Folland: Real Analysis, Chapter 4

Sebastien Picard

Problem 4.19
Q
If {X } is a family of topological spaces, X = X (with the product topology) is uniquely determined up to homeomorphism by the following property: There exist continuous maps : X X
such that if Y is any topological space and f C(Y, X ) for each , there is a unique F C(Y, X)
such that f = F .
Solution:
Q
First, we show that if X = A X with the product topology, then the coordinate maps :
X X are such that if Y is any topological space and f C(Y, X ) for each , there is a unique
F C(Y, X) such that f = F .
Q
Indeed, define
F
:
Y

X
in
the
following
way:
for
any
y

Y
,
let
F
(y)

A X be the map
S
F (y) : A A X such that (F (y)) = f (y) for each A. It then follows from the definition of
the coordinate maps that for any y Y , F (y) = (F (y)) = f (y). Since the f are continuous,
F is continuous for each , hence F is continuous by Proposition 4.11.
For uniqueness, let F C(Y, X) be such that f = F . Suppose there exists y Y such that

F (y) 6= F (y). Then there is an A such that (F (y)) 6= (F (y)). But then
f (y) = F (y) = (F (y)) 6= (F (y)) = F (y) = f (y).
This contradiction shows that F = F .
Next, we show that up to homeomorphism, the product topology is the only space with this
property. Let X be a topological space such that there exists continuous maps : X X such
that if Y is any topological space and f C(Y, X ) for each , there is a unique F C(Y, X ) such
that f = F .
Let G : X X be the continuous function such that = G and G : X X be the
continuous function such that = G . To complete the proof, we will show that G G =
G G = id. We have
(G G) = ( G ) G = G = ,
hence = id = (G G). Since C(X, X ), by uniqueness we must have id = G G.
Similarly,
(G G ) = ( G) G = G = id,
and by uniquenes we must have id = G G .

Problem 4.22
Let X be a topological space, (Y, ) a complete metric space, and {fn } a sequence in Y X such that
supxX (fn (x), fm (x)) 0 as m, n . There is a unique f Y X such that supxX (fn (x), f (x))
0 as n . If each fn is continuous, so is f .
Solution:
For each x X, we have (fn (x), fm (x)) supzX (fn (z), fm (z)) 0 as m, n . Since (Y, )
is complete, {fn (x)} is a Cauchy sequence, hence converges to a point in Y which we may call f (x).
Therefore {fn } converges pointwise to a function f Y X . For any > 0, there exists a positive
integer N such that when m, n > N we have (fn (x), fm (x)) for all x X. If we fix n and let
m , we obtain
(fn (x), f (x)) .
Since this holds for all x X, we have supxX (fn (x), f (x)) 0 as n .
Suppose there exists another function g Y X such that supxX (fn (x), g(x)) 0 as n . If
for some x X, f (x) 6= g(x), then
lim fn (x) = f (x) 6= g(x) = lim fn (x),

which contradicts uniqueness of the limit of a sequence in a metric space.

Suppose each fn is continuous. Let > 0 and let x X. Choose a positive integer N such that
(fN (z), f (z)) < /3 for all z X. Choose > 0 such that (fN (x), fN (y)) < /3 for all y X such
that (x, y) < . Then we have
(f (x), f (y)) (f (x), fN (x)) + (fN (x), fN (y)) + (fN (y), f (y)) /3 + /3 + /3 = ,
for all y Y such that (x, y) < . This proves continuity of f .

Problem 4.28
the set of equivalence classes, :
Let X be a topological space equipped with an equivalence relation, X
the map taking each x X to its equivalence class, and T = {U X
: 1 (U) is open in X}.
XX
(It is called the quotient topology.)
a. T is a topology on X.
Y is continuous iff f is continuous.
b. If Y is a topological space, f : X
is T1 iff every equivalence class is closed.
c. X
Solution:
= X hence X
T.
a. Since 1 () = , then T , and since is a surjection, 1 (X)
Next, suppose {U }J T . Then
[
[
1 (
U ) =
1 (U ),
J

hence

U T . Similarly, if Ui T for i {1, . . . , n}, then

1

n
\

Ui ) =

i=1

n
\

i=1

1 (Ui ).

 Y is continub. The quotient topology is defined such that is continuous. Suppose f : X

ous. Then f is the composition of continuous functions, hence is continuous. Conversely, suppose
f is continuous. Then for all open sets V Y , 1 f 1 (V ) is open in X, so f 1 (V ) is in T .
Therefore f is continuous.
is T1 . Then {x} is closed for every x X
(Proposition 4.7). By continuity, 1 ({x}) is
c. Suppose X
closed. Therefore equivalence classes are closed. Conversely, suppose every equivalence class is closed.
Then ( 1 ({x}))c = 1 ({x}c ) is open, hence {x}c T , so
Then 1 ({x}) is closed for every x X.
Therefore X
is T1 (Proposition 4.7).
{x} is closed in X.

Problem 4.32
A topological space X is Hausdorff iff every net in X converges to at most one point.
Solution:
Suppose X is Hausdorff and there is a net hx iA that converges to two points x, y. There exists
disjoint open sets U, V such that x U, y V . But then there exists 1 A such that x U for
all & 1 and 2 A such that x V for all & 2 . There exists a A such that & 1 and
& 2 , so U V . This contradiction shows that every net in X converges to at most one point.
Conversely, suppose X is not Hausdorff. Then there exists two points x, y X such that every pair of open sets U, V such that x U, y V has a non-empty intersection. Consider the directed
set Nx Ny , where Nx , Ny are the families of open neighbourhoods of x, y and (U1 , V1 ) . (U2 , V2 ) iff
U1 U2 and V1 V2 . Define the net hx iNx Ny by mapping (U, V ) Nx Ny to a point z U V .
For any open set U containing x, let V be an arbitrary open set containing y. It follows that
for every (U, V ) & (U , V ) we have x(U,V ) U . Hence hx iNx Ny converges to x. Similarly, for
be an arbitrary open set containing x. It follows that for every
any open set V containing y, let U
(U, V ) & (U , V ) we have x(U,V ) V . Hence hx iNx Ny converges to y. Therefore there exists a net
in X which converges to more than one point.

Problem 4.34
If X has the weak topology generated by a family F of functions, then hx i converges to x X iff
hf (x )i converges to f (x) for all f F .
Solution:
Suppose hx i converges to x X. Since every f F is continuous, hf (x )i converges to f (x) for
all f F by Proposition 4.19.
Conversely, suppose hf (x )i converges to f (x) for all f F . Let U be an open set such that
x U. By the definition weak topology generated by F , there exists an open set U U such that
x U and
n
\

U =
fi1 (Vi )
i=1

where fi F and Vi are open sets in the target space of fi . Then for each integer i between 1 and n,
there exists an i such that fi (x ) Vi for all & i . Take & i for all integers i between 1 and
n. Then when & , we have x fi1 (Vi ) for all integers i between 1 and n. Hence x U U
for all & .

Problem 4.52
The one-point compactification of Rn is homeomorphic to the n-sphere Sn = {x Rn+1 : |x| = 1}.
Solution:
Denote N = (0, . . . , 0, 1) Sn Rn+1 . Then the stereographic projection : Sn \{N} Rn
defined by
(x1 , . . . , xn )
(x1 , . . . , xn+1 ) =
1 xn+1
is a homeomorphism. It is easy to see that the mapping is continuous. Its inverse is given by the
continous map
(2u1 , . . . , 2un , |u|2 1)
.
1 (u1 , . . . , un ) =
|u|2 + 1
Indeed, 1 = id:

(2u1, . . . , 2un , |u|2 1)
(u , . . . , u ) =
|u|2 + 1
(2u1, . . . , 2un )
=
(|u|2 + 1)(1 (|u|2 1)(|u|2 + 1)1 )
|u|2 + 1
=
(2u1 , . . . , 2un )
(|u|2 + 1)(|u|2 + 1 (|u|2 1)
= (u1 , . . . , un )
1

Also, 1 = id:

n+1

(x , . . . , x

)=
=

1+


(x1 , . . . , xn )
1 xn+1
1
n
X
(xi )2
i=1

(1 xn+1 )2

X
(xi )2
2xn
2x1
,
.
.
.
,
,
1)
(
1 xn+1
1 xn+1 i=1 (1 xn+1 )2
n

X (xi )2 (1 xn+1 )2
2x1
2xn
(1 xn+1 )2
P
(
,
.
.
.
,
,
)
=
n
(1 xn+1 )2 + i=1 (xi )2 1 xn+1
1 xn+1 i=1
(1 xn+1 )2

(1 xn+1 )2
2x1
2xn
1 (xn+1 )2 (1 xn+1 )2
(
,
.
.
.
,
,
)
(1 xn+1 )2 + 1 (xn+1 )2 1 xn+1
1 xn+1
(1 xn+1 )2
(1 xn+1 )2
2x1
2xn
2xn+1 2(xn+1 )2
=
(
,
.
.
.
,
,
)
2 2xn+1 1 xn+1
1 xn+1
(1 xn+1 )2
= (x1 , . . . , xn+1 )
=

Hence we have shown that Rn is homeomorphic to Sn \{N}. It follows that their one-point compactifications are homeomorphic. It is clear from the definition that the one-point compactification
of Sn \{N} is Sn , hence the one-point compactification of Rn is homeomorphic to Sn .
4

Problem 4.60
The product of countably many sequentially compact spaces is sequentially compact.
Solution: Q

Let X = iN Xi , and let {xj }

j=1 be a sequence in X. Then there exists a subsequence {xnj }j=1
1
of {xj } such that {1 (xnj ))}
j=1 converges in X1 . Denote it by {xj }j=1 . Proceeding inductively, for
k1
k N we obtain a subsequence {xkj }
}j=1 such that {k (xkj )}
j=1 of {xj
j=1 converges is Xk . Let
k

yk = xk . Then {yk }k=1 is a subsequence of {xj }j=1 such that {i (yk )}k=1 converges in Xi for all
positive integers i. By Problem 4.34 (proved above), we can conclude that {yk }
k=1 converges in X.

Problem 4.64
Let (X, ) be a metric space. A function f C(X) is called Holder continuous of exponent ( > 0)
if the quantity
|f (x) f (y)|
N (f ) = sup
(x, y)
x6=y
is finite. If X is compact, {f C(X) : ||f ||u 1 and N (F ) 1} is compact in C(X).
Solution:
Denote F = {f C(X) : ||f ||u 1 and N (F ) 1}. It is clear from the definition that F is
pointwise bounded. Let > 0, x X, and = 1/ . Then for all y X such that (x, y) < , we
have
|f (x) f (y)| (x, y) <
for all f F . Hence F is equicontinuous.
By Arzela-Ascoli, the closure of F in C(X) is compact. We show that F is equal to its closure in C(X) to complete the proof.
Suppose {fn } F and ||fn f ||u 0. We will show that f F . For all > 0, there exists an
n N such that
||f ||u ||f fn ||u + ||fn ||u 1 + .
Since this holds for all > 0, we can conclude that ||f ||u 1.
Next, fix x, y X. Let > 0, and choose n N such that ||fn f ||u < /2. Then
|f (x) f (y)|
|f (x) fn (x)| + |fn (x) fn (y)| + |fn (y) f (y)|

(x, y)
(x, y)
|fn (x) fn (y)|

(x, y)
(x, y)

1+
(x, y)

Since this holds for all > 0, we can conclude that

|f (x) f (y)|
1.
(x, y)
This is true for all x, y X, therefore it follows that
sup
x6=y

|f (x) f (y)|
1.
(x, y)

Hence f F , and therefore F is closed in C(X).