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Aviaition Management.

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AVIATION MANAGEMENT
Q1) A pallet having a freight platform which measures 200 cm x 250 cm has a total mass of 300
kg. The pallet is carried on two ground supports each measuring 20 cm x 200 cm.
Using the loading manual for the transport aero plane, calculate how much mass may be
added to, or must be off loaded from, the pallet in order for the load intensity to match the
maximum permitted distribution load intensity for lower deck forward cargo compartment.
28.5 kg must be off loaded
285.5 kg may be added
28.5 kg may be added
158.3 kg must be off loaded
Answer:
Pallet size(metres squared) = Load(kg)/Floor Loading(kg per metre squared)
The numbers you need are the ground supports, 20cm x 200cm. So changing to metres this is 0.8 metres squared.
Having a quick look at cap696, your max loading intensity is 68kg per square foot. So start thinking about conversions... 1 metre =
3.28feet
So a foot squared is 3.28 x 3.28 = 10.76. So you now know you have 10.76 square feet in a square metre.
In the question we dont have a square metre, just 0.8 of a square metre, so you want to do 0.8 x 10.76, which gives you 8.61
square feet.
So your ground supports are 8.61 square feet, but your max load intensity is 68kg per square foot, so your max load is 68 x 8.61,
giving you 583.3kg.
You only have 300kg loaded so far therefore you can add 285.3kg and still remain within your max load intensity limits.
285.5 kg may be added

Q3) On a Aero plane without the central tank the maximum zero fuel mass is related to what?
The Zero Fuel Weight of an airplane is the total weight of the airplane and all its contents, minus the total weight of the fuel on board.
For example, if an airplane is flying at a weight of 5,000 lb and the weight of fuel on board is 500 lb, the Zero Fuel Weight is 4,500 lb.
Some time later, after 100 lb of fuel has been consumed by the engines, the total weight of the airplane is 4,900 lb and the weight of
fuel is 400 lb. The Zero Fuel Weight is still 4,500 lb.
Note that, as a flight progresses and fuel is consumed, the total weight of the airplane reduces, but the Zero Fuel Weight remains
constant .
For many types of airplane, the airworthiness limitations include a Maximum Zero Fuel Weight.
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight
Is the maximum weight allowed before usable fuel and other specified usable agents (engine injection fluid, and other consumable
propulsion agents) must be loaded in defined sections of the aircraft as limited by strength and airworthiness requirements. It may
include usable fuel in specified tanks when carried in lieu of payload. The addition of usable and consumable items to the zero fuel
weight must be in accordance with the applicable government regulations so that airplane structure and airworthiness requirements
are not exceeded.
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight in airplane operations
When an airplane is being loaded with crew, passengers, baggage and freight it is most important to ensure that the Zero Fuel Weight
does not exceed the Maximum Zero Fuel Weight.
When an airplane is being loaded with fuel it is most important to ensure that the Takeoff Weight will not exceed the maximum
permissible takeoff weight.
MZFW : The maximum weight of an aircraft prior to fuel being loaded.
ZFW + FOB = TOW
For any aircraft with a defined Maximum Zero Fuel Weight, the maximum payload can be calculated as the MZFW minus the OEW
(Operational Empty Weight)
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MaxPayload = MZFW OEW

Wing bending relief


In an airplane, fuel is usually carried in the wings. Weight in the wings does not contribute as significantly to the bending moment in the
wing as does weight in the fuselage. This is because the lift on the wings and the weight of the fuselage bend the wing tips upwards
and the wing roots downwards; but the weight of the wing, including the weight of fuel in the wing, bend the wing tips downwards,
providing relief to the bending effect on the wing.
When an airplane is being loaded, the capacity for extra weight in the wing is greater than the capacity for extra weight in the fuselage.
Designers of airplanes can optimise the Maximum Takeoff Weight and prevent overloading in the fuselage by specifying a Maximum
Zero Fuel Weight. This is usually done for large airplanes.

Most small airplanes do not have a Maximum Zero Fuel Weight specified among their limitations. For these airplanes, the loading
case that must be considered when determining the Maximum Takeoff Weight is the airplane with zero fuel and all disposable load in
the fuselage. With zero fuel in the wing the only wing bending relief is due to the weight of the wing.
Q4) Always what is the zero Fuel Mass of a helicopter?
The weight of the helicopter and everything in it except fuel. It is a certification issue, where to balance the load properly, all weight
added above the ZFW is fuel
Q5) What is the movement arm in the center of gravity?
The center-of-gravity (CG) is the point at which an aircraft would balance if it were possible to suspend it at that point. It is the mass
center of the aircraft, or the theoretical point at which the entire weight of the aircraft is assumed to be concentrated.[1] Its distance
from the reference datum is determined by dividing the total moment by the total weight of the aircraft.[2] The center-of-gravity point
affects the stability of the aircraft. To ensure the aircraft is safe to fly, the center-of-gravity must fall within specified limits established
by the manufacturer.
Arm
The arm is the chordwise (fore-and-aft) distance from the datum to any point within the aircraft.
Moment
The moment is a measure of force that results from an objects weight acting through an arc that is centered on the zero point of
the reference datum distance.[dubious discuss] Moment is also referred to as the tendency of an object to rotate or pivot about a
point (the zero point of the datum, in this case). The further an object is from this point, the greater the force it exerts. Moment is
calculated by multiplying the weight of an object by its arm.
Calculation
Center of gravity is calculated as follows:
Determine the weights and arms of all mass within the aircraft.
Multiply weights by arms for all mass to calculate moments.
Add the moments of all mass together.
Divide the total moment by the total weight of the aircraft to give an overall arm.
The arm that results from this calculation must be within the arm limits for the center of gravity that are dictated by the manufacturer. If it
is not, weight in the aircraft must be removed, added (rarely), or redistributed until the center of gravity falls within the prescribed limits.
For the sake of simplicity, center of gravity calculations are usually performed along only a single line from the zero point of the
reference datum, usually the line that represents the roll axis of the aircraft (to calculate fore-aft balance). In complex situations, more
than one line may be separately calculated, e.g., one calculation for fore-aft balance and one calculation for left-right balance.
Weight is calculated simply by adding up all weight in the aircraft. This weight must be within the allowable weight limits for the aircraft.
The weight and moment of fixed portions of the aircraft (engines, wings, etc.) does not change and is provided by the manufacturer.
The manufacturer also provides information facilitating the calculation of moments for fuel loads. Other removable weight must be
properly accounted for in the calculation by the operator.
In larger aircraft, weight and balance is often expressed as a percentage of mean aerodynamic chord, or MAC. For example, assume
that by using the calculation method above, the center of gravity (CG) was found to be 76 inches aft of the aircraft's datum and the
leading edge of the MAC is 62 inches aft of the datum. Therefore, the CG lies 14 inches aft of the leading edge of the MAC. If the
MAC is 80 inches in length, the percentage of MAC is found by calculating what percentage 14 is of 80. In this case, one could say
that the CG is 17.5% of MAC. If the allowable limits were 15% to 35%, the aircraft would be properly loaded.
Q6) Describe the following in flying controls
Avionics : Avionics derives from "aviation" and "electronics". It comprises electronic systems for use on aircraft, artificial satellites
and spacecraft, comprising communications, navigation and the display and management of multiple systems. It also includes the
hundreds of systems that are fitted to aircraft to meet individual roles, these can be as simple as a search light for a police helicopter
or as complicated as the tactical system for an Airborne Early Warning platform.

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Flying instruments: Instrument flight rules (IFR) are one of two sets of regulations governing all aspects of civil aviation aircraft
operations; the other are visual flight rules (VFR).
Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) defines IFR as: Rules and regulations established by the FAA to govern flight under
conditions in which flight by outside visual reference is not safe. IFR flight depends upon flying by reference to instruments in the flight
deck, and navigation is accomplished by reference to electronic signals. It is also referred to as, a term used by pilots and controllers
to indicate the type of flight plan an aircraft is flying, such as an IFR or VFR flight plan.
Center Panel : In air traffic control, an Area Control Center (ACC), also known as a Center, is a facility responsible for controlling
instrument flight rules aircraft en route in a particular volume of airspace (a Flight Information Region) at high altitudes between airport
approaches and departures. In the United States, such a Center is referred to as an Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC).
A Center typically accepts traffic from, and ultimately passes traffic to, the control of a Terminal Control Center or of another
Center. Most Centers are operated by the national governments of the countries in which they are located. The general operations of
Centers worldwide, and the boundaries of the airspace each Center controls, are governed by the ICAO.
In some cases, the function of an Area Control Center and a Terminal Control Center are combined in a single facility. For
example, NATS combines the London Terminal Control Centre (LTCC) and London Area Control Centre (LACC) in Swanwick in the
UK.
Center console : A conventional fixed-wing aircraft flight control system consists of flight control surfaces, the respective cockpit
controls, connecting linkages, and the necessary operating mechanisms to control an aircraft's direction in flight. Aircraft engine
controls are also considered as flight controls as they change speed.
The fundamentals of aircraft controls are explained in flight dynamics. This article centers on the operating mechanisms of the flight
controls. The basic system in use on aircraft first appeared in a readily recognizable form as early as April 1908, on Louis Bleriot's
Bleriot VIII pioneer-era monoplane design.
Glare shields / side panels: This Glare Shield Kit provides the materials to produce a professional custom padded glare shield.
The material passes the FAR 25.853 burn requirements and a burn certificate is provided with each kit. The kit includes 1.5 linear
yards x 54" wide black SPT Leather-Like Vinyl, 1.5 linear yards x 48" x 1.8" SPT open cell foam cushioning, two 1/16" x 8" x 50" of
ABS base material, 2024 T3 aluminum stiffener, bull nose material, template foam and cardboard template material. Complete easy
to follow instructions are provided to help you produce a professional looking padded glare shield that is custom to your aircraft and
has the look and feel of leather. The electroluminescent Glow Strip Glare Shield Lighting (PN 11-00848) fits nicely under this glare
shield.
Overhead panel: It contains miscellaneous controls and features not directly involved in flying. E.g. air conditioning, anti-ice
controls, cabin pressurization controls, oxygen controls, etc.

Flight engineers position: Flight engineers work in three types of aircraft: fixed-wing (aeroplanes), rotary wing (helicopters), and
space flight (ISS).
As aeroplanes became even larger requiring more engines and complex systems to operate, the workload on the two pilots
became excessive during certain critical parts of the flight regime, notably takeoffs and landings. Piston engines on aeroplanes
required a great deal of attention throughout the flight with their multitude of gauges and indicators. Inattention or a missed indication
could result in engine or propeller failure, and quite possibly cause loss of the aeroplane if prompt corrective action was not taken. In
order to dedicate a person to monitoring the engines and other critical flight systems, the position of Flight Engineer was created. The
Flight Engineer did not actually fly the aeroplane; instead, the Flight Engineer had his own specialized control panel allowing him to
monitor and control the various aircraft systems. The Flight Engineer is therefore an integrated member of the flight deck crew who
works in close coordination with the two pilots during all phases of flight. The Flight Engineer position was usually placed on the main
flight deck just aft of the pilot and copilot. The first commercial aeroplane to include a flight engineer was the Boeing 307 but only ten
were built before the onset of World War II; during the war the Avro Lancaster bomber required a flight engineer. The first operation
involving Flight Engineers was in February 1941 on a Shorts Stirling, and was the first four-engined bomber raid of the war by the
RAF.
Navigation: The basic principles of air navigation are identical to general navigation, which includes the process of planning,
recording, and controlling the movement of a craft from one place to another.
Successful air navigation involves piloting an aircraft from place to place without getting lost, breaking the laws applying to aircraft,
or endangering the safety of those on board or on the ground. Air navigation differs from the navigation of surface craft in several
ways: Aircraft travel at relatively high speeds, leaving less time to calculate their position en route. Aircraft normally cannot stop in midair to ascertain their position at leisure. Aircraft are safety-limited by the amount of fuel they can carry; a surface vehicle can usually get
lost, run out of fuel, then simply await rescue. There is no in-flight rescue for most aircraft. And collisions with obstructions are usually
fatal. Therefore, constant awareness of position is critical for aircraft pilots.
The techniques used for navigation in the air will depend on whether the aircraft is flying under the visual flight rules (VFR) or the
instrument flight rules (IFR). In the latter case, the pilot will navigate exclusively using instruments and radio navigation aids such as
beacons, or as directed under radar control by air traffic control. In the VFR case, a pilot will largely navigate using dead reckoning
combined with visual observations (known as pilotage), with reference to appropriate maps. This may be supplemented using radio
navigation aids.
Q7) What is environmental control system?
The Environmental Control System of an airliner provides air supply, thermal control and cabin pressurization for the passengers and
crew. Avionics cooling, smoke detection, and fire suppression are also commonly considered part of the Environmental Control
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System (ECS).
Air supply
On most jetliners, air is supplied to the ECS by being "bled" from a compressor stage of each gas turbine engine, upstream of the
combustor. The temperature and pressure of this "bleed air" varies widely depending upon which compressor stage and the RPM of
the engine.
A "Manifold Pressure Regulating Shut-Off Valve" restricts the flow as necessary to maintain the desired pressure for downstream
systems. This flow restriction results in efficiency losses. To reduce the amount of restriction required, and thereby increase efficiency,
air is commonly drawn from two bleed ports
When the engine is at low thrust, the air is drawn from the "High Pressure Bleed Port." As thrust is increased, the pressure from this
port rises until "crossover," where the "High Pressure Shut-Off Valve" closes and air is thereafter drawn from the "Low Pressure Bleed
Port."
To achieve the desired temperature, the bleed-air is passed through a heat exchanger called a "pre-cooler." Air from the jet engine
fan is blown across the pre-cooler, which is located in the engine strut. A "Fan Air Modulating Valve" varies the cooling airflow, and
thereby controls the final air temperature of the bleed air.
On the new Boeing 787, the bleed air will instead be provided by electrically driven compressors, thereby eliminating the inefficiencies
caused by bleed port system.
Cold Air Unit (CAU)
The Cold Air Unit, or "Airconditioning pack" is usually an air cycle machine (ACM) cooling device. Some aircraft, including early 707
jetliners, used vapor-compression refrigeration like that used in home air conditioners.
An ACM uses no Freon: the air itself is the refrigerant. The ACM is preferred over vapor cycle devices because of reduced weight and
maintenance requirements.
On most jetliners, the A/C packs are located in the "Wing to Body Fairing" between the two wings beneath the fuselage. On some
jetliners (Douglas Aircraft DC-9 Series) the A/C Packs are located in the tail. The A/C Packs on the McDonnell Douglas DC-10/MD11 and Lockheed L-1011 are located in the front of the aircraft beneath the flight deck. Nearly all jetliners have two packs, although
larger aircraft such as the Boeing 747, Lockheed L-1011, and McDonnell-Douglas DC-10/MD-11 have three.
The quantity of bleed air flowing to the A/C Pack is regulated by the "Flow Control Valve" (FCV). One FCV is installed for each pack.
A normally closed "isolation valve" prevents air from the left bleed system from reaching the right pack (and v.v.), although this valve
may be opened in the event of loss of one bleed system.
Downstream of the FCV is the CAU (Cold Air Unit), also referred to as the refrigeration unit. There are many various types of CAUs
however they all use typical fundamentals. The bleed air enters the primary "Ram Air Heat Exchanger", where it is cooled by either
ram air, expansion or a combination of both. The cold air then enters the compressor, where it is re-pressurized, which reheats the air.
A pass through the secondary "Ram Air Heat Exchanger" cools the air while maintaining the high pressure. The air then passes
through a turbine which expands the air to further reduce heat. Similar in operation to a turbo-charger unit, the compressor and turbine
are on a single shaft. The energy extracted from the air passing through the turbine is used to power the compressor.
The air is then sent through a Water Separator, where the air is forced to spiral along its length and centrifugal forces cause the
moisture to be flung through a sieve and toward the outer walls where it is channeled toward a drain and sent overboard. Then, the air
usually will pass through a Water Separator Coalescer or, The Sock. The Sock retains the dirt and oil from the engine bleed air to
keep the cabin air cleaner. This water removal process prevents ice from forming and clogging the system, and keeps the cockpit and
cabin from fogging on ground operation and low altitudes.
For a Sub-zero Bootstrap CAU, the moisture is extracted before it reaches the turbine so that sub-zero temperatures may be reached.
The temperature of the Pack Outlet Air is controlled by the adjusting flow through the "Ram Air System" (below), and modulating a
"Temperature Control Valve" (TCV) which bypasses a portion of the hot bleed air around the ACM and mixes it with the cold air
downstream of the ACM turbine.
Ram Air System
The "Ram Air Inlet" is a small scoop, generally located on the "Wing to Body Fairing." Nearly all jetliners use a modulating door on the
ram air inlet to control the amount of cooling airflow through the primary and secondary ram air heat exchangers.
To increase ram air recovery, nearly all jetliners use modulating vanes on the ram air exhaust. A "Ram Air Fan" within the ram system
provides ram air flow across the heat exchangers when the aircraft is on the ground. Nearly all modern fixed-wing aircraft use a fan on
a common shaft with the ACM, powered by the ACM turbine.
Air distribution
The A/C Pack exhaust air is ducted into the pressurized fuselage, where it is mixed with filtered air from the recirculation fans, and fed
into the "mix manifold". On nearly all modern jetliners, the airflow is approximately 50% "outside air" and 50% "filtered air."
Modern jetliners use "High Efficiency Particulate Arresting" HEPA filters, which trap >99% of all bacteria and clustered viruses.
Air from the "mix manifold" is directed to overhead distribution nozzles in the various "zones" of the aircraft. Temperature in each zone
may be adjusted by adding small amounts of "Trim Air", which is low-pressure, high temperature air tapped off the A/C Pack
upstream of the TCV. Air is also supplied to individual gaspers (outlet nozzles) over each passenger seat, which may be adjusted
individually by passengers. Some aircraft allow gasper supply to be turned on or off from the flight deck
Q8) What is Stall warning system?
In fluid dynamics, a stall is a reduction in the lift coefficient generated by a foil (fluid mechanics) as angle of attack increases. This
occurs when the critical angle of attack of the foil is exceeded. The critical angle of attack is typically about 15 degrees, but it may vary
significantly depending on the fluid, foil and Reynolds number. In recent years there has been an increasing use of vectored thrust in
manned and unmanned aircraft to surpass the stall limit, thereby giving rise to post-stall technology.
Stalls in fixed-wing flight are often experienced as a sudden reduction in lift as the pilot increases angle of attack and exceeds the
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critical angle of attack (which may be due to slowing down below stall speed in level flight). A stall does not mean that the engine(s)
have stopped working, or that the aircraft has stopped movingthe effect is the same even in an unpowered glider aircraft.
Q9) What is ground proximity warning system?
A ground proximity warning system is a system designed to alert pilots if their aircraft is in immediate danger of flying into the ground
or an obstacle. The United States Federal Aviation Administration defines GPWS as a type of terrain awareness warning
system.More advanced systems, introduced in 1996, are known as enhanced ground proximity warning systems (EGPWS), although
sometimes confusingly called terrain awareness warning systems.
Commercial aircraft
[pic]
The FAA specifications have detailed requirements for when certain warnings should sound in the cockpit.
The system monitors an aircraft's height above ground as determined by a radio altimeter. A computer then keeps track of these
readings, calculates trends, and will warn the captain with visual and audio messages if the aircraft is in certain defined flying
configurations ("modes").

The modes are:


1. Excessive descent rate ("SINK RATE" "PULL UP")
2. Excessive terrain closure rate ("TERRAIN" "PULL UP")
3. Altitude loss after take off or with a high power setting ("DON'T SINK")
4. Unsafe terrain clearance ("TOO LOW - TERRAIN" "TOO LOW - GEAR" "TOO LOW - FLAPS")
5. Excessive deviation below glideslope ("GLIDESLOPE")
6. Excessively steep bank angle ("BANK ANGLE")
7. Windshear protection ("WINDSHEAR")
Traditional GPWS does have a blind spot. Since it can only gather data from directly below the aircraft, it must predict future terrain
features. If there is a dramatic change in terrain, such as a steep slope, GPWS will not detect the aircraft closure rate until it is too late
for evasive action.
In the late 1990s improvements were made and the system was renamed "Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System"
(EGPWS/TAWS). The system was now combined with a worldwide digital terrain database and relies on Global Positioning System
(GPS) technology. On-board computers compared its current location with a database of the Earth's terrain. The Terrain Display now
gave pilots a visual orientation to high and low points nearby the aircraft.
EGPWS software improvements were focused on solving two common problems; no warning at all, and late or improper response.
No Warning
The primary cause of CFIT occurrences with no GPWS warning is landing short. When the landing gear is down and landing flaps are
deployed, the GPWS expects the airplane to land and therefore, issues no warning. EGPWS introduces the Terrain Clearance Floor
(TCF) function, which provides GPWS protection even in the landing configuration.
Late Warning or Improper Response
The occurrence of a GPWS alert typically happens at a time of high workload and nearly always surprises the flight crew. Almost
certainly, the aircraft is not where the pilot thinks it should be, and the response to a GPWS warning can be late in these
circumstances. Warning time can also be short if the aircraft is flying into steep terrain since the downward looking radio altimeter is
the primary sensor used for the warning calculation. The EGPWS improves terrain awareness and warning times by introducing the
Terrain Display and the Terrain Data Base Look Ahead protection.
Incidents
In Commercial and Airline operations there are legally mandated procedures that must be followed should an EGPWS caution or
warning occur. Both pilots must respond and act accordingly once the alert has been issued. An Indonesian captain has been charged
with manslaughter for not adhering to these procedures.
The other sample of incident of plane with EGPWS/TAWS is 2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash where all 96 people onboard
(including then President of Republic of Poland) died.
General aviation
TAWS equipment is not required by the U.S. FAA in piston-engined aircraft, but optional equipment categorized as TAWS Type C
may be installed. Depending on the type of operation, TAWS is only required to be installed into turbine-powered aircraft with six or
more passenger seats.
A smaller and less expensive version of EGPWS was developed by AlliedSignal (now merged with Honeywell) for general aviation
and private aircraft.
Military fast jet
For military fast-jets, the high speed and low altitude which may frequently be flown, make traditional GPWS systems unsuitable as the
blind spot becomes the critical part. Thus an enhanced system is required, taking inputs not only from the radar altimeter but also
from Inertial navigation system(INS), Global Positioning System(GPS), and Flight Control System(FCS), and using these to accurately
predict the flight path of the aircraft up to 4 to 5 miles (6.4 to 8.0 km) ahead. Digital maps of terrain and obstacle features are then
used to determine whether a collision is likely if the aircraft does not pull up at a given pre-set g-level. If a collision is predicted a
cockpit warning may be provided. This is the type of system deployed on such aircraft as the Eurofighter Typhoon. The U.S. FAA has
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also conducted a study about civilizing 3D military thrust vectoring to recover jetliners from catastrophes.
Q10) What is traffic collision avoidance system?
A traffic collision avoidance system or traffic alert and collision avoidance system (both abbreviated as TCAS) is an aircraft collision
avoidance system designed to reduce the incidence of mid-air collisions between aircraft. It monitors the airspace around an aircraft
for other aircraft equipped with a corresponding active transponder, independent of air traffic control, and warns pilots of the presence
of other transponder-equipped aircraft which may present a threat of mid-air collision (MAC). It is a type of airborne collision
avoidance system mandated by the International Civil Aviation Organization to be fitted to all aircraft with a maximum take-off mass
(MTOM) of over 5700 kg (12,586 lbs) or authorized to carry more than 19 passengers.
Official definition from PANS-ATM (Nov 2007): ACAS / TCAS is an aircraft system based on secondary surveillance radar (SSR)
transponder signals which operates independently of ground-based equipment to provide advice to the pilot on potential conflicting
aircraft that are equipped with SSR transponders.
In modern glass cockpit aircraft, the TCAS display may be integrated in the Navigation Display (ND) or Electronic Horizontal Situation
Indicator (EHSI); in older glass cockpit aircraft and those with mechanical instrumentation, such an integrated TCAS display may
replace the mechanical Vertical Speed Indicator (which indicates the rate with which the aircraft is descending or climbing).
TCAS operation
The following section describes the TCAS operation based on TCAS II, since this is the version that has been adopted as an
international standard (ACAS II) by ICAO and aviation authorities worldwide.
TCAS operation modes
TCAS II can be currently operated in the following modes:
Stand-by
Power is applied to the TCAS Processor and the mode S transponder, but TCAS does not issue any interrogations and the
transponder will reply to only discrete interrogations.
Transponder
The mode S transponder is fully operational and will reply to all appropriate ground and TCAS interrogations. TCAS remains in
stand-by.

Traffic advisories only


The mode S transponder is fully operational. TCAS will operate normally and issue the appropriate interrogations and perform all
tracking functions. However, TCAS will only issue traffic advisories (TA), and the resolution advisories (RA) will be inhibited.
Automatic (traffic/resolution advisories)
The mode S transponder is fully operational. TCAS will operate normally and issue the appropriate interrogations and perform all
tracking functions. TCAS will issue traffic advisories (TA) and resolution advisories (RA), when appropriate.
TCAS works in a coordinated manner, so when an RA is issued to conflicting aircraft, a required action has to be immediately
performed by one of the aircraft, while the other one receives a similar RA in the opposite direction.
Q11) Describe the working of the following?
a) Flight data recorder : A flight data recorder (FDR) (also ADR, for accident data recorder) is an electronic device employed to
record any instructions sent to any electronic systems on an aircraft. It is a device used to record specific aircraft performance
parameters. Another kind of flight recorder is the cockpit voice recorder (CVR), which records conversation in the cockpit, radio
communications between the cockpit crew and others (including conversation with air traffic control personnel), as well as ambient
sounds. In this both functions have been combined into a single unit. The current applicable FAA TSO is C124b titled Flight Data
Recorder Systems. Popularly referred to as a "black box", the data recorded by the FDR is used for accident investigation, as well as
for analyzing air safety issues, material degradation and engine performance. Due to their importance in investigating accidents,
these ICAO-regulated devices are carefully engineered and stoutly constructed to withstand the force of a high speed impact and the
heat of an intense fire. Contrary to the "black box" reference, the exterior of the FDR is coated with heat-resistant bright orange paint
for high visibility in wreckage, and the unit is usually mounted in the aircraft's empennage (tail section), where it is more likely to survive
a severe crash. Following an accident, the recovery of the FDR is usually a high priority for the investigating body, as analysis of the
recorded parameters can often detect and identify causes or contributing factors.
b) Cockpit voice recorder.
A cockpit voice recorder (CVR), often referred to as a "black box",is a flight recorder used to record the audio environment in the
flight deck of an aircraft for the purpose of investigation of accidents and incidents. This is typically achieved by recording the signals
of the microphones and earphones of the pilots headsets and of an area microphone in the roof of the cockpit. The current applicable
FAA TSO is C123b titled Cockpit Voice Recorder Equipment.
Where an aircraft is required to carry a CVR and utilises digital communications the CVR is required to record such
communications with air traffic control unless this is recorded elsewhere. As of 2005[update] it is an FAA requirement that the
recording duration is a minimum of thirty minutes, but the NTSB has long recommended that it should be at least two hours.
Q12) What are the types of propulsion systems?
Propulsion system

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Engine
An aircraft engine is a power source for an aircraft. Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston engines or gas
turbines. Powered aircraft have one or more engines.
Propellant tanks
Propellant (a chemical carried on board that is used to power the aircraft's flight), is usually a fuel and is kept in tanks around the
vehicle. Most aircraft store the fuel predominantly in the wings, but may have additional fuel tanks elsewhere.
Q13) Explain engine and fuel management?
Active Fuel Management (formerly known as Displacement on Demand) is a trademarked name for the automobile variable
displacement technology from General Motors. It allows a V6 or V8 engine to "turn off" half of the cylinders under light-load conditions
to improve fuel economy. Estimated performance on EPA tests show a 5.5%-7.5% improvement in fuel economy.
GM's current Active Fuel Management technology uses a solenoid to deactivate the lifters on selected cylinders of a pushrod V-layout
engine.
High-powered multi-cylinder internal combustion engines may be necessary to satisfy driver demands for quick acceleration and/or
heavy towing capacity, but during daily use they are generally operated at power settings of less than 25%. For example, at freeway
speeds, less than 40 hp (30 kW) are required to overcome aerodynamic drag, rolling friction, and to operate accessories such as air
conditioning.
However, when a gasoline internal combustion engine is operating under less than full load, the effective compression ratio is much
less than the measured compression ratio. Under light load, the throttle is not fully open, and the cylinders receive less than a full
charge of air on each intake stroke. The pressure and temperature generated at combustion are therefore less than under full load,
and the thermodynamic laws which apply to all heat engines dictate that the engine will then be operating at less than its maximum
possible thermal efficiency.
Thus, a high-powered, large-displacement engine is highly inefficient and wasteful when being used for normal driving conditions. This
is the motivation for cylinder deactivation, to effectively spread the work load of the engine over fewer active cylinders which then
operate under higher individual loads and therefore at higher efficiency
Q14) What is hour building?
The Flying Time Aviation hour building programme is designed to assist you in developing your flying skills from those of a private
pilot to the standard required of a commercial pilot.
Flying Time hour building packages are aimed at those seeking to progress to Commercial Pilot Licence standard and are an
extremely competitive way to get those essential hours quickly.
However, it's no good just getting the hours without enhancing the many other skills that will be required for commercial flying. Flying
Time has developed a monitored course to complement the flying with professional mentoring in all aspects of preparing for a CPL.
Hour Building Aircraft
While most other flight training organisations will offer you aircraft which really are not suitable for spending any length of time in, at
Flying Time we offer the Piper Cadet for hour builders.
The Piper Cadet is as cheap as a Cessna 152 from most organisations, with competitive prices for hour builders, but being a four
seater it has added space and comfort.
The Cadet also has a great endurance of up to 7 hours flying with one tank of fuel, which means less time waiting to get fuel. It has a
good avionics fit, leather interior, and cruises at 105kts, meaning that your hour building can be a lot more comfortable and stress
free.
Q15) What would be the result if the CG is aft the neutral point?
Center of Force is easy to understand on a single engine propeller plane. It is the engine center line. Center of gravity is the point in
the plane where weight in front equals weight in back. (In a small plane it is about at the pilots hips.) The neutral point is "A point where
two fields are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction so that the net field is zero."
"All airplanes become more stable as the CG is moved forward and less stable as it is moved aft. There is a limit, though, to how far
aft the CG can move before the airplane becomes unstable. We call this point the "aft CG limit," or "neutral point." It is called the
neutral point because, with the CG at this point, the airplane is neutrally stable in pitch. If the CG is kept forward of the neutral point, the
airplane will be stable. If it moves aft of the neutral point, it will be unstable."
Q16) Abnormal helicopter vibrations in the low-frequency range are associated with system or component?
Abnormal helicopter vibrations in the low-frequency range are associated with system or component is mainly due to Main rotor.
Vibration is inherent in any type of machine. Unusual vibrations are generally produced by a malfunction. Worn bearings, unbalanced
assemblies, or loose hardware can cause these malfunctions. Severe vibrations in a RC helicopter rotor system can cause serious
damage to or destruction of the model in a short time. Because of the high stress load on a rotor system during operation, the slightest
out-of-balance or out-of-track condition can create these damaging vibrations. For this reason, helicopter designers have been forced
to use many different methods of damping and counter-acting vibrations to an acceptable level. Driving engine, driveshafts, rotors,
and gearboxes at different speeds can help control sympathetic vibrations. A sympathetic vibration is created when a vibration from
one source causes a vibration at the same frequency in a second part or component. There are basically 5 main types of vibrations
found in a model (or full-scale) helicopter that can create damage or pre-mature wear and tear to the mechanical and radio
components. They are lateral, vertical, low frequency, medium frequency, and high frequency vibration.

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Q17) During an aero tow, is it good operating practice to release from low-two position?
In an aerotow a powered plane is attached to the glider with a tow rope. Single-engined light aircraft or motor gliders are used. The
tow-plane takes the glider to the height and location requested by the pilot where the glider pilot releases the tow-rope. A weak link is
often fitted to the rope to ensure that any sudden loads do not damage the airframe of the tow-plane or the glider. Under extreme
loads the weak link will fail before any part of the glider or plane fails. There is a remote chance that the weak link might break at low
altitude, and so pilots plan for this eventuality before launching.
During the aerotow, the glider pilot keeps the glider behind the tow-plane in either the "low tow" position, just below the wake from the
tow-plane, or the "high tow" position just above the wake. In Australia the convention is to fly in low tow, whereas in the United States
and Europe the high tow prevails. One rare aerotow variation is attaching two gliders to one tow-plane, using a short rope for the hightowed glider and the long rope for the low tow. The current record is nine gliders in the same aerotow.
Q18) As airspeed decreases in level flight below that speed for maximum lift / drag ratio total drag of an airplane decreases or
increases and if why?
Whenever the wing is producing lift, the pressure on the lower surface is greater than the pressure on the upper surface (Bernoulli
Effect). As a result, the air tends to flow from the high pressure area below the wing to the low pressure area above the wing. At the
wing tips the air pressure equalizes resulting in the air flowing from the bottom to the top of the wing creating wingtip vortices at each
wingtip. From the tail of the airplane, the vortices will circulate counterclockwise from the right wingtip and clockwise from the left
wingtip. The greater the size of the vortices, the greater the induced drag.
[pic]
As airspeed decreases, the total drag becomes greater, due mainly to the increase in induced drag created by having to have a
higher angle of attack to maintain straight and level flight.
Understanding the relationship between speed and drag is important in calculating maximum endurance and the range of the
airplane. When drag is at a minimum, power required to overcome drag is also at a minimum. Take a look at the chart below to see
the relationship in drag versus speed.
[pic]
Q19) Which is required equipment for powered aircraft during VFR nights flights?
Visual flight rules (night). For VFR flight at night, the following instruments and equipment are required:
(1) Airspeed indicator.
(2) Altimeter.
(3) Magnetic direction indicator.
(4) Tachometer for each engine.
(5) Oil pressure gauge for each engine using pressure system.
(6) Temperature gauge for each liquid-cooled engine.
(7) Oil temperature gauge for each air-cooled engine.
(8) Manifold pressure gauge for each altitude engine.
(9) Fuel gauge indicating the quantity of fuel in each tank.
(10) Landing gear position indicator, if the aircraft has a retractable landing gear.
(11) For small civil airplanes certificated after March 11, 1996, in accordance with part 23 of this chapter, an approved aviation red or
aviation white anticollision light system. In the event of failure of any light of the anticollision light system, operation of the aircraft may
continue to a location where repairs or replacement can be made.
(12) If the aircraft is operated for hire over water and beyond power-off gliding distance from shore, approved flotation gear readily
available to each occupant and, unless the aircraft is operating under part 121 of this subchapter, at least one pyrotechnic signaling
device. As used in this section, shore means that area of the land adjacent to the water which is above the high water mark and
excludes land areas which are intermittently under water.
(13) An approved safety belt with an approved metal-to-metal latching device for each occupant 2 years of age or older.
(15) An emergency locator transmitter, if required by 91.207.
(16)Approved position lights.
(17) An approved aviation red or aviation white anticollision light system on all U.S.-registered civil aircraft. Anticollision light systems
initially installed after August 11, 1971, on aircraft for which a type certificate was issued or applied for before August 11, 1971, must
at least meet the anticollision light standards of part 23, 25, 27, or 29 of this chapter, as applicable, that were in effect on August 10,
1971, except that the color may be either aviation red or aviation white. In the event of failure of any light of the anticollision light
system, operations with the aircraft may be continued to a stop where repairs or replacement can be made.
(18) If the aircraft is operated for hire, one electric landing light.
(19) An adequate source of electrical energy for all installed electrical and radio equipment.
(20) One spare set of fuses, or three spare fuses of each kind required, that are accessible to the pilot in flight.
Q20) From the following see-saw in balance
Fc = 3Fa
Fc = Fa / 3A
Fc = Fa / 3
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Fc = 3 / fa

[pic]
Answer: Fc = Fa / 3A

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