between 0
and 20, and include I am able to enter higher states of consciousness or awareness and I have
developed my own techniques for entering higher states of consciousness or awareness. Only
item 6, which loads on the Transcendental Awareness subscale, is reverse coded. The inventory
allows participants to obtain an overall spiritual intelligence score, with a range between 0 and
96, calculated by summing all subscales, as well as scores for each subscale. Higher scores
correspond with higher reported spiritual intelligence. This was also used by BenedictMontgomery (2013) in her dissertation.
Decision-Making Styles. General Decision Making Style Questionnaire (GDMSQ). The
scale was developed by Scott and Bruce (1995). It contained 25 items which were characterized
as Rational Decision Making Style, Intuitive Decision Making Style, Dependent Decision
Making Style, Avoidant Decision Making Style, and Spontaneous Decision Making Style (5
items in each subscale). High score on each subscale indicated greater use of respective decision
making style and low score reflected less use of that decision making style. Furthermore internal
consistency and factor stability were found adequate (Scott & Bruce, 1995). GDMSQ is a 5-point
Likert scale where score 1 is equal to Strongly Disagree and 5 is equal to Strongly Agree and the

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

14

score on each subscale ranged from 5 to 25. Sample items of scale include I often need help of
other people while making decisions, I rarely make decisions without taking opinions from
others. All items showed significant positive correlation with their respective subscales ranging
from .54 to .78, (p < .05) which reflected construct validity of the scale (Hayee & Hassan, 2011).
Procedure
I will first coordinate to the universities or colleges to ask for permission in conducting
this study with their students. Once they agreed, the study will take place.
First, participants will be given an informed consent to sign, which indicates that they
will be participating in the study. This informed consent specifies the purpose of the study, the
types of research instruments which they will be answering, and the information that they are
free to remove themselves from participating in the study anytime that they want to, especially
when they feel that further participation in the study makes him or her uncomfortable.
After this, the set of questionnaires that will be used in this study will be disseminated to
the participants. They will be given 45 minutes to complete the questionnaires and will be asked
to answer it with full honesty and should leave no blank so that their data will not be considered
as void.
Data Analysis
The data will be performed through Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
To measure and interpret the strength of the relationship between the four components of
spiritual intelligence and the three decision-making styles, I will use Pearsons r correlation
coefficient. To evaluate how spiritual intelligence predicts decision-making styles, multiple
regression will be used.

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

References
Amazt, I.H., & Idris, A.R. (2011). Lecturers satisfaction towards university mangament &
decision-making styles in some Malaysian public universities. Procedia Social and
Behavioral Sciences 15(2011), 3957-3970.
Atwood, S. E. (2012). The relationship between emotional intelligence and decision-making
style among healthcare leaders in iowa. (Order No. 3539138, Capella University).
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, , 127-n/a. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/1095536604?accountid=28547. (1095536604).
Appelt, K., Milch, K., Handgraaf, M., & Weber, E., (2011). The decision making individual
differences inventory and guidelines for the study of individual differences in judgment
and decision-making research. Judgment and Decision Making, 6(3), 252262.
Benedict-Montgomery, M. (2014). Our spirits, ourselves: The relationships between spiritual
intelligence, self-compassion, and life satisfaction. (Order No. 3602822, Alliant
International University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, , 173. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/1468714585?accountid=28547. (1468714585).
Crossley, C. D., & Highhouse, S. (2005). Relation of job search and choice process with
subsequent satisfaction. Journal of Economic Psychology, 26, 255268.
Dewberry, C., Juanchich, M., & Narendran , S., (2013). Decision-making competence in
everyday life: The roles of general cognitive styles, decision-making styles and
personality. Personality and Individual Differences 55(2013), 783-788.

15

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

16

Emmons, R. A. (2000). Is spirituality an intelligence? Motivation, cognition, and the psychology

of ultimate concern. The International Journal for the psychology of Religion, 10(1), 3
26. doi: 10.1207/S15327582IJPR1001_2.
Fry, P. S. (2000). Religious involvement, spirituality and personal meaning for life: Existential
predictors of psychological wellbeing in community-residing and institutional care elders.
Aging and Mental Health, 4, 375-387.
Galotti, K. M. (2007). Decision structuring in important real-life choices. Psychological Science,
18, 320325.
Galotti, K. M., Ciner, E., Altenbaumer, H. E., Geerts, H. J., Rupp, A., & Woulfe, J. (2006).
Decision-making styles in a real-life decision: Choosing a college major. Personality and
Individual Differences, 41, 629639.
Giacalone, R. A., & Jurkiewicz, C. L. (2003). Right from wrong: The influence of spirituality on
perceptions of unethical business activities. Journal of Business Ethics, 46(1), 85-97.
Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/198059606?accountid=28547
Hayee, A.A., & Hassan, B., (2011). Self-regulation as predictor of decision making styles among
managers of cellular companies. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 26(1), 43
60.
Healey, D. (2005). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and creativity: An investigation into
their relationship. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Canterbury,
Christchurch, New Zealand.
Hosseini, M., Elias, H., Krauss, S.E., & Aishah, S. (2010). A review study on spiritual
intelligence, adolescence and spiritual intelligence, factors that may contribute to

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

17

individual differences in spiritual intelligence, and the related theories. International

Journal of Psychological Studies, 2(2), 179-188.
King, D. B. (2008). Rethinking claims of spiritual intelligence: A definition, model, and measure.
(Order No. MR43187, Trent University (Canada)). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, ,
223. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304385059?accountid=28547.
(304385059).
Koenig, H. G., McCullough, M., & Larson, D. B. (2000). Handbook of religion and health. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Leykin, Y., & DeRubeis, R.J. (2010). Decision-making styles and depressive symptomatology:
Development of the decision styles questionnaire. Judgment and Decision Making, 5(7),
506515.
Matheis, E. N., Tulsky, D. S., & Matheis, R. J. (2006). The relation between spirituality and
quality of life among individuals with spinal cord injury. Rehabilitation Psychology, 51,
265-271.
Mitchell, V. W. & Walsh, G. (2004). Gender differences in German consumer decision-making
styles. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 3, 331346.
Nasel, D. D. (2004). Spiritual orientation in relation to spiritual intelligence: A consideration of
traditional Christianity and New Age/individualistic spirituality. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, University of South Australia.
Nygren, T. E. (2000, November). Development of a mea- sure of decision making styles to
predict performance in a dynamic J/DM task. Paper presented at the 41st Psychonomic
Society Meeting.

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

18

Scott, S. G., & Bruce, R. A. (1995). Decision-making style: the development and assessment of a
new measure. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55, 818831.
Thunholm P., (2004). Decision-making style: habit , style, or both?. Personality and Individual
Differences, 36(2004), 931-944.
Wink, P., & Dillon, M. (2002). Spiritual development across the adult life course: Findings from
a longitudinal study. Journal of Adult Development, 9, 79-94.
Wood, N. (2012). Individual differences in decision-making styles as predictors of good decision
making. Unpublished masters thesis. Graduate College of Bowling Green State
University.
Vaughan, F. (2002). What is spiritual intelligence? Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 42, 16-33.
Zohar, D., & Marshall, I. (2000). SQ: Connecting with our spiritual intelligence. New York:
Bloomsbury Publishing

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

19

SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES

20