Activated Sludge

Published on SSWM (http://www.sswm.info/)

Activated Sludge
Compiled by:

Eawag (Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic

Science and Technology), Dorothee Spuhler
(seecon international gmbh)

An activated sludge process refers to a multi-chamber reactor unit that makes use
of highly concentrated microorganisms to degrade organics and remove nutrients
from wastewater to produce a high-quality effluent. To maintain aerobic
conditions and to keep the activated sludge suspended, a continuous and
well-timed supply of oxygen is required.
[no-ecompendium]Activated sludge consists of flocs of bacteria, which are
suspended and mixed with wastewater in an aerated tank. The bacteria use the organic pollutants to grow and transform
it to energy, water, CO2 and new cell material. Activated sludge systems are suspended-growth type and are used in
conventional high-tech wastewater treatment plants to treat almost every wastewater influent as long as it is
biodegradable. A physical pre-treatment unit, a post-settling unit (a clarifier) from which active sludge is re-circulated to
the aerated tank, and excess sludge treatment, are compulsory for appropriate treatment. The process is highly
mechanised and thus mainly adapted for centralised systems where energy, mechanical spare parts and skilled labour are
available. Provided the reactor is well operated, a very good removal of organics and suspended solids can be achieved,
though pathogen removal is low.[/no-ecompendium]
In

Out

Blackwater, Brownwater, Greywater, Non-biodegradable Wastewater, Energy Treated Water, Fertigation Water
[no-ecompendium]

Introduction
The term activated sludge refers to suspended aerobic sludge consisting of flocs of active bacteria, which consume and
remove aerobically biodegradable organic substances from screened or screened and pre-settled wastewater. Activated
sludge systems can treat blackwater, brownwater, greywater, faecal sludge and industrial wastewater as long as the
pollutants to be treated are biodegradable.

Schematic of the aeration tank and secondary settling tank (clarifier) of an activated sludge system. Source: Tilley et al.
(2014)
Activated sludge reactors are aerobic suspended-growth type processes (in opposition to fixed-film or attached-growth
processes (e.g. RBCs). [/no-ecompendium]Different configurations of the activated sludge process can be employed to
ensure that the wastewater is mixed and aerated in an aeration tank. Aeration and mixing can be provided by pumping
air or oxygen into the tank or by using surface aerators. The microorganisms oxidize the organic carbon in the wastewater
to produce new cells, carbon dioxide and water. Although aerobic bacteria are the most common organisms, facultative

bacteria along with higher organisms can be present. The exact composition[no-ecompendium] of bacteria[/noecompendium] depends on the reactor design, environment, and wastewater characteristics.
The flocs (agglomerations of sludge particles), which form in the aerated tank, can be removed in the secondary clarifier
by gravity settling. Some of this sludge is recycled from the clarifier back to the reactor. The effluent can be discharged
into a river or treated in a tertiary treatment facility if necessary for further use. [no-ecompendium]
In the view of reuse of the effluent in agriculture, it is not beneficial to remove all nutrients while standards for pathogen
removal are barely met.
As the system is also of high complexity and strongly mechanised, it is mainly adapted for centralised systems where
energy, mechanical and technical spare equipment and skilled staff are available.[/no-ecompendium]

Design Considerations
Activated sludge processes are one part of a complex [no-ecompendium]wastewater [/no-ecompendium]treatment
system[no-ecompendium] (U.S. EPA 2002)[/no-ecompendium]. They are usually used following primary treatment
([no-ecompendium]including screening [/no-ecompendium]that removes settleable solids)[no-ecompendium], include one
or more main aerated treatment chambers, aeration devices, a device for appropriate mixing to keep the sludge in
suspension, a secondary clarifier to separate the biomass from the treated effluent and collect settled biomass, generally
a non-linear, highly complex circulation regime (e.g. recirculation loops, by-passing etc.)[/no-ecompendium] and are
sometimes followed by a final polishing step (see tertiary filtration and disinfection). The biological processes that occur
are effective at removing soluble, colloidal and particulate materials. The reactor can be designed for biological
nitrification and denitrification, as well as for biological phosphorus removal.
The design must be based on an accurate estimation of the wastewater composition and volume. Treatment efficiency
can be severely compromised if the plant is under- or over-dimensioned. Depending on the temperature, the solids
retention time (SRT) in the reactor ranges from 3 to 5 days for BOD removal, to 3 to 18 days for nitrification.
The excess sludge requires treatment to reduce its water and organic content and to obtain a stabilized product suitable
for end-use or final disposal. It is important to consider this step in the planning phase of the treatment plant).
[no-ecompendium]

Complete overall process flow scheme of a conventional large-scale activated sludge system. Wastewater is pre-treated
(screening and settling), passes to the activated sludge chamber, is then post-settled in a secondary clarifier, eventually
filtered and finally disinfected if required. Excess sludge is digested, thickened and then incinerated. Source:
ENDRESS+HAUSER (2002)

Example of a complete activated sludge treatment system (London). Source: CITY OF LONDON (n.y.)
Large amounts of injected oxygen allow maintaining aerobic conditions and optimally mixing the active biomass with the
wastewater to be treated. To maintain a relatively high amount of active microorganisms useful in removing organic
substances from the wastewater, the sludge is separated from the effluent by settling in a secondary clarifier (UNEP 2004)
or by membrane filtration and kept in the process by recirculation to the aeration tank. Several modifications of this
basic process have been developed, including different aeration devices, different means of sludge collection and
recycling to the aeration tank or primary clarifier, and process enhancement trough the addition of an inert media area
on which biofilm can grow (combined fixed-film/suspended-growth process). Although aerobic bacteria are the most
dominant microorganisms in the process, other aerobic, anaerobic and/or nitrifying bacteria along with higher organisms
can be present. Thus, besides the removal of organic matter, nutrients (organic ammonia, phosphorus) can also be
removed biologically by nitrification/denitrification and biological uptake of phosphorus. The exact composition of
microorganisms depends on the reactor design, the environment and the wastewater characteristics (TILLEY et al. 2008).
To achieve optimal conditions for both, organic and nutrients removal, a sequences of changing aerobic and anaerobic
chambers are used.
Detailed Treatment Process
After screening sand and similar heavy particles are removed next in a grit chamber where they settle to the ground. This
chamber only wants to remove coarse grit and the wastewater spends only a relatively short period (some minutes) in it
(UNEP & MURDOCH 2004). Smaller solids are removed in a settling or sedimentation tank. In this unit, the wastewater
spends more time (about one hour) to allow for a good separation. The sludge from this mechanical primary treatment
(including screening and settling in the grit chamber and the sedimentation tank) is called primary sludge and, as all
excess sludge, requires an advanced further treatment chain.
After this primary treatment, the main unit containing the activated sludge follows. The pre-treated wastewater is mixed
with the concentrated underflow activated sludge from the secondary clarifier in an aerated tank. Aeration is provided
either by mechanical surface agitators or by submerged diffusers of compressed air (WSP 2008). Aeration provides oxygen
to the activated sludge and at the same time thoroughly mixes the sludge and the wastewater (UNEP & MURDOCH 2004).
During aeration and mixing, the bacteria form small clusters or flocs (TILLEY et al. 2008). Under these conditions, the
bacteria in the activated sludge degrade the organic substances in the wastewater. They use the organic substance for
energy, growth and reproduction. The end products are carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and new cells.
After a few hours in the aeration chamber, the mixture then enters the secondary settling tank (clarifier), where the
flocculated microorganisms settle and are removed from the effluent stream. The settled microorganisms (the activated
sludge) are then recycled to the head end of the aeration tank to be mixed again with wastewater and continue to grow
and form new sludge and to degrade organics. To maintain an optimal amount of sludge in the system, the rate of
recirculation of settled sludge varies from 20 to 100%. Excess sludge produced each day (waste activated sludge) must be
processed in a further treatment chain together with the sludge from the primary treatment facilities. A conventional
excess sludge treatment chain consists in anaerobic digestion, thickening, incineration and the safe disposal, e.g. in a
landfill. A more sustainable way would be to compost the sludge (either before or instead of digestion) in order to reuse
the nutrients in agriculture.
Hydraulic retention times in the whole systems range from some hours up to several days for the liquid phase. Proceeding
of excess sludge can take somehow longer depending on the type of thickening and anaerobic digestion applied. The

effluent from a properly designed and operated activated-sludge plant is of high quality, usually having BOD and TSS
concentrations equal to or less than 10 mg/L (CRITES & TCHOBANOGLOUS 1998). The removal of both, biological oxygen
demand (BOD) and suspended solids (TSS) generally lies within 80 to 100% depending on the influent concentrations, the
system set-up and temperature (UNEP 2004; SANIMAS 2005; WSP 2008).
Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus are also removed in activated sludge process but require a set-up of different
aerated and non-aerated chambers in hybrid activated sludge systems. Biological removal of nitrogen is first achieved by
the transformation of organic nitrogen into ammonia, followed by the aerobic conversion of ammonia (NH4+) to nitrite
(NO2-) and then nitrate (NO3-) and the anaerobic transformation of nitrate to gaseous nitrogen (N2), which is then
released to the atmosphere. The transformation of ammonia to nitrate via an intermediate step of nitrite is called
nitrification. The transformation of nitrate to gaseous nitrogen is referred as denitrification. Thus, a combination of both,
aerobic and anaerobic (anoxic) processes are required to achieve complete elimination of nitrogen from the wastewater.
In many activated sludge treatment systems, An anaerobic tank is either integrated after the aerated basin and before
clarification (post-denitrification); or just before the aeration tank (pre-denitrification). In the case of pre-denitrification,
nitrification takes place in the aerated tank after the aerobic pre-tank. Denitrification only occurs when the effluent from
the aerated tank, containing nitrite, is re-circulated like the sludge.
The removal of phosphorus in activated sludge systems can be done chemically or biologically. Biological elimination of
phosphorus in conventional wastewater treatment system occurs through the uptake of phosphorus by some bacterial
cells. However, only little phosphorus can be removed this way, as the phosphorus mass fraction in volatile sludge is only
about 2.5% (HAANDEL&LUBBE 2007). This results in an effluent concentration of about 2 to 7 mg P/L for municipal sewage
with a COD concentration of 500 mg/L (HAANDEL&LUBBE 2007). However, it will in general be required to lower the
effluent phosphorus concentration to a value 1 mg P/L.
Another biological process is the enhanced biological phosphorus removal. Enhanced biological phosphorus removal is
based on the cultivation of some special phosphorus accumulating bacteria, which, compared to 2.5% P in conventional
activated sludge, can lead to up to 38% of P accumulation in the sludge (HAANDEL&LUBBE 2007).

Different system configuration for combined biological nitrogen and phosphorus removal. Source: HAANDEL&LUBBE (2007)
When both nitrogen and phosphorus are to be removed, the combination becomes even more complex. Enhanced
biological phosphorus removal requires generally an anaerobic stage (for PAO cultivation), an anoxic stage (for
denitrification) and an aerobic stage (for nitrification and phosphorus accumulation) in series.
Nowadays, activated sludge systems, where valuable nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) and organic matter are

incinerated instead of re-circulated to the food production in agriculture are not perceived as sustainable any more. The
introduction of nitrogen removal into an activated sludge plant increases the reactor volume significantly and leads to
higher energy consumption of approximately 60 to 80% for aeration (MAURER 2003). The elimination of phosphorus
requires either the addition of chemicals and subsequent disposal of inorganic sludge or an increase of complexity and
reactor volume for enhanced biological phosphorus removal.
[/no-ecompendium]To achieve specific effluent goals for BOD, nitrogen and phosphorus, different adaptations and
modifications have been made to the basic activated sludge design. Well known modifications include sequencing batch
reactors (SBR), oxidation ditches, [no-ecompendium]deep shafts, [/no-ecompendium]extended aeration, moving beds and
membrane bioreactors.[no-ecompendium]
Sequential Batch Reactors (SBRs)

Primary storage reactor and sequential batch reactor for activated sludge treatment. Source: SANIMAS (2005)

Sequencing Batch Reactor process scheme including the five essential process steps: (1) fill, (2) react, (3) settle, (4 and 5)
draw and idle. Source: CESAME & UCL (2005).
The process can be operated in batches, where the different conditions are all achieved in the same reactor but at
different times (UNEP & MURDOCH 2004). The treatment consists of a cycle of five stages: fill, react, settle, draw and
idle. During the reaction type, oxygen is added by an aeration system. During this phase, bacteria oxidize the organic
matter just as in activated sludge systems. Thereafter, aeration is stopped to allow the sludge to settle. In the next step,
the water and the sludge are separated by decantation and the clear layer (supernatant) is discharged from the reaction
chamber (METCALF & EDDY 2007). Depending on the rate of sludge production, some sludge may also be purged. After a
phase of idle the tank is filled with a new batch of wastewater (UNEP & MURDOCH 2004). At least two tanks are needed
for the batch mode of operation as continuous influent needs to be stored during the operation phase. (Very) small
systems (e.g. serving small settlements) may apply only one tank. In this case, the influent must either be retained in a
pond or continuously discharged to the bottom of the tank in order to not disturb the settling, draw and idle phases. SBRs
are suited to lower flows because the size of each tank is determined by the volume of wastewater produced during the
treatment period in the other tank (UNEP & MURDOCH 2004). For more information on SBR activated sludge systems,
please consult WSP (2007) or U.S. EPA (1999).
Oxidation Ditches

Oxidation ditch activated sludge system. Source: unknown.

Oxidation ditches are large round or oval ditches (channel reactors) with one or more horizontal aerators to guarantee
oxygen supply, and to mix and move the content around the ditch. Screened influent enters the oxidation ditch, is
aerated and circulates at about 0.25 to 0.35 m/s (SANIMAS 2005). Operation can be continuous or intermittent. Primary
sedimentation is usually not required, but secondary sedimentation tanks are generally used. The required treatment
volume per capita is about 1 m (SANIMAS 2005). Oxidation ditches are suitable for areas where land availability is high.
They have the advantage that they are relatively easy to maintain and are resilient to shock loads that often occur in
smaller communities (e.g. at breakfast time and in the evening). Typical hydraulic retention time is between 24 to 48
hours with a sludge age of 12 to 20 days (Wikipedia 2010). For more information on oxidation ditches, please refer to U.S.
EPA (2000), WSP (2007) or WSP (2008).
Deep Shafts

Sewage treatment in a deep shaft activated sludge system. Source: Whole Water Systems (2012)
Where land is in short supply, sewage may be treated by injection of oxygen into a pressured return sludge stream, which
is injected into the base of a deep columnar tank buried in the ground. This type of activated sludge reactor is called
deep shaft. Such shafts may be up to 100 m deep. As the sewage rises the oxygen forced into solution by the pressure at
the base of the shaft breaks out as molecular oxygen. This provides a highly efficient source of oxygen for the
microorganisms contained in the activated sludge. The rising oxygen and injected return sludge provide the physical
mechanism for mixing. Mixed sludge and wastewater influent is decanted at the surface and separated into supernatant
and sludge components. The efficiency of deep shaft treatment can be high but they require skilled professionals for
construction, operation and maintenance; and additionally a large amount of energy (adapted from Wikipedia (2012)).
[/no-ecompendium]
[ecomp-appropriateness]

Health Aspects/Acceptance

[no-ecompendium]Operation and maintenance of activated sludge system is generally carried out by skilled labourers,
which should be sufficiently well trained regarding any health risks. [/no-ecompendium]Because of space requirements
and odours, Centralized Treatment facilities are generally located in the periphery of densely populated areas. Although
the effluent produced is of high quality, it still poses a health risk and should not be directly handled[no-ecompendium]
but undergo an appropriate disinfection treatment before discharge (e.g. UV-light, chlorination)[/no-ecompendium]. In
the excess sludge pathogens are substantially reduced, but not eliminated. [no-ecompendium]Excess sludge contains even
higher amounts of microorganisms, as well as phosphorus and heavy metals if they are present in the influent
wastewater. This can be the case because the wastewater treated in such reactors generally comes from an array of
different sources (domestic, industrial and stormwater), which makes it a hard-to-treat mixture and therefore also a
difficult resource to recycle. Hence, the sludge generally needs to be thickened and incinerated with the ashes being
stored in a controlled landfill.[/no-ecompendium]

Operation & Maintenance

Highly trained staff is required for maintenance and trouble-shooting. The mechanical equipment (mixers, aerators and
pumps) must be constantly maintained.[no-ecompendium] A continuous supply of oxygen and sludge is essential (WSP
2008). Control of concentrations of sludge and oxygen levels in the aeration tanks is required and technical appliances
(e.g. pH-meter, temperature, oxygen content etc.) need to be maintained carefully.[/no-ecompendium] As well, the
influent and effluent must be constantly monitored and the control parameters adjusted, if necessary, to avoid
abnormalities that could kill the active biomass and the development of detrimental organisms which could impair the
process (e.g., filamentous bacteria).
[no-ecompendium]Two of the most serious problems with the activated-sludge process are (1) a phenomenon known as
bulking, in which the sludge from the aeration tank will not settle, and (2) the development of biological surface foam
(CRITES & TCHOBANOGLOUS 1998). Bulking can be caused either by organisms that grow in filamentous form instead of
flocs and will not settle, or the growth of microorganisms that incorporate large volumes of water into their cell
structure, making their density near that of water. Foaming is caused most often by the excessive growth of an organism
called Nocardia (CRITES & TCHOBANOGLOUS 1998). Filamentous organisms can be controlled by the addition of chemicals
(e.g. chlorine or hydrogen peroxide) to the recycled activated sludge; the alteration of the dissolved-oxygen
concentration in the aeration tank; the addition of nutrients and growth factors to favour other microorganisms etc.
Nocardia can be controlled by avoiding the recycling of the skimmed foam or the addition of a chemical agent (e.g.
polymers or chlorine) on the surface (CRITES & TCHOBANOGLOUS 1998).

At a Glance
Activated sludge consisting of suspended flocs of active bacteria is mixed with the wastewater. The
organic pollutants are used for growth by bacteria and thereby transformed to water, CO2 and new
Working Principle cell material. Nitrogen is removed by nitrification/denitrification and phosphorus is either removed
chemically or biologically and accumulated in the excess sludge. Excess sludge requires a further
treatment chain.
High-tech centralized system, not adapted for small communities. Almost every wastewater can be
Capacity/Adequacy treated as long as it is biodegradable. Usually applied in densely populated areas for treatment of
domestic wastewater.
80 to almost 100% BOD and TSS removal. High nitrogen removal. P accumulated in biomass and
Performance
sludge. Low pathogen removal. HRT of some hours up to several days
Very high construction and maintenance costs; operation very expensive due to requirement of
Costs
permanent professional operation, high electricity consumption and costly mechanical parts.
Self-help
System parts not locally available; implementation only possible by experienced consultant firms.
Compatibility
O&M
Activated sludge units require professional operation and maintenance providers.
Reliability
Fails in case of power failure or fall-out of technical equipment.
Main strength
High removal efficiency for large range of wastewaters.
Highly mechanized system requiring expert design, operation and maintenance as well as mechanical
Main weakness
spare parts. Large energy requirements (e.g. for aeration).
[/no-ecompendium]

Applicability
An activated sludge process is only appropriate for a Centralized Treatment facility[no-ecompendium] (SASSE 1996;

TILLEY et al. 2008)[/no-ecompendium] with[no-ecompendium] the construction of long distance sewage channels,
[/no-ecompendium] a well-trained staff, constant electricity[no-ecompendium], technical equipment (e.g. spare parts,
monitoring appliances), the funding for all of this,[/no-ecompendium] and a highly developed management system that
ensures that the facility is correctly [2396-operated and maintained].
Because of economies of scale and less fluctuating influent characteristics, this technology is more effective for the
treatment of large volumes of flows [no-ecompendium]of municipal wastewater from medium to large towns (WSP 2008)
of 10000 up to 1 million population equivalent (SANIMAS 2005; TILLEY et al. 2008)[/no-ecompendium].
An activated sludge process is appropriate in almost every climate[no-ecompendium] for the removal of both settable
(physical primary treatment) and dissolved, colloidal and particulate organic matter and nutrients (biological removal in
the activated sludge)[/no-ecompendium]. However, treatment capacity is reduced in colder environments.

Advantages
Resistant to organic and hydraulic shock loads
Can be operated at a range of organic and hydraulic loading rates
High reduction of BOD and pathogens (up to 99%) at after secondary treatment
High nutrient removal possible
High effluent quality
Little land required compared to extensive natural system (e.g. waste stabilisation ponds)
Can be modified to meet specific discharge limits

Disadvantages
High energy consumption, a constant source of electricity is required - High capital and operating costs
High capital and operating costs
Requires operation and maintenance by skilled personnel
Prone to complicated chemical and microbiological problems
Not suitable for application on community level
Not all parts and materials may be locally available
Requires expert design and construction
Sludge and possibly effluent require further treatment and/or appropriate discharge

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For further readings, case studies, awareness raising material, training material, important weblinks or the related
powerpoint presentation, see www.sswm.info/category/implementation-tools/wastewater-treatment/hardware
/semi-centralised-wastewater-treatments-3