Suprasegments of speech

Vowels and consonants are the basic segments of speech. Together, they form syllables,
larger units, and eventually utterances. Superimposed on the segments are a number of
additional features known as suprasegmental or prosodic features. They do not
characterize a single segment but a succession of segments. The most important
suprasegmental features are:
Stress, loudness
Pitch
Length
Additionally, there are articulatory phenomena that stretch over more than one segment.
The most important one is referred to as Secondary articulation.

Stress, loudness
In a spoken utterance the syllables are normally not produced with the same intensity.
Some syllables are unstressed (weaker), others stressed (stronger).
A stressed syllable is produced by an increase in respiratory activity, i.e. more air
is pushed out of the lungs.
From the listeners point of view, stressed syllables can be identified by a
combination of properties, such as: loudness, pitch, vowel length.
In long words, more than one syllable may be stressed and it seems suitable to
assign degrees of stress to the syllables in it.

Pitch
During speech, pitch is changing continuously; there are no steady-state pitches.
Throughout every syllable in a normal conversational utterance the pitch is going up and
down.
The pattern of pitch changes that occurs in these examples is referred to as
intonation.
The phonetic analysis of intonation is primarily concerned with the exact
description of it. Phonology, by contrast, seeks to investigate the function of intonation
across languages, that is, the ways in which intonational changes may affect the meaning
of utterances.
Phonetic analysis of intonation: Tone units
When we listen to a stretch of speech of some length, it becomes apparent that it is
organized into tone-groups ([ ]).
Every tone-group contains a NUCLEUS, that is, a syllable that is more prominent
that any other syllable in the same tone-group. The pitch associated with the nucleus is
referred to as nuclear tone. The syllables preceding the nucleus make up its head. The
syllables following its tail.
e.g.

[The intonation of a LANguage]

[can be described]

[as its MElody]

In a large group of languages, the so-called tone languages, pitch operates on words to
change their shape and alter their meaning.
Tone languages:
Pitch variations that affect the meaning of a word are called tones. A language that uses
this technique is referred to as tone language.
The simplest kind of tone language uses two possible tones, high and low. Such
languages are called register tone languages (Bantu languages).
More complex tone systems use contour tones, i.e. tones involving gliding
movements (Vietnamese, Mandarin).
e.g.
ma high level = mother
high rising = hemp
low falling = horse
high falling = scold
Length
The length (physical counterpart = duration) of sounds, syllables, words, and utterances is
variable and the variations are used for a variety of linguistic purpose.
Vowel length is used to distinguish types of vowels in various languages.
Depending on the position within utterances, syllable length may be varied to
express certain attitudes.
The changing of the overall tempo of utterances may increase or decrease their
general character.

Secondary articulation
Secondary articulation is defined as an articulation with a lesser degree of closure
occurring at the same time as another (primary) articulation. Generally, four types are
considered:
Palatalization: addition of a high front tongue position to another articulation
Velarization: raising the back of the tongue during another articulation
Pharyngealization: superimposition of a narrowing of the pharynx
Labialization: addition of lip rounding