The History Of Slavery

Indentured Servants

Wikipedia

History of slavery

History of slavery
The history of slavery covers slave systems in historical perspective in which one human being is legally the
property of another, can be bought or sold, is not allowed to escape and must work for the owner without any choice
involved. As Drescher (2009) argues, "The most crucial and frequently utilized aspect of the condition is a
communally recognized right by some individuals to possess, buy, sell, discipline, transport, liberate, or otherwise
dispose of the bodies and behavior of other individuals."[1] An integral element is that children of a slave mother
automatically become slaves.[2] It does not include historical forced labor by prisoners, labor camps, or other forms
of unfree labor in which laborers are not considered property.
Slavery can be traced back to the earliest records, such as the Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760BC), which refers to it as
an established institution.[3] Slavery is rare among hunter-gatherer populations as slavery depends on a system of
social stratification. Slavery typically also requires a shortage of labor and a surplus of land to be viable.[4] David P.
Forsythe wrote: "The fact remained that at the beginning of the nineteenth century an estimated three-quarters of all
people alive were trapped in bondage against their will either in some form of slavery or serfdom."[5]
Slavery is no longer legal anywhere in the world.[6] Mauritania abolished it in law in 1981[7] and was the last country
to do so see Abolition of slavery timeline. However, the number of slaves today is higher than at any point in
history,[8] remaining as high as 12 million[9] to 27 million.[10][11]

Origins
Evidence of slavery predates written records, and has existed in
many cultures.[12] Slavery is rare among huntergatherer
populations, as slavery is a system of social stratification. Mass
slavery also requires economic surpluses and a high population
density to be viable. Due to these factors, the practice of slavery
would have only proliferated after the invention of agriculture
during the Neolithic Revolution about 11,000 years ago.[4]
Slavery was known in civilizations as old as Sumer, as well as
almost every other ancient civilization, including Ancient Egypt,
Ancient China, the Akkadian Empire, Assyria, Ancient India,
Ancient Greece, the Roman Empire, the Islamic Caliphate, and the
pre-Columbian civilizations of the Americas.[12] Such institutions
were a mixture of debt-slavery, punishment for crime, the
enslavement of prisoners of war, child abandonment, and the birth
of slave children to slaves.[13]

C. 1480 BC, fugitive slave treaty between Idrimi of

Alakakh (now Tell Atchana) and Pillia of Kizzuwatna
(now Cilicia).

History of slavery

Middle East and North Africa

Ancient times
The earliest records of slavery can be traced to the oldest
known records, which treat it as an established institution, not
one newly instituted. The Sumerian Code of Ur-Nammu (c.
2100 BC 2050 BC), the oldest known tablet containing a
law code surviving to today, contains laws regarding to slaves.
The Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BC), for example, stated
that death was prescribed for anyone who helped a slave to
escape, as well as for anyone who sheltered a fugitive.[15] The
Bible refers to slavery as an established institution.[12] Hittite
texts from Anatolia include laws regulating the institution of
slavery.
In Egypt, private ownership of slaves, captured in war and
given by the king to their captor, certainly occurred at the
beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty (1550 1295 BC). Sales
of slaves occurred in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (732 656
BC), and contracts of servitude survive from the Twenty-sixth
Dynasty (c. 672 525 BC) and from the reign of Darius:
apparently such a contract then required the consent of the
slave.

13th-century slave market in Yemen

Medieval period
Slavery was common in Medieval Europe in both Christian
and Muslim lands.[16]
The Arab slave trade lasted more than a millennium.[17][18]
Slaves in the Arab World came from many different regions,
including Sub-Saharan Africa (mainly Zanj), the Caucasus
(mainly Circassians),[19] Central Asia (mainly Tartars), and
Central and Eastern Europe (mainly Saqaliba).[20]
The medieval scholar and traveler Ibn Battuta states several
times that he was given or purchased slaves.[21] The Arab
slave trade is thought to have originated with trans-Saharan
Capt. William Bainbridge paying tribute to the
[22][23]
Dey of Algiers. Gradually in the 18th century
slavery.
Arab, Indian, Somali and Asian traders were
slave raids became less frequent, but the Barbary
involved in the capture and transport of slaves northward
pirates continued to enslave captured crews.
across the Sahara desert and the Indian Ocean region into
Payments in ransom and tribute to the Barbary
Arabia and the Middle East, Persia, Somalia, Central Asia and
states amounted to 20% of United States
[14]
[24][25]
government
annual revenues in 1800.
the Indian subcontinent.
The slave trade from East
Africa to Arabia was dominated by Arab and Somali traders in
the coastal cities of Zanzibar, Dar Es Salaam and Mombasa.[25][26] Tens of thousands of black Zanj slaves were
imported to lower Iraq, where they may have, according to Richard Hellie, constituted at least a half of the total
population there in the 9th and 10th centuries. At the same time, many tens of thousands of slaves in the region were
also imported from Central Asia and the Caucasus.[27]

History of slavery

Male slaves were employed as servants, soldiers, or laborers, while

female slaves were traded to Middle Eastern countries and kingdoms
by Arab, Indian, Somali or Asian traders, some as domestic servants
and others in harems.[28][29][30] Some historians estimate that between
11 and 17 million slaves crossed the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and
Sahara Desert from 650 to 1900AD.[31][32] The Moors, starting in the
8th century, raided coastal areas around the Mediterranean and Atlantic
Ocean, and became known as the Barbary pirates. It is estimated that
they captured 1.25 million slaves from Western Europe and North
America between the 16th and 19th centuries.[33][34]
In 1400 Tamerlane invaded the Kingdom of Georgia and its fief
Newly Arrived at the harem (Giulio Rosati)
Armenia. More than 60,000 people from the Caucasus were captured
as slaves, and many districts of Armenia were depopulated.[35] From
1569 the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth suffered a series of Tatar invasions, the goal of which was to loot,
pillage and capture slaves into jasyr. The borderland area to the south-east was in a state of semi-permanent warfare
until the 18th century. Some researchers estimate that altogether more than 3 million people, predominantly
Ukrainians but also Circassians, Russians, Belarusians, Poles and Jews were captured and enslaved during the time
of the Crimean Khanate.[20][36] Russian conquest of the Crimea led to the abolition of slavery by the 1780s.[37]
Slavery was an important part of Ottoman society.[38] In Constantinople (today Istanbul), about 1/5 of the population
consisted of slaves.[39] As late as 1908 women slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire.[40] In the middle of the
14th century, Murad I built his own personal slave army called the Kapkulu. The new force was based on the
sultan's right to a fifth of the war booty, which he interpreted to include captives taken in battle. The captive slaves
were converted to Islam and trained in the sultan's personal service. In the devirme (Turkish for 'gathering'), young
Christian boys from the Balkans were taken away from their homes and families, converted to Islam and enlisted
into special soldier classes of the Ottoman army or the civil service. These soldier classes were named Janissaries,
the most famous branch of the Kapkulu. The Janissaries eventually became a decisive factor in the Ottoman
invasions of Europe.[41] Most of the military commanders of the Ottoman forces, imperial administrators and de
facto rulers of the Ottoman Empire, such as Pargal brahim Pasha and Sokollu Mehmet Paa, were recruited in this
way.[42][43] By 1609 the Sultan's Kapkulu forces increased to about 100,000.[44] By this time however, the
expeditions for young Christian boys were rare. The increased numbers of janissaries came from Muslim peasants
who were now allowed into service as a result of increased military demands of 17th-century warfare.
The Mamluks were slave soldiers who converted to Islam and served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans
during the Middle Ages. The first mamluks served the Abbasid caliphs in 9th-century Baghdad. Over time they
became a powerful military caste, and on more than one occasion they seized power for themselves, for example,
ruling Egypt in the years 12501517. From 1250 Egypt had been ruled by the Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk origin.
White slaves from the Caucasus served in the army and formed an elite corps of troops eventually revolting in Egypt
to form the Burgi dynasty. Mamluks were mainly responsible for the expulsion of the Crusaders from Palestine and
preventing the Mongol Ilkhanate of Persia and Iraq from entering Egypt.[45]
The Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail "the Bloodthirsty" (16721727) raised a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called
his Black Guard, who coerced the country into submission.[46]
Nautical traders from the United States became targets, and frequent victims, of the Barbary pirates, as soon as that
nation began trading with Europe and refused to pay the required tribute to the North African states.[47][48]

History of slavery

Barbary pirates
According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25
million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates
and sold as slaves in North Africa and Ottoman Empire
between the 16th and 19th centuries.[49] The coastal
villages and towns of Italy, Portugal, Spain and
Mediterranean islands were frequently attacked by
them and long stretches of the Italian, Portuguese and
Spanish coasts were almost completely abandoned by
their inhabitants; after 1600 Barbary pirates
occasionally entered the Atlantic and struck as far north
as Iceland.[50]
In 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa captured Ischia, taking
British captain witnessing the miseries of the Christian slaves in
4,000 prisoners in the process, and deported to slavery
Algiers, 1815
some 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari, almost the entire
population.[51] In 1551, Turgut Reis (known as Dragut in the West) enslaved the entire population of the Maltese
island Gozo, between 5,000 and 6,000, sending them to Libya. When pirates sacked Vieste in southern Italy in 1554
they took 7,000 slaves. In 1555, Turgut Reis sailed to Corsica and ransacked Bastia, taking 6,000 prisoners. In 1558
Barbary corsairs captured the town of Ciutadella (Minorca), destroyed it, slaughtered the inhabitants and carried off
3,000 survivors to Istanbul as slaves.[52] In 1563 Turgut Reis landed at the shores of the province of Granada, Spain,
and captured the coastal settlements in the area like Almucar, along with 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates
frequently attacked the Balearic islands, resulting in many coastal watchtowers and fortified churches being erected.
The threat was so severe that the island of Formentera became uninhabited.[53][54][55]
In Portugal for instance, the coastal city of Nazar was raided several times during until the 16th century when the
local fortress was built (according to Pedro Penteado and his book based in the historical ecclesiastic diaries of
Nazar). The city of Lisbon built the Torre de Belm to defend the capital against these pirates.
Between 1609 and 1616 England alone had a staggering 466 merchant ships lost to Barbary pirates. 160 English
ships were captured by Algerians between 1677 and 1680.[56] Slave-taking persisted into the 19th century when
Barbary pirates would capture ships and enslave the crew.[57] Even the United States was not immune. In 1783 the
United States made peace with, and gained recognition from, the British monarchy, and in 1784 the first American
ship was seized by pirates from Morocco. Payments in ransom and tribute to the Barbary states amounted to 20% of
United States government annual revenues in 1800.[14] It was not until 1815 that naval victories in the Barbary Wars
ended tribute payments by the U.S., although some European nations continued annual payments until the 1830s.[47]
Among the most important slave markets where Pirates operated in Mediterranean Europe were the ports of Majorca,
Toulon, Marseille, Genoa, Pisa, Livorno and Malta. In Africa, the most important were the ports of Morocco,
Tripoli, Algiers and Tunis.[58]

History of slavery

Asia
Indian subcontinent
Slavery in India is evidenced since ancient times.[59] Manu the
Lawgiver, in his Manu Smriti lists seven different kinds of
slaves.[59] The nature of slavery in India was extremely complex
and cut across boundaries of caste, gender, kin, religion, and
role.[59]
The early Arab invaders of Sind in the 8th century, the armies of
the Umayyad commander Muhammad bin Qasim, are reported to
have enslaved tens of thousands of Indian prisoners, including
both soldiers and civilians.[60][61] In the early 11th century Tarikh
al-Yamini, the Arab historian Al-Utbi recorded that in 1001 the
armies of Mahmud of Ghazna conquered Peshawar and Waihand
(capital of Gandhara) after Battle of Peshawar (1001), "in the
midst of the land of Hindustan", and captured some 100,000
youths.[62][63] Later, following his twelfth expedition into India in
101819, Mahmud is reported to have returned with such a large
Selling a child-slave in Central Asia. By Vasily
number of slaves that their value was reduced to only two to ten
Vereshchagin
dirhams each. This unusually low price made, according to
Al-Utbi, "merchants [come] from distant cities to purchase them, so that the countries of Central Asia, Iraq and
Khurasan were swelled with them, and the fair and the dark, the rich and the poor, mingled in one common slavery".
Elliot and Dowson refers to "five hundred thousand slaves, beautiful men and women.".[64][65][66] Later, during the
Delhi Sultanate period (12061555), references to the abundant availability of low-priced Indian slaves abound. Levi
attributes this primarily to the vast human resources of India, compared to its neighbours to the north and west
(Mughal Indian population being approximately 12 to 20 times that of Turan and Iran at the end of the 16th century)
.[67]
Arab slave traders also brought slaves as early as the 1st century AD from Africa. Most of the African slaves were
brought, however, in the 17th century and were taken into Western India. The Siddi people are of mainly East
African descent.
Much of the northern and central parts of the subcontinent was ruled by the so-called Slave Dynasty of Turkic origin
from 1206 to 1290: Qutb-ud-din Aybak, a slave of Muhammad Ghori rose to power following his master's death. For
almost a century, his descendants ruled presiding over the introduction of Tankas and building of Qutub Minar.
According to Sir Henry Bartle Frere (who sat on the Viceroy's Council), there were an estimated 8,000,000 or
9,000,000 slaves in India in 1841. In Malabar, about 15% of the population were slaves. Slavery was officially
abolished in India by the Indian Slavery Act V. of 1843. Provisions of the Indian Penal Code of 1861 effectively
abolished slavery in India by making the enslavement of human beings a criminal offense.[68][69][70][71]
Modern times
There are several million bonded laborers in India,[72] who work as slaves to pay off debts; a majority of them are
Dalits.[73] There are also an estimated five million bonded workers in Pakistan, even though the government has
passed laws and set up funds to eradicate the practice and rehabilitate the labourers.[74] As many as 200,000 Nepali
girls, many under 14, have been sold into sex slavery in India. Nepalese women and girls, especially virgins, are
favored in India because of their fair skin and young looks.[75][76] In 1997, a human rights agency reported that
40,000 Nepalese workers are subject to slavery and 200,000 kept in bonded labour.[77] Nepal's Maoist-led

History of slavery
government has abolished the slavery-like Haliya system in 2008.[78]

Afghanistan
"The country generally between Caubul (Kabul) and the Oxus appears to be in a very lawless state; slavery is
as rife as ever, and extends through Hazara, Badakshan, Wakhan, Sirikul, Kunjt (Hunza), &c. A slave, if a
strong man likely to stand work well, is, in Upper Badakshan, considered to be of the same value as one of the
large dogs of the country, or of a horse, being about the equivalent of Rs 80. A slave girl is valued at from four
horses or more, according to her looks &c.; men are, however, almost always exchanged for dogs. When I was
in Little Tibet (Ladakh), a returned slave who had been in the Kashmir army took refuge in my camp; he said
he was well enough treated as to food &c., but he could never get over having been exchanged for a dog, and
constantly harped on the subject, the man who sold him evidently thinking the dog the better animal of the
two. In Lower Badakshan, and more distant places, the price of slaves is much enhanced, and payment is made
in coin."[79]
In response to the Hazara uprising of 1892, the Afghan Emir Abdur Rahman Khan declared a "Jihad" against the
Shiites. His large army defeated the rebellion at its center, in Oruzgan, by 1892 and the local population was being
massacred. According to S. A. Mousavi, "thousands of Hazara men, women, and children were sold as slaves in the
markets of Kabul and Qandahar, while numerous towers of human heads were made from the defeated rebels as a
warning to others who might challenge the rule of the Amir". Until the 20th century, some Hazaras were still kept as
slaves by the Pashtuns; although Amanullah Khan banned slavery in Afghanistan during his reign,[80] the practice
carried on unofficially for many more years.[81]

China
Slavery throughout pre-modern Chinese history has repeatedly come in and out of favor. Due to the enormous
population and relatively high development of the region throughout most of its history, China has always had a
large workforce.
Historically, Chinese families customarily had an average of four children or more. This custom was well suited to
the agrarian societies of the period. In times of hardship such as widespread famine or severe financial difficulty,
parents of poor families sold some of their children to wealthy homes, to be treated as future brides, servants or
slaves. This depended on the compassion and good grace of the master. However, more often it was teenagers or
young adults who turned themselves in to become servants. They were not technically slaves since they received
periodic payments, which they usually sent home to their families.

History of slavery

Tang Dynasty
During the Tang dynasty, Chinese captured Korean civilians from
Koguryo, Paekche, and Silla to sell as slaves.[82][83]
Qing Dynasty
In the 17th century Qing Dynasty, there was a hereditarily servile
people called Booi Aha (Manchu:booi niyalma; Chinese transliteration:
), which is a Manchu word literally translated as
"household person" and sometimes rendered as "nucai" or "slaves".
In his book China Marches West, Peter C. Perdue stated:"In
1624(After
Nurhachi's
invasion
of
Liaodong)
"Chinese
households....while those with less were made into slaves." The
Manchu was establishing close personal and paternalist relationship
between masters and their slaves, as Nurhachi said:" The Master
should love the slaves and eat the same food as him".[84] Perdue further
pointed out that booi aha "did not correspond exactly to the Chinese
category of "bondservant-slave" (Chinese: ); instead, it was a
relationship of personal dependency on a master which in theory
guaranteed close personal relationships and equal treatment, even
though many western scholars would directly translate "booi" as
"bondservant".[85]

A contract from the Tang dynasty that records the

purchase of a 15 year-old slave for six bolts of
plain silk and five Chinese coins.

Various classes of Booi

1. booi niru a Manchu word (Chinese: ), meaning Neiwufu Upper Three Banner's platoon leader of
about 300 men .
2. Booi guanlin a Manchu word (Chinese: ), meaning the manager of booi doing all the domestic duties
of Neiwufu.
3. Booi amban is also a Manchu word, meaning high official, (Chinese: ).
4. Estate bannerman (Chinese: ) are those renegade Chinese who joined the Jurchen, or original
civilians-soldiers working in the fields. These people were all turned into booi aha, or field slaves.
Chinese muslim (Tungans) Sufis who were charged with practicing xiejiao (heterodox religion), were punished by
exile to Xinjiang and being sold as a slave to other muslims, such as the Sufi begs.[86]
Han chinese who committed crimes such as those dealing with opium became slaves to the begs, this practice was
administered by Qing law.[87] Most Chinese in Altishahr were exile slaves to Turkestani Begs.[88] Ironically, while
free Chinese merchants generally did not engage in relationships with East Turkestani women, some of the Chinese
slaves belonging to begs, along with Green Standard soldiers, Bannermen, and Manchus, engaged in affairs with the
East Turkestani women that were serious in nature.[89]
The Qing dynasty procured 420 women and girl slaves, all of them Mongol, to service Oirat Mongol bannermen
stationed in Xinjiang in 1764.[90] Many Torghut Mongol boys and girls were sold to Central Asian markets or on the
local Xinjiang market to native Turkestanis.[91]
Here are two accounts of slavery given by two Westerners in the late 19th century and early 20th century:
"In the houses of wealthy citizens, it is not unusual to find twenty to thirty slaves attending upon a family.
Even citizens in the humbler walks of life deem it necessary to have each a slave or two. The price of a slave
varies, of course, according to age, health, strength, and general appearance. The average price is from fifty to
one hundred dollars, but in time of war, or revolution, poor parents, on the verge of starvation, offer their sons
and daughters for sale at remarkably low prices. I remember instances of parents, rendered destitute by the

History of slavery
marauding bands who invested the two southern Kwangs in 185455, offering to sell their daughters in Canton
for five dollars apiece. . . .
The slavery to which these unfortunate persons are subject, is perpetual and hereditary, and they have no
parental authority over their offspring. The great-grandsons of slaves, however, can, if they have sufficient
means, purchase their freedom. . . .
Masters seem to have the same uncontrolled power over their slaves that parents have over their children. Thus
a master is not called to account for the death of a slave, although it is the result of punishment inflicted by
him."[92]
"In former times slaves were slain and offered in sacrifice to the spirit of the owner when dead, or by him to
his ancestors: sometimes given as a substitute to suffer the death penalty incurred by his owner or in fulfilment
of a vow. It used to be customary in Kuei-chou (and Sz-chuan too, I believe) to inter living slaves with their
dead owners; the slaves were to keep a lamp burning in the tomb....
"Slavery exists in China, especially in Canton and Peking.... It is a common thing for well-to-do people to
present a couple of slave girls to a daughter as part of her marriage dowery [sic]. Nearly all prostitutes are
slaves. It is, however, customary with respectable people to release their slave girls when marriageable. Some
people sell their slave girls to men wanting a wife for themselves or for a son of theirs.
"I have bought three different girls: two in Sz-chuan for a few taels each, less than fifteen dollars. One I
released in Tientsin, another died in Hongkong; the other I gave in marriage to a faithful servant of mine.
Some are worth much money at Shanghai."[93]
Modern times
All forms of slavery have been illegal in China since 1910,[94] although the practice still exists through illegal
trafficking in some areas.[95]

Japan
Slavery in Japan was, for most of its history, indigenous, since the export and import of slaves was restricted by
Japan being a group of islands. However, Koreans were shipped to Japan as slaves during the Japanese invasions of
Korea in the 16th century.[96][97] The export of a slave from Japan is recorded in a 3rd-century Chinese document,
although the system involved is unclear. These people were called seiko ( ), lit. "living mouth". "Seiko" from
historical theories are thought to be as prisoner, slave, a person who has technical skill and also students studying
abroad to China.[98]
In the 8th century, a slave was called nuhi ( ) and a series of laws on slavery was issued. In an area of
present-day Ibaraki Prefecture, out of a population of 190,000, around 2,000 were slaves; the proportion is believed
to have been even higher in western Japan.
Slavery persisted into the Sengoku period (14671615), but the attitude that slavery was anachronistic had become
widespread.[99] Oda Nobunaga is said to have had an African slave or former-slave in his retinue.[100]
In late-16th-century Japan, slavery was officially banned; but forms of contract and indentured labor persisted
alongside the period penal codes' forced labor. Somewhat later, the Edo period penal laws prescribed "non-free
labor" for the immediate family of executed criminals in Article 17 of the Gotke reij (Tokugawa House Laws), but
the practice never became common. The 1711 Gotke reij was compiled from over 600 statutes promulgated
between 1597 and 1696.[101]

History of slavery
World War II
As the Empire of Japan annexed Asian countries, from the late 19th century onwards, archaic institutions including
slavery were abolished in those countries. However, during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War, the
Japanese military used millions of civilians and prisoners of war as forced labor, on projects such as the Burma
Railway.
According to a joint study by historians including Zhifen Ju, Mitsuyoshi Himeta, Toru Kubo and Mark Peattie, more
than 10 million Chinese civilians were mobilized by the Ka-in (Japanese Asia Development Board) for forced
labour.[102] According to the Japanese military's own record, nearly 25% of 140,000 Allied POWs died while
interned in Japanese prison camps where they were forced to work (U.S. POWs died at a rate of 37%).[103][104] More
than 100,000 civilians and POWs died in the construction of the Burma-Siam Railway.[105] The U.S. Library of
Congress estimates that in Java, between 4 and 10 million romusha (Japanese: "manual laborer"), were forced to
work by the Japanese military.[106] About 270,000 of these Javanese laborers were sent to other Japanese-held areas
in South East Asia. Only 52,000 were repatriated to Java, meaning that there was a death rate of 80%. (For further
details, see Japanese war crimes.)[107]
Approximately 5,400,000 Koreans were conscripted from 1939 to 1945. About 670,000 of them were taken to Japan,
where about 60,000 died between 1939 and 1945 due mostly to exhaustion or poor working conditions. Many of
those taken to Karafuto Prefecture (modern-day Sakhalin) were trapped there at the end of the war, stripped of their
nationality and denied repatriation by Japan; they became known as the Sakhalin Koreans.[108] The total deaths of
Korean forced laborers in Korea and Manchuria for those years is estimated to be between 270,000 and 810,000.[109]
As many as 200,000 women,[110] mostly from Korea and China, and some other countries such as the Philippines,
Taiwan, Burma, the Dutch East Indies, Netherlands,[111] and Australia[112] were forced into sexual slavery during
World War II. (See Comfort women)

Korea
Indigenous slaves existed in Korea. Slavery was officially abolished with the Gabo Reform of 1894 but remained
extant in reality until 1930. During the Joseon Dynasty (13921910), Korea was a hierarchical society, and slaves
accounted for 30 to 40 percent of society as well as half of the population in the capital. The lowest classes in Korea
were the Cheonmin, which included slaves called Nobi. Low status was hereditary, but members of higher classes
could be reduced to Cheonmin as a form of legal punishment.[113] During poor harvests and famine, many peasants
would voluntarily sell themselves into slavery in order to survive.[114][115][116] Cheonmin were looked down upon in
Korean society; however, they could have private property, while slaves could not own private property. Unless
freed by their masters, slaves were never able to move into a higher class.

Southeast Asia
There was a large slave class in Khmer Empire who built the enduring monuments in Angkor Wat and did most of
the heavy work.[117] Slaves had been taken captive from the mountain tribes.[118] People unable to pay back a debt to
the upper ruling class could be sentenced to work as a slave too.[119] Between the 17th and the early 20th centuries
one-quarter to one-third of the population of some areas of Thailand and Burma were slaves.[120]
In Siam (Thailand), the war captives became the property of the king. During the reign of Rama III (18241851),
there were an estimated 46,000 war slaves. Slaves from independent hill populations were "hunted incessantly and
carried off as slaves by the Siamese, the Anamites, and the Cambodians" (Colquhoun 1885:53).[121] Slavery was not
abolished in Siam until 1905.[122]
Yi people in Yunnan practiced a complicated form of slavery. People were split into the Black Yi (nobles, 7% of the
population), White Yi (commoners), Ajia (33% of the Yi population) and the Xiaxi (10%). Ajia and Xiaxi were slave
castes. The White Yi were not slaves but had no freedom of movement. The Black Yi were famous for their
slave-raids on Han Chinese communities. After 1959 some 700,000 slaves were freed.[123][124][125]

History of slavery
Slaves in Toraja society in Indonesia were family property. Sometimes Torajans decided to become slaves when they
incurred a debt, pledging to work as payment. Slaves could be taken during wars, and slave trading was common.
Torajan slaves were sold and shipped out to Java and Siam. Slaves could buy their freedom, but their children still
inherited slave status. Slaves were prohibited from wearing bronze or gold, carving their houses, eating from the
same dishes as their owners, or having sex with free womena crime punishable by death. Slavery was abolished in
1863 in all Dutch colonies.[126][127]
Slavery in pre-Spanish Philippines was practiced by the tribal Austronesian peoples who inhabited the culturally
diverse islands.
Modern times
There are currently an estimated 300,000 women and children involved in the sex trade throughout Southeast
Asia.[128] It is common that Thai women are lured to Japan and sold to Yakuza-controlled brothels where they are
forced to work off their price.[129][130]
According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), an estimated 800,000 people are subject to forced labor in
Myanmar.[131] In November 2006, the International Labor Organization announced it will be seeking "to prosecute
members of the ruling Myanmar junta for crimes against humanity" over the continuous forced labor of its citizens
by the military at the International Court of Justice.[132]
According to Kevin Bales, a professor of human rights and consultant to the United Nations, there are about 27
million slaves in the world, as of the year 2010. Professor Bales is co-founder of Free the Slaves, a
non-governmental organization.[133]

Crimean Khanate
In the time of the Crimean Khanate, Crimeans engaged in frequent raids into the Danubian principalities,
Poland-Lithuania, and Muscovy. For each captive, the khan received a fixed share (sava) of 10% or 20%. The
campaigns by Crimean forces categorize into "sefers", officially declared military operations led by the khans
themselves, and apuls, raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened
treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers). For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate
maintained a massive Slave Trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East. Caffa was one of the best known
and significant trading ports and slave markets.[134] Crimean Tatar raiders enslaved more than 1 million Eastern
Europeans.[135]

Central Asia and the Caucasus

Russian conquest of the Caucasus led to the abolition of slavery by the 1860s[136][137] and the conquest of the
Central Asian Islamic khanates of Bukhara, Samarkand, and Khiva by the 1870s.[138] The Russian administration
liberated the slaves of the Kazakhs in 1859.[139] A notorious slave market for captured Russian and Persian slaves
was centred in the Khanate of Khiva from the 17th to the 19th century.[140] During the first half of the 19th century
alone, some one million Persians, as well as an unknown number of Russians, were enslaved and transported to
Central Asian khanates.[141][142] When the Russian troops took Khiva in 1898 there were 29,300 Persian slaves,
captured by Turkoman raiders. According of Josef Wolff (Report of 18431845) the population of the Khanate of
Bukhara was 1,200,000, of whom 200,000 were Persian slaves.[143] At the beginning of the 21st century Chechens
and Ingush kept Russian captives as slaves or in slave-like conditions in the mountains of the northern Caucasus.[144]

10

History of slavery

11

Europe
Ancient Greece
Records of slavery in Ancient Greece
go as far back as Mycenaean Greece.
The origins are not known, but it
appears that slavery became an
important part of the economy and
society only after the establishment of
cities.[145] Slavery was common
practice and an integral component of
ancient Greece throughout its rich
history, as it was in other societies of
the time including ancient Israel and
early Christian societies.[146][147][148]
It is estimated that in Athens, the
majority of citizens owned at least one
slave. Most ancient writers considered
slavery not only natural but necessary,
but some isolated debate began to
appear, notably in Socratic dialogues
while the Stoics produced the first
condemnation of slavery recorded in
history.[148]

Slaves working in a mine. Ancient Greece.

Cast of the corpse of a slave (as evidenced by the

manacles that remain on his ankles) recovered
from the ruins of Pompeii, 79 AD

During the 8th and the 7th centuries

BC, in the course of the two Messenian
Wars the Spartans reduced an entire
population to a pseudo-slavery called
helotry.[149] According to Herodotus
(IX, 2829), helots were seven times
as numerous as Spartans. Following
several helot revolts around the year
600 BC, the Spartans restructured their
city-state along authoritarian lines, for
the leaders decided that only by
turning their society into an armed
camp could they hope to maintain
control over the numerically dominant
helot population.[150] In some Ancient
Gustave Boulanger's painting The Slave Market
Greek city states about 30% of the
population consisted of slaves, but paid and slave labor seem to have been equally important.[151]

Rome
Romans inherited the institution of slavery from the Greeks and the Phoenicians.[152] As the Roman Republic
expanded outward, entire populations were enslaved, thus creating an ample supply to work in Rome's farms and

History of slavery
households. The people subjected to Roman slavery came from all over Europe and the Mediterranean. Such
oppression by an elite minority eventually led to slave revolts; the Third Servile War led by Spartacus was the most
famous and severe. Greeks, Berbers, Germans, Britons, Slavs, Thracians, Gauls (or Celts), Jews, Arabs, and many
more were slaves used not only for labor, but also for amusement (e.g. gladiators and sex slaves). If a slave ran
away, he was liable to be crucified. By the late Republican era, slavery had become a vital economic pillar in the
wealth of Rome.[153] In the Roman Empire, probably over 25% of the empire's population,[154] and 30 to 40% of the
population of Italy[155] was enslaved.

Celtic Tribes
Celtic tribes of Europe are recorded by various Roman sources as owning slaves. The extent of slavery in
prehistorical Europe is not well known however.[156]

The Vikings and Scandinavia

In the Viking era beginning circa 793, the Norse raiders often captured and enslaved militarily weaker peoples they
encountered. In the Nordic countries the slaves were called thralls (Old Norse: rll).[157] The thralls were mostly
from Western Europe, among them many Franks, Anglo-Saxons, and Celts. Many Irish slaves participated in the
colonization of Iceland.[158] There is evidence of German, Baltic, Slavic and Latin slaves as well. The slave trade
was one of the pillars of Norse commerce during the 6th through 11th centuries. The Persian traveller Ibn Rustah
described how Swedish Vikings, the Varangians or Rus, terrorized and enslaved the Slavs. The thrall system was
finally abolished in the mid-14th century in Scandinavia.[159]

Middle Ages
Chaos and invasion made the taking of slaves habitual throughout Europe in the early Middle Ages. St. Patrick,
himself captured and sold as a slave, protested against an attack that enslaved newly baptized Christians in his Letter
to the Soldiers of Coroticus.
Slavery during the Early Middle Ages had several distinct sources.
Jewish participation in the slave trade was recorded starting in the 5th
century.[160] After the Muslim conquests of North Africa and most of
the Iberian peninsula, the Islamic world became a huge importer of
Saqaliba (Slavic) slaves from central and eastern Europe.[161] Olivia
Remie Constable wrote: "Muslim and Jewish merchants brought slaves
into al-Andalus from eastern Europe and Christian Spain, and then
re-exported them to other regions of the Islamic world."[162] This trade
came to an end after the Christianisation of Slavic countries. The
etymology of the word slave comes from this period, the word sklabos
meaning Slav.[163][164]
The Vikings raided across Europe, though their slave raids were the
most destructive in the British Isles and Eastern Europe. While the
Vikings kept some slaves for themselves as servants, known as thralls,
Ottoman advances resulted in many captive
Christians being carried deep into Muslim
most people captured by the Vikings would be sold on the Byzantine
territory.
or Islamic markets. In the West the targets of Viking slavery were
primarily English, Irish, and Scottish, while in the East they were
mainly Slavs. The Viking slave trade slowly ended in the 11th century, as the Vikings settled in the European
territories they once raided, Christianized serfdom, and merged with the local populace.[157]

12

History of slavery
The Islamic World was a main factor slavery. Although slavery had different implications for slaves:(i) Islamic law
forbade Muslims to enslave fellow Muslims or so-called People of the Book: Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians. (ii)
If they converted to Islam their master had the obligation to free them and if they did not they have to teach them.
(iii) Slaves could rise socially by marriage and attain high office. (iv) The principal requirement was for military
service.[165] However, Muslims did not always treat with slaves in accordance with Islamic law.[166] The Muslim
powers of Iberia both raided for slaves and purchased slaves from European merchants, often the Jewish Radhanites,
one of the few groups that could easily move between the Christian and Islamic worlds.[162] The Middle Ages from
1100 to 1500 saw a continuation of the European slave trade, though with a shift from the Western Mediterranean
Islamic nations to the Eastern, as Venice and Genoa, in firm control of the Eastern Mediterranean from the 12th
century and the Black Sea from the 13th century sold both Slavic and Baltic slaves, as well as Georgians, Turks, and
other ethnic groups of the Black Sea and Caucasus, to the Muslim nations of the Middle East. The sale of European
slaves by Europeans slowly ended as the Slavic and Baltic ethnic groups Christianized by the Late Middle Ages.
European slaves in the Islamic World would, however, continue into the Modern time period as Muslim pirates,
primarily Algerians, with the support of the Ottoman Empire, raided European coasts and shipping from the 16th to
the 19th centuries, ending their attacks with the naval decline of the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th and 17th
centuries, as well as the European conquest of North Africa throughout the 19th century.[167]
The Mongol invasions and conquests in the 13th century made the situation worse.[168] The Mongols enslaved
skilled individuals, women and children and marched them to Karakorum or Sarai, whence they were sold
throughout Eurasia. Many of these slaves were shipped to the slave market in Novgorod.[169][170][171]
Slave commerce during the Late Middle Ages was mainly
in the hands of Venetian and Genoese merchants and
cartels, who were involved in the slave trade with the
Golden Horde. In 1382 the Golden Horde under Khan
Tokhtamysh sacked Moscow, burning the city and
carrying off thousands of inhabitants as slaves. Between
1414 and 1423, some 10,000 eastern European slaves
were sold in Venice.[172] Genoese merchants organized
the slave trade from the Crimea to Mamluk Egypt. For
years the Khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan routinely
made raids on Russian principalities for slaves and to
plunder towns. Russian chronicles record about 40 raids
The ransoming of Christians slaves held in Turkish hands, 17th
of Kazan Khans on the Russian territories in the first half
century
of the 16th century.[173] In 1521, the combined forces of
Crimean Khan Mehmed Giray and his Kazan allies attacked Moscow and captured thousands of slaves.[174]
In 1441, Haci I Giray declared independence from the Golden Horde and established the Crimean Khanate. For a
long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and
the Middle East. In a process called the "harvesting of the steppe", they enslaved many Slavic peasants. About 30
major Tatar raids were recorded into Muscovite territories between 1558 and 1596.[175] In 1571, the Crimean Tatars
attacked and sacked Moscow, burning everything but the Kremlin and taking thousands of captives as slaves.[176] In
Crimea, about 75% of the population consisted of slaves.[39]
Medieval Spain and Portugal were the scene of almost constant warfare between Muslims and Christians. Periodic
raiding expeditions were sent from Al-Andalus to ravage the Iberian Christian kingdoms, bringing back booty and
slaves. In a raid against Lisbon, Portugal in 1189, for example, the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur took 3,000
female and child captives, while his governor of Crdoba, in a subsequent attack upon Silves, Portugal in 1191, took
3,000 Christian slaves.[177]

13

History of slavery
The Byzantine-Ottoman wars and the Ottoman wars in Europe brought large numbers of Christian slaves into the
Islamic world too.[178] After the battle of Lepanto approximately 12,000 Christian galley slaves were freed from the
Ottoman fleet.[179] Christians were also selling Muslim slaves captured in war. The Knights of Malta attacked pirates
and Muslim shipping, and their base became a centre for slave trading, selling captured North Africans and Turks.
Malta remained a slave market until well into the late 18th century. It required a thousand slaves to equip merely the
galleys (ships) of the Order.[180][181]
Slavery in Poland was forbidden in the 15th century; in Lithuania, slavery was formally abolished in 1588; they were
replaced by the second enserfment. Slavery remained a minor institution in Russia until the 1723, when the Peter the
Great converted the household slaves into house serfs. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs
earlier in 1679.[182] The runaway Polish and Russian serfs and kholops known as Cossacks ('outlaws') formed
autonomous communities in the southern steppes.[183]

Portugal
The 15th-century Portuguese exploration of the African coast is commonly regarded as the harbinger of European
colonialism. In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bull Dum Diversas, granting Afonso V of Portugal the right
to reduce any "Saracens, pagans and any other unbelievers" to hereditary slavery which legitimized slave trade under
Catholic beliefs of that time. This approval of slavery was reaffirmed and extended in his Romanus Pontifex bull of
1455. These papal bulls came to serve as a justification for the subsequent era of slave trade and European
colonialism. Although for a short period as in 1462, Pius II declared slavery to be "a great crime".[184] The followers
of the church of England and Protestants did not use the papal bull as a justification. The position of the church was
to condemn the slavery of Christians, but slavery was regarded as an old established and necessary institution which
supplied Europe with the necessary workforce. In the 16th century African slaves had substituted almost all other
ethnicities and religious enslaved groups in Europe.[185] Within the Portuguese territory of Brazil, and even beyond
its original borders, the enslavement of native Americans was carried out by the Bandeirantes.
Among many other European slave markets, Genoa, and Venice were some well-known markets, their importance
and demand growing after the great plague of the 14th century which decimated much of the European work
force.[186] The maritime town of Lagos, Portugal, was the first slave market created in Portugal for the sale of
imported African slaves the Mercado de Escravos, opened in 1444.[187][188] In 1441, the first slaves were brought
to Portugal from northern Mauritania.[188] Prince Henry the Navigator, major sponsor of the Portuguese African
expeditions, as of any other merchandise, taxed one fifth of the selling price of the slaves imported to Portugal.[188]
By the year 1552 African slaves made up 10 percent of the population of Lisbon.[189][190] In the second half of the
16th century, the Crown gave up the monopoly on slave trade and the focus of European trade in African slaves
shifted from import to Europe to slave transports directly to tropical colonies in the Americas in the case of
Portugal, especially Brazil.[188] In the 15th century one third of the slaves were resold to the African market in
exchange of gold.[185]
As Portugal increased its presence along China's coast, they began trading in slaves. Many Chinese slaves were sold
to Portugal.[191][192] Since the 16th century Chinese slaves existed in Portugal, most of them were Chinese children
and a large amount were shipped to the Indies.[193] Chinese prisoners were sent to Portugal, where they were sold as
slaves, they were prized and regarded better than moorish and black slaves.[194] The first known visit of a Chinese
person to Europe dates to 1540, when a Chinese scholar, enslaved during one of several Portuguese raids somewhere
on the southern China coast, was brought to Portugal. Purchased by Joo de Barros, he worked with the Portuguese
historian on translating Chinese texts into Portuguese.[195] Dona Maria de Vilhena, a Portuguese noble woman from
vora, Portugal, owned a Chinese male slave in 1562.[196][197][198] In the 16th century, a small number of Chinese
slaves, around 2934 people were in southern Portugal, where they were used in agricultural labor.[199] Chinese boys
were captured in China, and through Macau were brought to Portugal and sold as slaves in Lisbon. Some were then
sold in Brazil, a Portuguese colony.[200][201][202] Due to hostilty from the Chinese regarding the trafficking in

14

History of slavery

15

Chinese slaves, in 1595 a law was passed by Portugal banning the selling and buying of Chinese slaves.[203] On 19
February 1624, the King of Portugal forbade the enslavement of Chinese of either sex.[204][205]

Spain
Spain had to fight against relatively powerful civilizations of the
New World. However, the Spanish conquest of the indigenous
peoples in the Americas was also facilitated by the spread of
diseases (e.g. smallpox) due to lack of biological immunity.[206]
(like the Europeans that had lack of biological immunity to
African diseases) The Spaniards were the first Europeans to use
African slaves in the New World on islands such as Cuba and
Hispaniola, where the native population starved themselves rather
than work for the Spanish. Although the natives were used as
forced labor (the Spanish employed the pre-Columbian draft
system called the mita),[207] the spread of disease caused a
shortage of labor, and so the Spanish colonists gradually became
involved in the Atlantic slave trade. The first African slaves
arrived in Hispaniola in 1501;[208] by 1517, the natives had been
"virtually annihilated" by the settlers.[209]

Netherlands

Emperor Charles V captured Tunis in 1535, liberating

thousands of Christian slaves

Although slavery was illegal inside the Netherlands it flourished in

the Dutch Empire, and helped support the economy.[210] By 1650
the Dutch had the pre-eminent slave trade in Europe.[211] They were overtaken by Britain around 1700. Historians
agree that in all the Dutch shipped about 550,000 African slaves across the Atlantic, about 75,000 of whom died on
board before reaching their destinations. From 1596 to 1829, the Dutch traders sold 250,000 slaves in the Dutch
Guianas, 142,000 in the Dutch Caribbean islands, and 28,000 in Dutch Brazil.[212] In addition, tens of thousands of
slaves, mostly from India and some from Africa, were carried to the Dutch East Indies.[213]

Great Britain and Ireland

Slavery was practised by the Romans, but when they left in the 5th century they took their slaves with them.
Anglo-Saxon Germanic settlers brought in slaves. Capture in war, voluntary servitude and debt slavery became
common, and slaves were routinely bought and sold, but running away was common and slavery was never a major
economic factor. Ireland and Denmark were markets for captured Anglo Saxon and Celtic slaves. Pope Gregory I
reputedly made the pun, Non Angli, sed Angeli ("Not Angles, but Angels"), after a response to his query regarding
the identity of a group of fair-haired Angles slave children whom he had observed in the marketplace. After 1100
slavery faded away as uneconomical.[214]
Barbary Corsairs
From the 16th to 19th century, Barbary Corsairs raided the coasts of Europe and attacked lone ships at sea. From
1609 to 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates. 160 English ships were captured by Algerians
between 1677 and 1680.[56] Many of the captured sailors were made into slaves and held for ransom. The corsairs
were no strangers to the South West of England where raids were known in a number of coastal communities. In
1627 Barbary Pirates under command of the Dutch renegade Jan Janszoon operating from the Moroccan port of Sal
occupied the island of Lundy.[215] During this time there were reports of captured slaves being sent to

History of slavery
Algiers.[216][217]
Ireland, despite its northern position, was not immune from attacks by the corsairs. In June 1631 Murat Reis, with
pirates from Algiers and armed troops of the Ottoman Empire, stormed ashore at the little harbor village of
Baltimore, County Cork. They captured almost all the villagers and took them away to a life of slavery in North
Africa.[218] The prisoners were destined for a variety of fatessome lived out their days chained to the oars as
galley slaves, while others would spend long years in the scented seclusion of the harem or within the walls of the
sultan's palace. Only two of them ever saw Ireland again.
Atlantic slave trade
Britain played a prominent role in the Atlantic slave trade, especially after 1600. Slavery was a legal institution in all
of the 13 American colonies and Canada (acquired by Britain in 1763). The profits of the slave trade and of West
Indian plantations amounted to 5% of the British economy at the time of the Industrial Revolution.[219] The
Somersett's case in 1772 was generally taken at the time to have decided that the condition of slavery did not exist
under English law in England. In 1785, English poet William Cowper wrote: "We have no slaves at home Then
why abroad? Slaves cannot breathe in England; if their lungs receive our air, that moment they are free. They touch
our country, and their shackles fall. That's noble, and bespeaks a nation proud. And jealous of the blessing. Spread it
then, And let it circulate through every vein."[220] In 1807, following many years of lobbying by the Abolitionist
movement, the British Parliament voted to make the slave trade illegal anywhere in the Empire with the Slave Trade
Act 1807. Thereafter Britain took a prominent role in combating the trade, and slavery itself was abolished in the
British Empire with the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. Between 1808 and 1860, the West Africa Squadron seized
approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.[221] Action was also taken against
African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King of
Lagos", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.[222] In 1839, the world's
oldest international human rights organization, Anti-Slavery International, was formed in Britain by Joseph Sturge,
which worked to outlaw slavery in other countries.[223]
In 1811, Arthur William Hodge was the first slave owner executed for the murder of a slave in the British West
Indies.[224] He was not, however, as some have claimed, the first white person to have been lawfully executed for the
killing of a slave.[225][226]

Pre-industrial Europe
It became the custom among the Mediterranean powers to sentence condemned criminals to row in the war-galleys
of the state (initially only in time of war).[227] The French Huguenots filled the galleys after the revocation of the
Edict of Nantes in 1685 and Camisard rebellion.[228] Galley-slaves lived in unsavoury conditions, so even though
some sentences prescribed a restricted number of years, most rowers would eventually die, even if they survived
shipwreck and slaughter or torture at the hands of enemies or of pirates.[229] Naval forces often turned 'infidel'
prisoners-of-war into galley-slaves. Several well-known historical figures served time as galley slaves after being
captured by the enemythe Ottoman corsair and admiral Turgut Reis and the Knights Hospitaller Grand Master
Jean Parisot de la Valette among them.[230]
From the 1440s into the 18th century hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians were sold into slavery to the Turks. In
1575, the Tatars captured over 35,000 Ukrainians; a 1676 raid took almost 40,000. About 60,000 Ukrainians were
captured in 1688; some were ransomed, but most were sold into slavery.[231][232] Some of the Roma people were
enslaved over five centuries in Romania until abolition in 1864 (see Slavery in Romania).[233]
Denmark-Norway was the first European country to ban the slave trade. This happened with a decree issued by the
king in 1792, to become fully effective by 1803. Slavery itself was not banned until 1848. At this time Iceland was a
part of Denmark-Norway but slave trading had been abolished in Iceland in 1117 and had never been
reestablished.[234]

16

History of slavery

17

Slavery in the French Republic was abolished on 4 February 1794 however it was re-established by Napoleon
Bonaparte in 1804. Slavery would be permanently abolished in the French empire during the French Revolution of
1848. The Haitian Revolution established Haiti as a free republic ruled by blacks, the first of its kind.[235] At the time
of the revolution, Haiti was known as Saint-Domingue and was a colony of France.[236]

Modern Europe
During The Holocaust, the Germans used slave labor from across occupied Europe to support their war effort, and
numbering perhaps 6 million people.[237][238][239]
The communist Soviet Union had 1020 million people working in Gulags during its existence. This camp system
was also used to colonize Siberia.

Africa
In most African societies, there was very little difference between the
free peasants and the feudal vassal peasants. Vassals of the Songhay
Muslim Empire were used primarily in agriculture; they paid tribute to
their masters in crop and service but they were slightly restricted in
custom and convenience. These people were more an occupational
caste, as their bondage was relative. In the Kanem Bornu Empire,
vassals were three classes beneath the nobles. Marriage between captor
and captive was far from rare, blurring the anticipated roles.[240]
French historian Fernand Braudel noted that slavery was endemic in
Africa and part of the structure of everyday life. "Slavery came in
different disguises in different societies: there were court slaves, slaves
incorporated into princely armies, domestic and household slaves,
slaves working on the land, in industry, as couriers and intermediaries,
even as traders" (Braudel 1984 p.435). During the 16th century,
Europe began to outpace the Arab world in the export traffic, with its
Two slightly differing ManillasOkpoho manillas
slave
traffic from Africa to the Americas. The Dutch imported slaves
as used to purchase slaves
from Asia into their colony in South Africa. In 1807 Britain, which
held extensive, although mainly coastal colonial territories on the African continent (including southern Africa),
made the international slave trade illegal, as did the United States in 1808. The end of the slave trade and the decline
of slavery was imposed upon Africa by outside powers.
The nature of the slave societies differed greatly across the continent. There were large plantations worked by slaves
in Egypt, the Sudan and Zanzibar, but this was not a typical use of slaves in Africa as a whole. In most African slave
societies, slaves were protected and incorporated into the slave-owning family.

History of slavery

In Senegambia, between 1300 and

1900, close to one-third of the
population was enslaved. In early
Islamic states of the western Sudan,
including Ghana (7501076), Mali
(12351645), Segou (17121861), and
Songhai (12751591), about a third of
the population were slaves. In Sierra
Leone in the 19th century about half of
the population consisted of slaves. In
the 19th century at least half the
population was enslaved among the
Duala of the Cameroon, the Igbo and
other peoples of the lower Niger, the
Kongo, and the Kasanje kingdom and
Chokwe of Angola. Among the
Ashanti and Yoruba a third of the
13th-century Africa Map of the main trade routes and states, kingdoms and empires
population consisted of slaves. The
population of the Kanem was about a
third-slave. It was perhaps 40% in Bornu (13961893). Between 1750 and 1900 from one- to two-thirds of the entire
population of the Fulani jihad states consisted of slaves. The population of the Sokoto caliphate formed by Hausas in
the northern Nigeria and Cameroon was half-slave in the 19th century. It is estimated that up to 90% of the
population of Arab-Swahili Zanzibar was enslaved. Roughly half the population of Madagascar was
enslaved.[241][242][243][244][245][246][247]
The Anti-Slavery Society estimated that there were 2,000,000 slaves in the early 1930s Ethiopia, out of an estimated
population of between 8 and 16 million.[248] Slavery continued in Ethiopia until the brief Second Italo-Abyssinian
War in October 1935, when it was abolished by order of the Italian occupying forces.[249] In response to pressure by
Western Allies of World War II Ethiopia officially abolished slavery and serfdom after regaining its independence in
1942. On 26 August 1942 Haile Selassie issued a proclamation outlawing slavery.[250][251]
When British rule was first imposed on the Sokoto Caliphate and the surrounding areas in northern Nigeria at the
turn of the 20th century, approximately 2 million to 2.5 million people there were slaves.[252] Slavery in northern
Nigeria was finally outlawed in 1936.[253]
Elikia M'bokolo, April 1998, Le Monde diplomatique. Quote: "The African continent was bled of its human
resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the
Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth)."
He continues: "Four million slaves exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the
Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million
(depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean"[254]

18

History of slavery

Sub-Saharan Africa
David Livingstone wrote of the slave trades:
"To overdraw its evils is a
simple impossibility.... We
passed a slave woman shot or
stabbed through the body and
lying on the path. [Onlookers]
said an Arab who passed early
that morning had done it in
anger at losing the price he had
given for her, because she was
unable to walk any longer. We
Arab slave traders and their captives along the Ruvuma river (in today's Tanzania
and Mozambique), 19th-century engraving.
passed a woman tied by the
neck to a tree and dead.... We
came upon a man dead from starvation.... The strangest disease I have seen in this country seems really
to be broken heartedness, and it attacks free men who have been captured and made slaves."
Livingstone estimated that 80,000 Africans died each year before ever reaching the slave markets of
Zanzibar.[255][256][257][258] Zanzibar was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, and under Omani Arabs in the
19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each year.[259]
Prior to the 16th century, the bulk of slaves exported from Africa were shipped from East Africa to the Arabian
peninsula. Zanzibar became a leading port in this trade. Arab slave traders differed from European ones in that they
would often conduct raiding expeditions themselves, sometimes penetrating deep into the continent. They also
differed in that their market greatly preferred the purchase of female slaves over male ones.
The increased presence of European rivals along the East coast led Arab traders to concentrate on the overland slave
caravan routes across the Sahara from the Sahel to North Africa. The German explorer Gustav Nachtigal reported
seeing slave caravans departing from Kukawa in Bornu bound for Tripoli and Egypt in 1870. The slave trade
represented the major source of revenue for the state of Bornu as late as 1898. The eastern regions of the Central
African Republic have never recovered demographically from the impact of 19th-century raids from the Sudan and
still have a population density of less than 1 person/km.[260] During the 1870s, European initiatives against the slave
trade caused an economic crisis in northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of Mahdist forces. Mahdi's victory created
an Islamic state, one that quickly reinstituted slavery.[261][262]
The Middle Passage, the crossing of the Atlantic to the Americas, endured by slaves laid out in rows in the holds of
ships, was only one element of the well-known triangular trade engaged in by Portuguese, Dutch, French and British.
Ships having landed slaves in Caribbean ports would take on sugar, indigo, raw cotton, and later coffee, and make
for Liverpool, Nantes, Lisbon or Amsterdam. Ships leaving European ports for West Africa would carry printed
cotton textiles, some originally from India, copper utensils and bangles, pewter plates and pots, iron bars more
valued than gold, hats, trinkets, gunpowder and firearms and alcohol. Tropical shipworms were eliminated in the
cold Atlantic waters, and at each unloading, a profit was made.
The Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding
expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by African kingdoms, such
as the Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Kingdom of Benin, Kingdom of Fouta Djallon, Kingdom of Fouta
Tooro, Kingdom of Koya, Kingdom of Khasso, Kingdom of Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, Aro
Confederacy and the kingdom of Dahomey.[263][264] Europeans rarely entered the interior of Africa, due to fear of
disease and moreover fierce African resistance. The slaves were brought to coastal outposts where they were traded
for goods. The people captured on these expeditions were shipped by European traders to the colonies of the New

19

History of slavery

20

World. As a result of the War of the Spanish Succession, the United Kingdom obtained the monopoly (asiento de
negros) of transporting captive Africans to Spanish America. It is estimated that over the centuries, twelve to twenty
million people were shipped as slaves from Africa by European traders, of whom some 15 percent died during the
terrible voyage, many during the arduous journey through the Middle Passage. The great majority were shipped to
the Americas, but some also went to Europe and Southern Africa.
African participation in the slave trade
Some African states played a role in the slave trade. They would sell their captives or prisoners of war to European
buyers.[265] Selling captives or prisoners was common practice among Africans and Arabs during that era. However,
as the Atlantic slave trade increased its demand, local systems which primarily serviced indentured servitude became
corrupted and started to supply the European slave traders, changing social dynamics. It also ultimately undermined
local economies and political stability as villages' vital labor forces were shipped overseas as slave raids and civil
wars became commonplace. Crimes which were previously punishable by some other punishment became
punishable by enslavement.[266]
The prisoners and captives that were sold were usually from neighboring or enemy ethnic groups.[267] These captive
slaves were not considered as part of the ethnic group or 'tribe' and kings did not have a particular loyalty to them. At
times, kings and chiefs would sell criminals into slavery so that they could no longer commit crimes in that area.
Most other slaves were obtained from kidnappings, or through raids that occurred at gunpoint through joint ventures
with the Europeans.[265] Some African kings refused to sell any of their captives or criminals. King Jaja of Opobo, a
former slave himself, completely refused to do business with slavers.[267] Ashanti King Agyeman Prempeh (Ashanti
king, b. 1872) also sacrificed his own freedom so that his people would not face collective slavery.[267]
The viewpoint that Africans enslaved Africans is obfuscating if not troubling. The deployment of African
in African history tends to coalesce into obscurantist constructions of identities that allow scholars, for
instance, to subtly call into question the humanity of all Africans. Whenever Asante rulers sold non-Asantes
into slavery, they did not construct it in terms of Africans selling fellow Africans. They saw the victims for
what they were, for instance, as Akuapems, without categorizing them as fellow Africans. Equally, when
Christian Scandinavians and Russians sold war captives to the Islamic people of the Abbasid Empire, they
didnt think that they were placing fellow Europeans into slavery. This lazy categorizing homogenizes
Africans and has become a part of the methodology of African history; not surprisingly, the Western medias
cottage industry on Africa has tapped into it to frame Africans in inchoate generalities allowing the media to
describe local crisis in one African state as African problem.[268]
Dr. Akurang-Parry, Ending the Slavery Blame
Before the arrival of the Portuguese, slavery had
already existed in Kingdom of Kongo. Despite its
establishment within his kingdom, Afonso I of Kongo
believed that the slave trade should be subject to Kongo
law. When he suspected the Portuguese of receiving
illegally enslaved persons to sell, he wrote letters to the
King Joo III of Portugal in 1526 imploring him to put
a stop to the practice.[269]
The kings of Dahomey sold their war captives into
transatlantic slavery, who otherwise would have been
killed in a ceremony known as the Annual Customs. As
one of West Africa's principal slave states, Dahomey

The inspection and sale of a slave

History of slavery
became extremely unpopular with neighbouring peoples.[270][271][272] Like the Bambara Empire to the east, the
Khasso kingdoms depended heavily on the slave trade for their economy. A family's status was indicated by the
number of slaves it owned, leading to wars for the sole purpose of taking more captives. This trade led the Khasso
into increasing contact with the European settlements of Africa's west coast, particularly the French.[273] Benin grew
increasingly rich during the 16th and 17th centuries on the slave trade with Europe; slaves from enemy states of the
interior were sold, and carried to the Americas in Dutch and Portuguese ships. The Bight of Benin's shore soon came
to be known as the "Slave Coast".[274]
In the 1840s, King Gezo of Dahomey said:[275]
"The slave trade is the ruling principle of my people. It is the source and the glory of their wealththe
mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery"
In 1807, the UK Parliament passed the Bill that abolished the trading of slaves. The King of Bonny (now in Nigeria)
was horrified at the conclusion of the practice:[276]
"We think this trade must go on. That is the verdict of our oracle and the priests. They say that your
country, however great, can never stop a trade ordained by God himself."
Some historians conclude that the total loss in persons removed, those who died on the arduous march to coastal
slave marts and those killed in slave raids, far exceeded the 6575 million inhabitants remaining in Sub-Saharan
Africa at the trade's end. Others believe that slavers had a vested interest in capturing rather than killing, and in
keeping their captives alive; and that this coupled with the disproportionate removal of males and the introduction of
new crops from the Americas (cassava, maize) would have limited general population decline to particular regions of
western Africa around 17601810, and in Mozambique and neighbouring areas half a century later. There has also
been speculation that within Africa, females were most often captured as brides, with their male protectors being a
"bycatch" who would have been killed if there had not been an export market for them.
During the period from late 19th century and early 20th century, demand for the labor-intensive harvesting of rubber
drove frontier expansion and slavery. The personal monarchy of Belgian King Leopold II in the Congo Free State
saw mass killings and slavery to extract rubber.[277]

Modern times
The trading of children has been reported in modern Nigeria and Benin. In parts of Ghana, a family may be punished
for an offense by having to turn over a virgin female to serve as a sex slave within the offended family. In this
instance, the woman does not gain the title or status of "wife". In parts of Ghana, Togo, and Benin, shrine slavery
persists, despite being illegal in Ghana since 1998. In this system of ritual servitude, sometimes called trokosi (in
Ghana) or voodoosi in Togo and Benin, young virgin girls are given as slaves to traditional shrines and are used
sexually by the priests in addition to providing free labor for the shrine.
It is estimated that as many as 200,000 black south Sudanese children and women (mostly from the Dinka tribe sold
by the Sudanese Arabs of the north) have been taken into slavery in Sudan during the Second Sudanese Civil
War.[278][279] In Mauritania it is estimated that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population,
are currently enslaved, many of them used as bonded labor.[280] Slavery in Mauritania was criminalized in August
2007.[281]
Evidence emerged in the late 1990s of systematic slavery in cacao plantations in West Africa; see the chocolate and
slavery article.[275]

21

History of slavery

22

The Americas
Among indigenous peoples
In Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica the most common forms of
slavery were those of prisoners-of-war and debtors. People unable
to pay back a debt could be sentenced to work as a slave to the
person owed until the debt was worked off. Warfare was important
to the Maya society, because raids on surrounding areas provided
the victims required for human sacrifice, as well as slaves for the
construction of temples.[282] Most victims of human sacrifice were
prisoners of war or slaves.[283] According to Aztec writings, as
many as 84,000 people were sacrificed at a temple inauguration in
1487.[284] Slavery was not usually hereditary; children of slaves
were born free. In the Inca Empire, workers were subject to a mita
in lieu of taxes which they paid by working for the government.
Each ayllu, or extended family, would decide which family
member to send to do the work. It is unclear if this labor draft or
corve counts as slavery. The Spanish adopted this system,
particularly for their silver mines in Bolivia.[285]
Other slave-owning societies and tribes of the New World were,
White boy with a slave maid, Brazil, 1860.
for example, the Tehuelche of Patagonia, the Comanche of Texas,
the Caribs of Dominica, the Tupinamb of Brazil, the fishing
societies, such as the Yurok, that lived along the coast from what is now Alaska to California, the Pawnee and
Klamath.[286] Many of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, such as the Haida and Tlingit, were
traditionally known as fierce warriors and slave-traders, raiding as far as California. Slavery was hereditary, the
slaves being prisoners of war. Among some Pacific Northwest tribes about a quarter of the population were
slaves.[287][288] One slave narrative was composed by an Englishman, John R. Jewitt, who had been taken alive
when his ship was captured in 1802; his memoir provides a detailed look at life as a slave, and asserts that a large
number were held.

Brazil
Slavery was a mainstay of the Brazilian colonial
economy, especially in mining and sugar cane
production.[289] Brazil obtained 38% of all African
slaves traded, and more than 3 million slaves were sent
to this one country. Starting around 1550, the
Portuguese began to trade African slaves to work the
sugar plantations, once the native Tupi people
deteriorated. Although Portuguese Prime Minister
Marqus de Pombal abolished slavery in mainland
Portugal on 12 February 1761, slavery continued in her
overseas colonies. Slavery was practiced among all
classes. Slaves were owned by upper and middle
classes, by the poor, and even by other slaves.[290]

Slavery in Brazil, Jean Baptiste Debret.

History of slavery

From So Paulo, the Bandeirantes, adventurers mostly

of mixed Portuguese and native ancestry, penetrated
steadily westward in their search for Indian slaves.
Along the Amazon river and its major tributaries,
repeated slaving raids and punitive attacks left their
mark. One French traveler in the 1740s described
hundreds of miles of river banks with no sign of human
life and once-thriving villages that were devastated and
empty. In some areas of the Amazon Basin, and
particularly among the Guarani of southern Brazil and
Paraguay, the Jesuits had organized their Jesuit
Reductions along military lines to fight the slavers. In
the mid-to-late 19th century, many Amerindians were
enslaved to work on rubber plantations.[291][292][293]

23

A Guaran family captured by Indian slave hunters. By Jean Baptiste

Debret

Resistance and abolition

Escaped slaves formed Maroon communities which played an important role in the histories of Brazil and other
countries such as Suriname, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Jamaica. In Brazil, the Maroon villages were called palenques or
quilombos. Maroons survived by growing vegetables and hunting. They also raided plantations. At these attacks, the
maroons would burn crops, steal livestock and tools, kill slavemasters, and invite other slaves to join their
communities.
Jean-Baptiste Debret, a French painter who was active in Brazil in the first decades of the 19th century, started out
with painting portraits of members of the Brazilian Imperial family, but soon became concerned with the slavery of
both blacks and indigenous inhabitants. His paintings on the subject (two appear on this page) helped bring attention
to the subject in both Europe and Brazil itself.
The Clapham Sect, a group of evangelical reformers, campaigned during much of the 19th century for the United
Kingdom to use its influence and power to stop the traffic of slaves to Brazil. Besides moral qualms, the low cost of
slave-produced Brazilian sugar meant that British colonies in the West Indies were unable to match the market prices
of Brazilian sugar, and each Briton was consuming 16pounds (7kg) of sugar a year by the 19th century. This
combination led to intensive pressure from the British government for Brazil to end this practice, which it did by
steps over several decades.
First, foreign slave trade was banned in 1850. Then, in 1871, the sons of the slaves were freed. In 1885, slaves aged
over 60 years were freed. The Paraguayan War contributed to ending slavery, since many slaves enlisted in exchange
for freedom. In Colonial Brazil, slavery was more a social than a racial condition. In fact, some of the greatest
figures of the time, like the writer Machado de Assis and the engineer Andr Rebouas had black ancestry.
Brazil's 187778 Grande Seca (Great Drought) in the cotton-growing northeast led to major turmoil, starvation,
poverty and internal migration. As wealthy plantation holders rushed to sell their slaves south, popular resistance and
resentment grew, inspiring numerous emancipation societies. They succeeded in banning slavery altogether in the
province of Cear by 1884.[294] Slavery was legally ended nationwide on 13 May by the Lei Aurea ("Golden Law")
of 1888. In fact, it was an institution in decadence at these times, as since the 1880s the country had begun to use
European immigrant labor instead. Brazil was the last nation in the Western Hemisphere to abolish slavery.

History of slavery

Other South American countries

During the period from late 19th century and early 20th
century, demand for the labor-intensive harvesting of
rubber drove frontier expansion and slavery in Latin
America and elsewhere. Indigenous people were
enslaved as part of the rubber boom in Ecuador, Peru,
Colombia, and Brazil.[295] In Central America, rubber
tappers participated in the enslavement of the
indigenous Guatuso-Maleku people for domestic
service.[296]

British and French Caribbean

Slavery was commonly used in the parts of the
Funeral at slave plantation during Dutch colonial rule, Suriname.
Colored lithograph printed circa 18401850, digitally restored.
Caribbean controlled by France and the British Empire.
The Lesser Antilles islands of Barbados, St. Kitts,
Antigua, Martinique and Guadeloupe, which were the first important slave societies of the Caribbean, began the
widespread use of African slaves by the end of the 17th century, as their economies converted from sugar
production.[297]
By the middle of the 18th century, British Jamaica and French Saint-Domingue had become the largest slave
societies of the region, and the Caribbean was rivaling Brazil as a destination for enslaved Africans. Due to
overwork and tropical diseases, the death rates for Caribbean slaves were greater than birth rates. The conditions led
to increasing numbers of slave revolts, escaped slaves forming Maroon communities and fighting guerrilla wars
against the plantation owners.
To regularise slavery, in 1685 Louis XIV had enacted the code noir, which accorded certain human rights to slaves
and responsibilities to the master, who was obliged to feed, clothe and provide for the general well-being of his
slaves. Free blacks owned one-third of the plantation property and one-quarter of the slaves in Saint Domingue (later
Haiti).[298] Slavery in the French Republic was abolished on 4 February 1794. When it became clear that Napoleon
intended to re-establish slavery, Dessalines and Ption switched sides, in October 1802. On 1 January 1804,
Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the new leader under the dictatorial 1801 constitution, declared Haiti a free republic.[235]
Thus Haiti became the second independent nation in the Western Hemisphere, after the United States, and the only
successful slave rebellion in world history.[299]

24

History of slavery

25

Whitehall in England announced in 1833 that slaves in its territories

would be totally freed by 1840. In the meantime, the government told
slaves they had to remain on their plantations and would have the
status of "apprentices" for the next six years.
In Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, on 1 August 1834, an unarmed group of
mainly elderly Negroes being addressed by the Governor at
Government House about the new laws, began chanting: "Pas de six
ans. Point de six ans" ("Not six years. No six years"), drowning out the
voice of the Governor. Peaceful protests continued until a resolution to
abolish apprenticeship was passed and de facto freedom was achieved.
Full emancipation for all was legally granted ahead of schedule on 1
August 1838, making Trinidad the first British colony with slaves to
completely abolish slavery.[300]

18th century painting of Dirk Valkenburg

showing plantation slaves during a Ceremonial
dance.

After Great Britain abolished slavery, it began to pressure other nations

to do the same. France, too, abolished slavery. By then
Saint-Domingue had already won its independence and formed the
independent Republic of Haiti. French-controlled islands were then limited to a few smaller islands in the Lesser
Antilles.

North America
Early events
The first slaves used by Europeans in what later became United States territory were among Lucas Vsquez de
Aylln's colonization attempt of North Carolina in 1526. The attempt was a failure, lasting only one year; the slaves
revolted and fled into the wilderness to live among the Cofitachiqui people.[301]
The first historically significant slave in what would become the United States was Estevanico, a Moroccan slave
and member of the Narvez expedition in 1528 and acted as a guide on Fray Marcos de Niza's expedition to find the
Seven Cities of Gold in 1539.
In 1619 twenty Africans were brought by a Dutch soldier and sold to the English colony of Jamestown, Virginia as
indentured servants. It is possible that Africans were brought to Virginia prior to this, both because neither John
Rolfe our source on the 1619 shipment nor any contemporary of his ever says that this was the first contingent of
Africans to come to Virginia and because the 1625 Virginia census lists one black as coming on a ship that appears
to only have landed people in Virginia prior to 1619.[302] The transformation from indentured servitude to racial
slavery happened gradually. It was not until 1661 that a reference to slavery entered into Virginia law, directed at
Caucasian servants who ran away with a black servant. It was not until the Slave Codes of 1705 that the status of
African Americans as slaves would be sealed. This status would last for another 160 years, until after the end of the
American Civil War with the ratification of the 13th Amendment in December 1865.
Only a fraction of the enslaved Africans brought to the New World ended up in British North Americaperhaps 5%.
The vast majority of slaves shipped across the Atlantic were sent to the Caribbean sugar colonies, Brazil, or Spanish
America.
By the 1680s with the consolidation of England's Royal African Company, enslaved Africans were imported to
English colonies in larger numbers, and the practice continued to be protected by the English Crown. Colonists
began purchasing slaves in larger numbers.

History of slavery

26

Slavery in American colonial law

1642: Massachusetts becomes the first colony to
legalize slavery.
1650: Connecticut legalizes slavery.
1661: Virginia officially recognizes slavery by
statute.
1662: A Virginia statute declares that children
born would have the same status as their mother.
1663: Maryland legalizes slavery.
1664: Slavery is legalized in New York and New
Jersey.[303]
Development of slavery

Well-dressed plantation owner and family visiting the slave quarters.

The shift from indentured servants to African slaves

was prompted by a dwindling class of former servants who had worked through the terms of their indentures and
thus became competitors to their former masters. These newly freed servants were rarely able to support themselves
comfortably, and the tobacco industry was increasingly dominated by large planters. This caused domestic unrest
culminating in Bacon's Rebellion. Eventually, chattel slavery became the norm in regions dominated by plantations.
Many slaves in British North America were owned by plantation owners who lived in Britain. The British courts had
made a series of contradictory rulings on the legality of slavery[304] which encouraged several thousand slaves to flee
the newly independent United States as refugees along with the retreating British in 1783. The British courts having
ruled in 1772 that such slaves could not be forcibly returned to North America, the British government resettled them
as free men in Sierra Leone.
Several slave rebellions took place during the 17th and 18th centuries.
Early United States law
Through the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 under the
Congress of the Confederation, slavery was
prohibited in the territories north west of the Ohio
River. By 1804, abolitionists succeeded in passing
legislation that would eventually (in conjunction with
the 13th amendment) emancipate the slaves in every
state north of the Ohio River and the Mason-Dixon
Line. However, emancipation in the free states was
so gradual that both New York and Pennsylvania
listed slaves in their 1840 census returns, and a small
number of black slaves were held in New Jersey in
1860.[305] The importation or export of slaves was
banned on 1 January 1808;[306] but not the internal
slave trade.

James Hopkinson's plantation, South Carolina ca. 1862.

Despite the actions of abolitionists, free blacks were subject to racial segregation in the Northern states.[307] Slavery
was legal in most of Canada until 1833, but after that it offered a haven for hundreds of runaway slaves. Refugees
from slavery fled the South across the Ohio River to the North via the Underground Railroad. Midwestern state
governments asserted States Rights arguments to refuse federal jurisdiction over fugitives. Some juries exercised
their right of jury nullification and refused to convict those indicted under the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850.

History of slavery
After the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854, armed conflict broke out in Kansas Territory, where the
question of whether it would be admitted to the Union as a slave state or a free state had been left to the inhabitants.
The radical abolitionist John Brown was active in the mayhem and killing in "Bleeding Kansas." The true turning
point in public opinion is better fixed at the Lecompton Constitution fraud. Pro-slavery elements in Kansas had
arrived first from Missouri and quickly organized a territorial government that excluded abolitionists. Through the
machinery of the territory and violence, the pro-slavery faction attempted to force an unpopular pro-slavery
constitution through the state. This infuriated Northern Democrats, who supported popular sovereignty, and was
exacerbated by the Buchanan administration reneging on a promise to submit the constitution to a referendum
which it would surely fail. Anti-slavery legislators took office under the banner of the newly formed Republican
Party. The Supreme Court in the Dred Scott decision of 1857 asserted that one could take one's property anywhere,
even if one's property was chattel and one crossed into a free territory. It also asserted that African Americans could
not be federal citizens. Outraged critics across the North denounced these episodes as the latest of the Slave Power
(the politically organized slave owners) taking more control of the nation.[308]
Civil War
Further information: American Civil War
Approximately one Southern family in four held slaves prior to war.
According to the 1860 United States Census, about 385,000
individuals[310] (i.e. 1.4% of White Americans in the country, or 4.8%
of southern whites) owned one or more slaves.[311][312] and the slave
population in the United States stood at four million.[313] 95% of
blacks lived in the South, comprising one third of the population there
as opposed to 1% of the population of the North. Consequently, fears
of eventual emancipation were much greater in the South than in the
North.[314]
In the election of 1860, the Republicans swept Abraham Lincoln into
the Presidency (with only 39.8% of the popular vote) and legislators
into Congress. Lincoln however, did not appear on the ballots in most
southern states and his election split the nation along sectional lines.
After decades of controlling the Federal Government, several of the
southern states declared they had seceded from the U.S. (the Union) in
an attempt to form the Confederate States of America.
Northern leaders like Lincoln viewed the prospect of a new Southern
nation, with control over the Mississippi River and the West, as
Peter, a slave from Baton Rouge, Louisiana,
unacceptable. This led to the outbreak of the Civil War, which spelled
1863. The scars are a result of a whipping by his
the end for chattel slavery in America. However, in August 1862,
overseer, who was subsequently discharged. It
took two months to recover from the beating. The
Lincoln wrote to editor Horace Greeley that despite his own moral
pattern of scarring seen here is highly suggestive
objection to slavery, the objective of the war was to save the Union and
[309]
of keloid formation.
not either to save or to destroy slavery . Lincoln's Emancipation
Proclamation of 1863 was a powerful move that proclaimed freedom
for slaves within the Confederacy as soon as the Union Army arrived; Lincoln had no power to free slaves in the
border states or the rest of the Union, so he promoted the Thirteenth Amendment, which freed all the remaining
slaves in December 1865. The proclamation made the abolition of slavery an official war goal and it was
implemented as the Union captured territory from the Confederacy. Slaves in many parts of the south were freed by
Union armies or when they simply left their former owners. Over 150,000 joined the Union Army and Navy as
soldiers and sailors.

27

History of slavery
The remaining slaves within the United States remained enslaved until the final ratification of the Thirteenth
Amendment to the Constitution on 6 December 1865 (with final recognition of the amendment on 18 December),
eight months after the cessation of hostilities. Only in Kentucky did a significant slave population remain by that
time, although there were some in West Virginia and Delaware.
After the failure of Reconstruction, freed slaves in the United States were treated as second class citizens. For
decades after their emancipation, many former slaves living in the South sharecropped and had a low standard of
living. In some states, it was only after the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 60s that blacks obtained legal
protection from racial discrimination (see segregation).

Oceania
In the first half of the 19th century, small-scale slave raids took place across Polynesia to supply labor and sex
workers for the whaling and sealing trades, with examples from both the westerly and easterly extremes of the
Polynesian triangle. By the 1860s this had grown to a larger scale operation with Peruvian slave raids in the South
Sea Islands to collect labor for the guano industry.

Hawaii
Ancient Hawaii was a caste society. People were born into specific social classes. Kauwa were the outcast or slave
class. They are believed to have been war captives, or the descendents of war captives. Marriage between higher
castes and the kauwa was strictly forbidden. The kauwa worked for the chiefs and were often used as human
sacrifices at the luakini heiau. (They were not the only sacrifices; law-breakers of all castes or defeated political
opponents were also acceptable as victims.)[315]

New Zealand
In traditional Mori society of Aotearoa, prisoners of war became taurekareka, slaves, unless released, ransomed or
tortured.[316] With some exceptions, the child of a slave remained a slave. As far as it is possible to tell, slavery
seems to have increased in the early 19th century, as a result of increased numbers of prisoners being taken by Mori
military leaders such as Hongi Hika and Te Rauparaha in the Musket Wars, the need for labor to supply whalers and
traders with food, flax and timber in return for western goods, and the missionary condemnation of cannibalism.
Slavery was outlawed when the British annexed New Zealand in 1840, immediately prior to the signing of the Treaty
of Waitangi, although it did not end completely until government was effectively extended over the whole of the
country with the defeat of the Kingi movement in the Wars of the mid-1860s.

Chatham Islands
One group of Polynesians who migrated to the Chatham Islands became the Moriori who developed a largely pacifist
culture. It was originally speculated that they settled the Chathams direct from Polynesia, but it is now widely
believed they were disaffected Mori who emigrated from the South Island of New Zealand.[317][318][319][320] Their
pacifism left the Moriori unable to defend themselves when the islands were invaded by mainland Mori in the
1830s. Some 300 Moriori men, women and children were massacred and the remaining 1,200 to 1,300 survivors
were enslaved.[321][322]

28

History of slavery

Rapa Nui / Easter Island

The isolated island of Rapa Nui/Easter Island was inhabited by the Rapanui, who suffered a series of slave raids
from 1805 or earlier, culminating in a near genocidal experience in the 1860s. The 1805 raid was by American
sealers and was one of a series that changed the attitude of the islanders to outside visitors, with reports in the 1820s
and 1830s that all visitors received a hostile reception. In December 1862, Peruvian slave raiders took between 1,400
and 2,000 islanders back to Peru to work in the guano industry; this was about a third of the island's population and
included much of the island's leadership, the last ariki-mau and possibly the last who could read Rongorongo. After
intervention by the French ambassador in Lima, the last 15 survivors were returned to the island, but brought with
them smallpox, which further devastated the island.

Abolitionist movements
Slavery has existed, in one form or another, throughout the whole of
human history. So, too, have movements to free large or distinct
groups of slaves. However, abolitionism should be distinguished from
efforts to help a particular group of slaves, or to restrict one practice,
such as the slave trade.
Drescher (2009) provides a model for the history of the abolition of
slavery, emphasizing its origins in Western Europe. Around the year
1500, slavery had virtually died out in Western Europe, but was a
normal phenomenon practically everywhere else. The imperial powers,
France, Spain, Britain, Portugal, the Netherlands and a few others, built
worldwide empires based primarily on plantation agriculture using
slaves imported from Africa. However, the powers took care to
minimize the presence of slavery in their homelands. During the "Age
of Revolutions" (c. 17701815), Britain abolished its international
slave trade and imposed similar restrictions upon other western
nations; the U.S. followed suit in 1808. Although there were numerous
Proclamation of the abolition of slavery by Victor
slave revolts in the Caribbean, the only successful uprising came in the
Hugues in the Guadeloupe, 1 November 1794
French colony of St. Domingue, where the slaves rose up, killed the
mulattoes and whites, and established the independent Republic of Haiti. The continuing profitability of slave-based
plantations and the threats of race war slowed the development of abolition movements during the first half of the
19th century. These movements were strongest in Britain, and after 1840 in the United States, in both instances they
were based on evangelical religious enthusiasm that stressed the horrible impact on the slaves themselves. The
Northern states of the United States abolished slavery, partly in response to the Declaration of Independence,
between 1777 and 1804. Britain ended slavery in its empire in the 1830s. However the plantation economies of the
southern United States, based on cotton, and those in Brazil and Cuba, based on sugar, expanded and grew even
more profitable. The bloody American Civil War ended slavery in the United States in the 1860s; the system ended
in Cuba and Brazil in the 1880s because it was no longer profitable for the owners. Slavery continued to exist in
Africa, where Arab slave traders raided black areas for new captives to be sold in the system. European colonial rule
and diplomatic pressure slowly put an end to the trade, and eventually to the practice of slavery itself.[323]

29

History of slavery

30

Britain
In 1772, the Somersett Case (R. v. Knowles, ex
parte Somersett)[324] of the English Court of King's
Bench ruled that slavery was unlawful in England
(although not elsewhere in the British Empire). A
similar case, that of Joseph Knight, took place in
Scotland five years later and ruled slavery to be
contrary to the law of Scotland.
Following the work of campaigners in the United
Kingdom, such as William Wilberforce and Thomas
Clarkson, the Act for the Abolition of the Slave
Trade was passed by Parliament on 25 March 1807,
coming into effect the following year. The act
imposed a fine of 100 for every slave found aboard
a British ship. The intention was to outlaw entirely
the Atlantic slave trade within the whole British Empire.

A painting of the 1840 Anti-Slavery Conference.

The significance of the abolition of the British slave trade lay in the number of people hitherto sold and carried by
British slave vessels. Britain shipped 2,532,300 Africans across the Atlantic, equalling 41% of the total transport of
6,132,900 individuals. This made the British empire the biggest slave-trade contributor in the world due to the
magnitude of the empire. A fact that made the abolition act all the more damaging to the global trade of slaves.[325]
The Slavery Abolition Act, passed on 23 August 1833, outlawed slavery itself in the British colonies. On 1 August
1834 all slaves in the British West Indies, were emancipated, but still indentured to their former owners in an
apprenticeship system. The intention of, was to educate former slaves to a trade but instead allowed slave owners to
maintain ownership illegally. The act was finally repealed in 1838.[326]
Britain abolished slavery in both Hindu and Muslim India by the Indian Slavery Act V. of 1843.[327]
Domestic slavery practised by the educated African coastal elites (as well as interior traditional rulers) in Sierra
Leone was abolished in 1928. A study found practices of domestic slavery still widespread in rural areas in the
1970s.[328][329]

France
There were slaves in mainland France (especially in trade ports such as Nantes or Bordeaux).,[330] but the institution
was never officially authorized there. The legal case of Jean Boucaux in 1739 clarified the unclear legal position of
possible slaves in France, and was followed by laws that established registers for slaves in mainland France, who
were limited to a three-year stay, for visits or learning a trade. Unregistered "slaves" were regarded as free. However,
slavery was of vital importance in France's Caribbean possessions, especially Saint-Domingue. In 1793, influenced
by the French Declaration of the Rights of Man of August 1789 and alarmed as the massive slave revolt of August
1791 that had become the Haitian Revolution threatened to ally itself with the British, the French Revolutionary
commissioners Sonthonax and Polverel declared general emancipation to reconcile them with France. In Paris, on 4
February 1794, Abb Grgoire and the Convention ratified this action by officially abolishing slavery in all French
territories outside mainland France, freeing all the slaves both for moral and security reasons.
Napoleon sent troops to the Caribbean in 1802 to try to re-establish slavery due to the economic stress France was
suffering while fighting all over Europe. They succeeded in Guadeloupe, but the ex-slaves of Saint-Domingue
defeated the French corps that was sent and declared independence. This colony became Haiti, the first black
republic, on 1 January 1804, with at its head the leader of the revolt, Toussaint Louverture.[235] Slavery in the French
colonies was finally abolished only in 1849.

History of slavery

United States
In 1688, four German Quakers in Germantown presented a protest against the institution of slavery to their local
Quaker Meeting. It was ignored for 150 years but in 1844 it was rediscovered and was popularized by the
abolitionist movement. The 1688 Petition was the first American public document of its kind to protest slavery, and
in addition was one of the first public documents to define universal human rights.
The American Colonization Society, the primary vehicle for returning black Americans to greater freedom in Africa,
established the colony of Liberia in 182122, on the premise former American slaves would have greater freedom
and equality there.[331] The ACS assisted in the movement of thousands of African Americans to Liberia, with its
founder Henry Clay stating; "unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with
the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of
the country, to drain them off". Abraham Lincoln, an enthusiastic supporter of Clay, adopted his position on
returning the blacks to their own land.[332]
Slaves in the United States who escaped ownership would often make their way to Canada via the "Underground
Railroad". The more famous of the African American abolitionists include former slaves Harriet Tubman, Sojourner
Truth and Frederick Douglass. Many more people who opposed slavery and worked for abolition were northern
whites, such as William Lloyd Garrison and John Brown. Slavery was legally abolished in 1865 by the Thirteenth
Amendment to the United States Constitution.
While abolitionists agreed on the evils of slavery, there were differing opinions on what should happen after African
Americans were freed. By the time of Emancipation, African-Americans were now native to the United States and
did not want to leave. Most believed that their labor had made the land theirs as well as that of the whites.[333]

Congress of Vienna
The Declaration of the Powers, on the Abolition of the Slave Trade, of 8 February 1815 (Which also formed ACT,
No. XV. of the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna of the same year) included in its first sentence the concept of the
"principles of humanity and universal morality" as justification for ending a trade that was "odious in its
continuance".[334]

Twentieth century worldwide

The 1926 Slavery Convention, an initiative of the League of Nations, was a turning point in banning global slavery.
Article 4 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948 by the UN General Assembly, explicitly
banned slavery. The United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery was convened to
outlaw and ban slavery worldwide, including child slavery. In December 1966, the UN General Assembly adopted
the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which was developed from the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights. Article 8 of this international treaty bans slavery. The treaty came into force in March 1976 after it
had been ratified by 35 nations. As of November 2003, 104 nations had ratified the treaty. According to the British
Anti-Slavery Society, "Although there is no longer any state which recognizes any claim by a person to a right of
property over another, there are an estimated 27 million people throughout the world, mainly children, in conditions
of slavery."[335][336][337][338]

31

History of slavery

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Davis, David Brion. The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (1966)
Davis, David Brion. Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (2006)
Drescher, Seymour. Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery (Cambridge University Press, 2009)
Finkelman, Paul, and Joseph Miller, eds. Macmillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery (2 vol 1998)
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Greece and Rome

Bradley, Keith. Slavery and Society at Rome (1994)
Cuffel, Victoria. "The Classical Greek Concept of Slavery," Journal of the History of Ideas Vol. 27, No. 3 (Jul.
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Campbell, Gwyn. The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia (Frank Cass, 2004)
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Blackburn, Robin. The American Crucible: Slavery, Emancipation, and Human Rights (Verso; 2011) 498 pages;
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Ward, J. R. British West Indian Slavery, 17501834 (Oxford U.P. 1988)

32

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United States

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another execution could have occurred without attracting attention. Slavery itself as an institution in the British West Indies only continued for
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External links
Mmoire St Barth : Saint-Barthelemy's history (slave trade, slavery, abolitions) (http://www.memoirestbarth.
com/EN/)
UN.GIFT (http://www.ungift.org) Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking
Slave Trade Archives Project, UNESCO (http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=8780&
URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html)
Parliament & The British Slave Trade 1600 1807 (http://www.parliament.uk/slavetrade)
Digital History Slavery Facts & Myths (http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/slav_fact.cfm)
Muslim Slave System in Medieval India (http://www.voiceofdharma.com/books/mssmi)
Arab Slave Trade (http://www.arabslavetrade.com)
Scotland and the Abolition of the Slave Trade schools resource (http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/abolition/)
African Holocaust Society (http://www.africanholocaust.net) Anti-slavery and self-determination working to
educate via media
The Forgotten Holocaust: The Eastern Slave Trade (http://web.archive.org/web/20091026211238/http://
www.geocities.com/CollegePark/Classroom/9912/easterntrade.html)
Teaching resources about Slavery and Abolition on blackhistory4schools.com (http://www.
blackhistory4schools.com/slavetrade/)
"What really ended slavery?" (http://www.isj.org.uk/index.php4?id=332&issue=115) Robin Blackburn,
author of a two-volume history of the slave trade, interviewed by International Socialism
David Brion Davis, "American and British Slave Trade Abolition in Perspective" (http://southernspaces.org/
2009/american-and-british-slave-trade-abolition-perspective), Southern Spaces, 4 February 2009.

43

History of slavery
The Slave Next Door: Human Trafficking and Slavery in America Today (http://www.democracynow.org/
2009/9/9/the_slave_next_door_human_trafficking) video report by Democracy Now!
Archives on slavery at the University of London (http://www.ull.ac.uk/specialcollections/archives/
slaveryarchivesources.shtml)
Slavery Museum. Great Britain. (http://www.slaverymuseum.co.uk/)

44

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors

History of slavery Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=523668105 Contributors: *x*Ratty*x*, 05dmccra, 0leckh, 1812ahill, 1exec1,
2604:2000:FFC0:C1:E8A1:B396:65D9:B176, 3rdAlcove, 4shizzal, 660gd4qo, 74belmac, 99DBSIMLR, A. B., A8UDI, AAA765, Abc518, Abdullah Alkendy, Accurizer, Addshore, Adrienne of
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File:Slave treaty tablet.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Slave_treaty_tablet.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:F
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Santosga

45

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

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46

Indentured servant

Indentured servant
Indentured servitude was a form of debt bondage, established in the early years of the American colonies. Farmers,
planters, and shopkeepers in the colonies found it very difficult to hire free workers, primarily because it was so easy
for potential workers to set up their own farms.[1] Consequently, a common solution was to transport a young worker
from England or Germany, who would work for several years to pay off the debt of their travel costs. During the
indenture period the servants were not paid wages, but were provided with food, accommodation, clothing and
training. The indenture document specified how many years the servant would be required to work, after which they
would be free.
Not all were sent willingly. Several instances of kidnapping for transportation to the Americas are recorded and this
falls more clearly into the bracket of "white slave". Whilst these white slaves were often indentured in the same way
as their willing counterparts it is an important distinction to make. A good example of such a kidnap story is that of
Peter Williamson (Indian Peter) (1730-1799).
Most white immigrants arrived in Colonial America as indentured servants, usually as young men and women from
Britain or Germany, under the age of 21. Typically, the father of a teenager would sign the legal papers, and work
out an arrangement with a ship captain, who would not charge the father any money.[2] The captain would transport
the indentured servants to the American colonies, and sell their legal papers to someone who needed workers. At the
end of the indenture, the young person was given a new suit of clothes and was free to leave. Many immediately set
out to begin their own farms, while others used their newly acquired skills to pursue a trade.[3][4][5]
In the 17th century, nearly two-thirds of settlers to the New World
from the British Isles came as indentured servants. Given the high
death rate, many servants did not live to the end of their terms.[6] In the
18th and early 19th century, numerous Europeans traveled to the
colonies as redemptioners, a form of indenture.[7]
It has been estimated that the redemptioners comprised almost 80% of
the total British and continental emigration to America prior to the
Revolution.[8] Indentured servants were a separate category from
bound apprentices. The latter were American-born children, usually
orphans or from an impoverished family who could not care for them.
They were under the control of courts and were bound out to work as
an apprentice until a certain age. Two famous bound apprentices were
Benjamin Franklin who illegally fled his apprenticeship to his brother,
and Andrew Johnson, who later became president.[9]

Indenture contract signed with an X by Henry

Meyer in 1738

Costs and wages

In the 18th century, wages in Great Britain were low because of a surplus of labor. The average was about 50
shillings (2.5) a year for a plowman, and 40 shillings (2) a year for an ordinary unskilled worker. Ships' captains
negotiated prices for transporting and feeding a passenger on the seven or eight week journey across the ocean,
averaging about 5 to 7, the equivalent of four or five years of work back in England.[10][11]

Indentured servant

Legal documents
An indenture was a legal contract enforced by the courts. One indenture reads
as follows:[12]
This INDENTURE Witnesseth that James Best a Laborer doth
Voluntarily put himself Servant to Captain Stephen Jones Master
of the Snow Sally to serve the said Stephen Jones and his Assigns,
for and during the full Space, Time and Term of three Years from
the first Day of the said James arrival in Philadelphia in
AMERICA, during which Time or Term the said Master or his
Assigns shall and will find and supply the said James with
sufficient Meat, Drink, Apparel, Lodging and all other necessaries
befitting such a Servant, and at the end and expiration of said
Term, the said James to be made Free, and receive according to
the Custom of the Country. Provided nevertheless, and these
Presents are on this Condition, that if the said James shall pay the
said Stephen Jones or his Assigns 15 Pounds British in twenty one
Days after his arrival he shall be Free, and the above Indenture
and every Clause therein, absolutely Void and of no Effect. In
Witness whereof the said Parties have hereunto interchangeably
put their Hands and Seals the 6th Day of July in the Year of our
Lord, One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy Three in the
Presence of the Right Worshipful Mayor of the City of London.
(signatures)

Indenture of apprenticeship binding

Evan Morgan, a child aged 6 years and
11 months, for a period of 14 years, 1
month. Dated Feb. 1, 1823, Sussex Co.,
Delaware.

When the ship arrived, the captain would often advertise in a newspaper that indentured servants were for sale:[13]
Just imported, on board the Snow Sally, Captain Stephen Jones, Master, from England, A number of healthy,
stout English and Welsh Servants and Redemptioners, and a few Palatines [Germans], amongst whom are the
following tradesmen, viz. Blacksmiths, watch-makers, coppersmiths, taylors, shoemakers, ship-carpenters and
caulkers, weavers, cabinet-makers, ship-joiners, nailers, engravers, copperplate printers, plasterers, bricklayers,
sawyers and painters. Also schoolmasters, clerks and book-keepers, farmers and labourers, and some lively
smart boys, fit for various other employments, whose times are to be disposed of. Enquire of the Captain on
board the vessel, off Walnut-street wharff, or of MEASE and CALDWELL.
When a buyer was found, the sale would be recorded at the city court. The Philadelphia Mayors Court Indenture
Book, page 742, for September 18, 1773 has the following entry:[14]
James Best, who was under Indenture of Redemption to Captain Stephen Jones now cancelled in
consideration of 15, paid for his Passage from London bound a servant to David Rittenhouse of the
City of Philadelphia & assigns three years to be found all necessaries.

Indentured servant

Restrictions
Indentures could not marry without the permission of their owner, were subject to physical punishment (like many
young ordinary servants), and saw their obligation to labor enforced by the courts. To ensure uninterrupted work by
the female servants, the law lengthened the term of their indenture if they became pregnant. But unlike slaves,
servants were guaranteed to be eventually released from bondage. At the end of their term they received a payment
known as "freedom dues" and become free members of society.[15] One could buy and sell indentured servants'
contracts, and the right to their labor would change hands, but not the person as a piece of property.
Both male and female laborers could be subject to violence, occasionally even resulting in death. Richard Hofstadter
notes that, as slaves arrived in greater numbers after 1700, white laborers became a "privileged stratum, assigned to
lighter work and more skilled tasks".[16]

Redemptionist profile
Indentured servitude was a method of increasing the number of colonists, especially in the English and later British
colonies. Voluntary migration and convict labor only provided so many people, and since the journey across the
Atlantic was dangerous, other means of encouraging settlement were necessary. Contract-laborers became an
important group of people and so numerous that the United States Constitution counted them specifically in
appointing representatives:
Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within
this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number
of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years....[17]
Displaced from their land and unable to find work in the cities, many of these people signed contracts of indenture
and took passage to the Americas. In Massachusetts, religious instruction in the Puritan way of life was often part of
the condition of indenture, and people tended to live in towns.
The labor-intensive cash crop of tobacco was farmed in the American South by indentured laborers in the 17th and
18th centuries.[18] Indentured servitude was not the same as the apprenticeship system by which skilled trades were
taught, but similarities do exist between the two, since both require a set period of work. The majority of Virginians
were Anglican, not Puritan, and while religion did play a large role in everyday lives, the culture was more
commercially based. In the Chesapeake and North Carolina, tobacco constituted a major percentage of the total
agricultural output. (In the Deep South (mainly Georgia and South Carolina), cotton and rice plantations dominated.)
In the lower Atlantic colonies where tobacco was the main cash crop, the majority of labor that indentured servants
performed was related to field work. In this situation, social isolation could increase the possibilities for both direct
and indirect abuse, as could lengthy, demanding labor in the tobacco fields.
The system was still widely practiced in the 1780s, picking up immediately after a hiatus during the American
Revolution. Fernand Braudel (The Perspective of the World 1984, pp 405f) instances a 1783 report on "the import
trade from Ireland" and its large profits to a ship owner or a captain, who:
"puts his conditions to the emigrants in Dublin or some other Irish port. Those who can pay for their
passageusually about 100 or 80 [livres tournois]arrive in America free to take any engagement that suits
them. Those who cannot pay are carried at the expense of the shipowner, who in order to recoup his money,
advertises on arrival that he has imported artisans, laborers and domestic servants and that he has agreed with
them on his own account to hire their services for a period normally of three, four, or five years for men and
women and 6 or 7 years for children."
In modern terms, the shipowner was acting as an contractor, hiring out his laborers. Such circumstances affected the
treatment a captain gave his valuable human cargo. After indentures were forbidden, the passage had to be prepaid,
giving rise to the inhumane conditions of Irish 'coffin ships' in the second half of the 19th century.[19]

Indentured servant

Decline
Indentured servitude was a major element of colonial labor economics, from the 1620s until the American
Revolution. Few indentures arrived during the revolutionary war, and the indenturing practice subsequently declined.
Several factors contributed to the decline of indentured servitude. The expansion of staple crop production in the
colonies led to an increased demand for skilled workers, and the price of indentured agricultural labor increased. For
example, the cost of indentured labor rose by nearly 60 percent throughout the 1680s in some colonial regions.[20]
Relative labor costs changed, with an increase in real income in Europe and England. This, along with improved
transportation productivity and efficiency with smaller crew sizes, and cheaper insurance rates reduced the cost of
the voyage to the colonies, so immigrants could pay for it themselves and refrain from entering indentured contracts.
Rising prices for English servants made the rather elastic supply of Africans comparatively less expensive and more
desirable. Colonial farmers preferred not to train adult slaves to do skilled labor, and chose to train younger Africans
when they reached the colonies or to train the children of adult slaves already in British America. By the turn of the
17th century, unskilled labor positions were often filled by African slaves and skilled service positions were still
filled by white indentured servants.[20] Thereafter, Africans began to replace indentured servants in both skilled and
unskilled positions.

Caribbean
A half million Europeans went as indentured servants to the Caribbean (primarily the south Caribbean, Trinidad,
French Guiana, and Surinam) before 1840.[21][22] Most were young men, with dreams of owning their land or
striking it rich quick would essentially sell years of their labor in exchange for passage to the islands. The
landowners on the islands would pay for a servants passage and then provide them with food, clothes, shelter and
instruction during the agreed upon term. The servant would then be required to work in the landowners (master)
field for a term of bondage (usually four to seven years). During this term of bondage the servant had a status similar
to a son of the master. For example they were not allowed to marry without the masters permission. They could own
personal property. They could also complain to a local magistrate about mistreatment that exceeded community
norms. However, his contract could be sold or given away by his master. After the servants term was complete he
became independent and was paid freedom dues. These payments could take the form of land which would give the
servant the opportunity to become an independent farmer or a free laborer. As free men with little money they
became a political force that stood in opposition to the rich planters.[23]
Indentured servitude was a common part of the social landscape in England and Ireland during the 17th century.
During the 17th century, many Irish were also taken to Barbados. In 1643, there were 37,200 whites in Barbados
(86% of the population).[24] During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms many Scottish and Irish prisoners of war were
sold as indentured labors to the colonies.[25]
After 1660, fewer indentured servants came from Europe to the Caribbean. Newly freed servant farmers, given a few
acres of land, were unable to make a living because profitable sugar plantations needed to cover hundreds of acres.
The landowners reputation as cruel masters became a deterrence to the potential indentured servant. In the 17th
century, the islands became known as a death traps, as between 33 to 50 percent of indentured servants died before
they were freed, many from Yellow fever, malaria and other diseases.[26]
When slavery ended in the British Empire in 1833, plantation owners turned to indentured servitude for inexpensive
labor. These servants arrived from across the globe; the majority came from India where many Indians departed as
indentured laborers to work in colonies requiring manual labor. As a result, today Indo-Caribbeans form a majority
in Guyana, a plurality in Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname, and a substantial minority in Jamaica, Grenada,
Barbados, and other Caribbean islands.[27][28]

Indentured servant

Australia and the Pacific

Convicts transported to the Australian colonies before the 1840s often found themselves hired out in a form of
indentured labor.[29] Indentured servants also emigrated to New South Wales.[30]
During the 1860s planters in Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia, and the Samoa Islands, in need of laborers, encouraged
a trade in long-term indentured labor called "blackbirding". At the height of the labor trade, more than one-half the
adult male population of several of the islands worked abroad.
Over a period of 40 years, from the mid-19th century to the early 20th century, labor for the sugar-cane fields of
Queensland, Australia included an element of coercive recruitment and indentured servitude of the 62,000 South Sea
Islanders. The workers came mainly from Melanesia - mainly from the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu - with a small
number from Polynesian and Micronesian areas such as Samoa, the Gilbert Islands (subsequently known as Kiribati)
and the Ellice Islands (subsequently known as Tuvalu). They became collectively known as "Kanakas".
It remains unknown how many Islanders the trade controversially kidnapped (or blackbirded). Whether the system
legally recruited Islanders, persuaded, deceived, coerced or forced them to leave their homes and travel by ship to
Queensland remains difficult to determine. Official documents and accounts from the period often conflict with the
oral tradition passed down to the descendants of workers. Stories of blatantly violent kidnapping tend to relate to the
first 1015 years of the trade.
Australia deported many of these Islanders to their places of origin in the period 1906-1908 under the provisions of
the Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901.[31]
Australia's own colonies of Papua and New Guinea (joined after the Second World War to form Papua New Guinea)
were the last jurisdictions in the world to use indentured servitude.

Africa
A significant number of construction projects, principally British, in East Africa and South Africa, required vast
quantities of labor, exceeding the availability or willingness of local tribesmen. Coolies from India were imported,
frequently under indenture, for such projects as the Uganda Railway, as farm labor, and as miners. They and their
descendants and formed a significant portion of the population and economy of Kenya and Uganda, although not
without engendering resentment from others. Idi Amin's expulsion of the "Asians" from Uganda in 1972 was an
expulsion of Indo-Africans.[32]

Indian Ocean
The islands of the Indian Ocean, especially Mauritius, with extensive sugar cane plantations sought a cheaper
workforce than emancipated workers negotiating for higher wages. Mauritius was the country of coolitude,[33] the
'Great Experiment' of widespread recourse to indentured labor having started there. Mauritius acted as a hub or
plaque tournante for this indentured population of coolies, receiving and onward dispatching hundreds of thousands
of coolies to Africa and the Indies through the Aapravasi ghat.

Legal status
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948) declares in
Article 4 "No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their
forms".[34] However, only national legislation can establish its unlawfulness. In the United States, the Victims of
Trafficking and Violence Protection Act (VTVPA) of 2000 extended servitude to cover peonage as well as
Involuntary Servitude.[35]

Indentured servant

Notes
[1] Fred Shannon, Economic History of the People of the United States (1934) pp 73-79
[2] William Moraley and Susan E. Klepp, The infortunate: the voyage and adventures of William Moraley an indentured servant, Google Books,
page xx
[3] James Curtis Ballagh, White Servitude In The Colony Of Virginia: A Study Of The System Of Indentured Labor In The American Colonies
(1895)
[4] Frank R. Diffenderffer, The German Immigration into Pennsylvania Through the Port of Philadelphia, 1700-1775, (1979); this book
describes the indenturing process in detail for immigrants from numerous European countries.
[5] Moraley, William; Klepp, Susan E. and Smith, Billy Gordon (2005). The infortunate: the voyage and adventures of William Moraley, an
indentured servant (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=FPk4MtlX9oUC). Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN0-271-02676-6. .
[6] White Servitude (http:/ / www. montgomerycollege. edu/ Departments/ hpolscrv/ whiteser. html), by Richard Hofstadter, Montgomery
College
[7] "Price & Associates: Immigrant Servants Database" (http:/ / www. immigrantservants. com/ ). Immigrantservants.com. . Retrieved
2009-07-04.
[8] See Richard B. Morris, "Emergence of American Labor." (http:/ / www. dol. gov/ oasam/ programs/ history/ chapter1. htm) U.S. Department
of Labor, August 30, 2005.
[9] Ruth Wallis Herndon and John E. Murray, eds., Children Bound to Labor: The Pauper Apprentice System in Early America (2009)
[10] Shannon, Economic History of the People of the United States (1934) pp. 75-76
[11] Kerby A. Miller et al,, eds. (2003). Irish Immigrants in the Land of Canaan: Letters and Memoirs from Colonial and Revolutionary
America, 1675-1815 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=bq79_YZ8ViIC& pg=PA75). Oxford U.P.. p.75. .
[12] Frank R. Diffenderffer, The German Immigration into Pennsylvania Through the Port of Philadelphia, 1700-1775, Genealogical Pub. Co.,
Baltimore, 1979.
[13] Pennsylvania Gazette (weekly Philadelphia newspaper), August 17, 1774
[14] Record of Indentures, Philadelphia, 1771-1773, Genealogical Publishing Co., Baltimore, 1973.
[15] Eric Foner: Give me liberty. W.W.Norton & Company, 2004. ISBN 978-0-393-97873-5.
[16] White Servitude (http:/ / www. mc. cc. md. us/ Departments/ hpolscrv/ whiteser. html), by Richard Hofstadter
[17] U.S. Constitution, Article 1, Section 2.
[18] "Laws on Indentured Servants" (http:/ / www. virtualjamestown. org/ servlaws. html). VirtualJamestown.org. circa 1619-1654. . Retrieved
2008-08-18.
[19] Jackson, Pauline (1984). "Women in 19th Century Irish Emigration"
[20] Galenson 1984, p.126
[21] Michael D. Bordo, Alan M. Taylor, Jeffrey G. Williamson, eds. Globalization in historical perspective (2005) p. 72
[22] Gordon K. Lewis and Anthony P. Maingot, Main Currents in Caribbean Thought: The Historical Evolution of Caribbean Society in Its
Ideological Aspects, 1492-1900 (2004) pp 96-97
[23] Lewis and Maingot (2004) p 97
[24] Population (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ history/ british/ empire_seapower/ barbados_03. shtml), Slavery and Economy in Barbados, BBC.
[25] Higman 1997, p.108
[26] A failed settler society: marriage and demographic failure in early Jamaica (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m2005/ is_n1_v28/
ai_16106981/ pg_2), Journal of Social History, Fall, 1994, by Trevor Burnard
[27] Walton Lai, Indentured labor, Caribbean sugar: Chinese and Indian migrants to the British West Indies, 1838-1918 (1993)
[28] Steven Vertovik, "Indian Indentured Migration to the Caribbean," in Robin Cohen, ed. The Cambridge survey of world migration (1995) pp
57-62
[29] Atkinson, James (1826). An account of the state of agriculture & grazing in New South Wales (http:/ / books. google. co. nz/
books?id=RV0BsFB3BPoC). London: J. Cross. p.110. . Retrieved 2012-11-14. "On Sir Thomas Brisbane assuming the Government, it was
ordered, that all persons should, for every 100 acres of land granted to them, take and keep one convict until the expiration or remission of his
sentence."
[30] Perkins, John (1988), "Convict Labour and the Australian Agricultural Company" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=PX2hli7W8WkC),
in Nicholas, Stephen, The Convict Workers: Reinterpeting Australia's Past, Studies in Australian History, Cambridge University Press, p.168,
ISBN9780521361262, , retrieved 2012-11-14, "A feature of the Australian Agricultural Company's operation at Port Stephens was the
simultaneous employment [...] of various forms of labour. The original nucleus of the workforce consisted of indentured servants brought out
from Europe on seven-year contracts."
[31] "Documenting Democracy" (http:/ / www. foundingdocs. gov. au/ item. asp?sdID=86). Foundingdocs.gov.au. . Retrieved 2009-07-04.
[32] Patel, Hasu H. (1972). "General Amin and the Indian Exodus from Uganda". Issue: A Journal of Opinion 2 (4): 1222.
doi:10.2307/1166488.
[33] M Carter and K Torabully.Coolitude: An Anthology of the Indian Labour Diaspora (Anthem South Asian Studies)ISBN 978-1843310068
[34] "Universal Declaration of Human Rights" (http:/ / www. un. org/ en/ documents/ udhr/ index. shtml). United Nations. . Retrieved
2011-10-14.
[35] "US Peonage and involuntary servitude laws" (http:/ / www. justice. gov/ crt/ about/ crm/ 1581fin. php). justice.gov. . Retrieved 2011-10-14.

Indentured servant

References
Galenson, David (March 1984). "The Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude in the Americas: An Economic
Analysis". The Journal of Economic History 44 (1): 126.
Higman, B. W. (1997). Knight, Franklin W.. ed. General History of the Caribbean: The slave societies of the
Caribbean. 3 (illustrated ed.). UNESCO. p.108. ISBN978-0-333-65605-1.

Further reading
Abramitzky, Ran; Braggion, Fabio. "Migration and Human Capital: Self-Selection of Indentured Servants to the
Americas," Journal of Economic History, Dec 2006, Vol. 66 Issue 4, pp 882905,
Ballagh, James Curtis. White Servitude In The Colony Of Virginia: A Study Of The System Of Indentured Labor
In The American Colonies (1895)
Brown, Kathleen. Goodwives, Nasty Wenches & Anxious Patriachs: gender, race and power in Colonial Virginia,
U. of North Carolina Press, 1996.
Hofstadter, Richard. America at 1750: A Social Portrait (Knopf, 1971) pp 3365 online (http://www.mc.cc.
md.us/Departments/hpolscrv/whiteser.html)
Jernegan, Marcus Wilson Laboring and Dependent Classes in Colonial America, 1607-1783 (1931)
Morgan, Edmund S. American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia. (Norton, 1975).
Salinger, Sharon V. To serve well and faithfully: Labor and Indentured Servants in Pennsylvania,
1682-1800. (2000)
Khal Torabully and Marina Carter, Coolitude: An Anthology of the Indian Labour Diaspora Anthem Press,
London, 2002, ISBN 1-84331-003-1
Zipf, Karin L. Labor of Innocents: Forced Apprenticeship in North Carolina, 1715-1919 (2005).
Whitehead, John Frederick, Johann Carl Buttner, Susan E. Klepp, and Farley Grubb. Souls for Sale: Two German
Redemptioners Come to Revolutionary America, Max Kade German-American Research Institute Series, ISBN
0-271-02882-3.
Marion, Pascal. Dictionnaire tymologique du crole runionnais, mots d'origine asiatique, Carr de sucre, 2009,
ISBN 978-2-9529135-0-8

External links
GUIANA 1838 - a film about indentured labourers (http://www.rbcradio.com/guiana1838.html)

Article Sources and Contributors

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