Alternative Energy in Power Electronics

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Preface

Chapter 2: Energy

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C H A P T E R 1

Power Electronics for

Renewable Energy Sources

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C.V.Nayar;S.M.Islam;H.Dehbonei;K.TanDepartmentofElectricalandComputer
Engineering,CurtinUniversityofTechnology,Perth,WesternAustralia,Australia

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H.SharmaResearchInstituteforSustainableEnergy,MurdochUniversity,Perth,Western
Australia,Australia

Abstract

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Thischapterfocusesonsolarphotovoltaicandwindpower.Standalone
PVenergysystemrequiresstoragetomeettheenergydemandduring
periodsoflowsolarirradiationandnighttime.Blockingdiodesinseries
withPVmodulesareusedtopreventthebatteriesfrombeingdischarged
throughthePVcellsatnightwhenthereisnosunavailabletogenerate
energy.Twoofthemainfactorsthathavebeenidentifiedaslimiting
criteriaforthecyclelifeofbatteriesinPVpowersystemsareincomplete
chargingandprolongedoperationatalowstateofcharge.Thepower
outputofthePVarrayissampledataneverydefinitesamplingperiod
andcomparedwiththepreviousvalue.Voltagesourceinvertersare
usuallyusedinstandaloneapplications.Theycanbesinglephaseor
threephase.Therearethreeswitchingtechniquescommonlyused:square
wave,quasisquarewave,andpulsewidthmodulation.Centrifugal
pumpsareusedforlowheadapplicationsespeciallyiftheyaredirectly
interfacedwiththesolarpanels.Centrifugalpumpsaredesignedfor
fixedheadapplicationsandthepressuredifferencegeneratedincreases
inrelationtothespeedofpump.

Keywords
Powerelectronics
Renewableenergysources
Photovoltaics
Wind
Solar

CHAPTEROUTLINE

1.1Introduction2
1.2PowerElectronicsforPhotovoltaicPowerSystems3
1.2.1BasicsofPhotovoltaics3
1.2.2TypesofPVPowerSystems6
1.2.3StandalonePVSystems9
1.2.3.1BatteryCharging9
1.2.3.2InvertersforStandalonePVSystems15
1.2.3.3SolarWaterPumping18

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1.2.4HybridEnergySystems25
1.2.4.1SeriesConfiguration26
1.2.4.2SwitchedConfiguration27
1.2.4.3ParallelConfiguration28
1.2.4.4ControlofHybridEnergySystems30
1.2.5GridconnectedPVSystems32
1.2.5.1InvertersforGridconnectedApplications33
1.2.5.2InverterClassifications33
1.2.5.3InverterTypes34
1.2.5.4PowerControlthroughPVInverters40
1.2.5.5SystemConfigurations45
1.2.5.6GridcompatibleInvertersCharacteristics47
1.3PowerElectronicsforWindPowerSystems49
1.3.1BasicsofWindPower51
1.3.1.1TypesofWindTurbines53
1.3.1.2TypesofWindGenerators54
1.3.2TypesofWindPowerSystems58
1.3.3StandaloneWindPowerSystems58
1.3.3.1BatteryChargingwithStandaloneWindEnergySystem58
1.3.3.2WindTurbineChargeController58
1.3.4WinddieselHybridSystems59
1.3.5GridconnectedWindEnergySystems60
1.3.5.1SoftStartersforInductionGenerators61
1.3.6ControlofWindTurbines62
1.3.6.1FixedSpeedWindTurbines62
1.3.6.2VariableSpeedWindTurbines65
1.3.6.3DiscretelyVariableSpeedSystems66
1.3.6.4ContinuouslyVariableSpeedSystems67
1.3.6.5TypesofGeneratorOptionsforVariableSpeedWindTurbines
UsingPowerElectronics70
1.3.6.6IsolatedGridSupplySystemwithMultipleWindTurbines73
1.3.6.7PowerElectronicsTechnologyDevelopment74
References75

1.1 Introduction
TheKyotoagreementonglobalreductionofgreenhousegasemissions
haspromptedrenewedinterestinrenewableenergysystemsworldwide.
Manyrenewableenergytechnologiestodayarewelldeveloped,reliable,
andcostcompetitivewiththeconventionalfuelgenerators.Thecostof
renewableenergytechnologiesisonafallingtrendandisexpectedtofall
furtherasdemandandproductionincreases.Therearemanyrenewable
energysources(RES)suchasbiomass,solar,wind,minihydroandtidal
power.However,solarandwindenergysystemsmakeuseofadvanced
powerelectronicstechnologiesand,thereforethefocusinthischapter
willbeonsolarphotovoltaicandwindpower.
Oneoftheadvantagesofferedby(RES)istheirpotentialtoprovide
sustainableelectricityinareasnotservedbytheconventionalpowergrid.
Thegrowingmarketforrenewableenergytechnologieshasresultedina
rapidgrowthintheneedofpowerelectronics.Mostoftherenewable
energytechnologiesproduceDCpowerandhencepowerelectronicsand
controlequipmentarerequiredtoconverttheDCintoACpower.
InvertersareusedtoconvertDCtoAC.Therearetwotypesofinverters:
(a)standaloneor(b)gridconnected.Bothtypeshaveseveralsimilarities
butaredifferentintermsofcontrolfunctions.Astandaloneinverteris
usedinoffgridapplicationswithbatterystorage.Withbackupdiesel
generators(suchasphotovoltaic(PV)/diesel/hybridpowersystems),the
invertersmayhaveadditionalcontrolfunctionssuchasoperatingin
parallelwithdieselgeneratorsandbidirectionaloperation(battery

chargingandinverting).Gridinteractiveinvertersmustfollowthe
voltageandfrequencycharacteristicsoftheutilitygeneratedpower
presentedonthedistributionline.Forbothtypesofinverters,the
conversionefficiencyisaveryimportantconsideration.Detailsof
standaloneandgridconnectedinvertersforPVandwindapplications
arediscussedinthischapter.
Section1.2coversstandalonePVsystemapplicationssuchasbattery
chargingandwaterpumpingforremoteareas.Thissectionalsodiscusses
powerelectronicconverterssuitableforPVdieselhybridsystemsand
gridconnectedPVforrooftopandlargescaleapplications.Ofallthe
renewableenergyoptions,thewindturbinetechnologyismaturingvery
fast.Amarkedriseininstalledwindpowercapacityhasbeennoticed
worldwideinthelastdecade.Perunitgenerationcostofwindpoweris
nowquitecomparablewiththeconventionalgeneration.Windturbine
generatorsareusedinstandalonebatterychargingapplications,in
combinationwithfossilfuelgeneratorsaspartofhybridsystemsandas
gridconnectedsystems.Asaresultofadvancementsinbladedesign,
generators,powerelectronics,andcontrolsystems,ithasbeenpossibleto
increasedramaticallytheavailabilityoflargescalewindpower.Many
windgeneratorsnowincorporatespeedcontrolmechanismslikeblade
pitchcontroloruseconverters/inverterstoregulatepoweroutputfrom
variablespeedwindturbines.InSection1.3,electricalandpower
conditioningaspectsofwindenergyconversionsystemswereincluded.

1.2 Power electronics for photovoltaic power systems

1.2.1 Basics of photovoltaics
Thedensityofpowerradiatedfromthesun(referredassolarenergy
2

constant)attheouteratmosphereis1.373kW/m .Partofthisenergyis
absorbedandscatteredbytheearthsatmosphere.Thefinalincident
2

sunlightonearthssurfacehasapeakdensityof1kW/m atnooninthe
tropics.Thetechnologyofphotovoltaics(PV)isessentiallyconcerned
withtheconversionofthisenergyintousableelectricalform.Basic
elementofaPVsystemisthesolarcell.Solarcellscanconverttheenergy
ofsunlightdirectlyintoelectricity.Consumerappliancesusedtoprovide
servicessuchaslighting,waterpumping,refrigeration,
telecommunication,television,etc.canberunfromPVelectricity.Solar
cellsrelyonaquantummechanicalprocessknownasthephotovoltaic
effecttoproduceelectricity.Atypicalsolarcellconsistsofapnjunction
formedinasemiconductormaterialsimilartoadiode.Figure1.1showsa
schematicdiagramofthecrosssectionthroughacrystallinesolarcell[
1 ].Itconsistsofa0.20.3mmthickmonocrystallineorpolycrystalline
siliconwaferhavingtwolayerswithdifferentelectricalpropertiesformed
bydopingitwithotherimpurities(e.g.boronandphosphorous).An
electricfieldisestablishedatthejunctionbetweenthenegativelydoped
(usingphosphorousatoms)andthepositivelydoped(usingboronatoms)
siliconlayers.Iflightisincidentonthesolarcell,theenergyfromthe
light(photons)createsfreechargecarriers,whichareseparatedbythe
electricalfield.Anelectricalvoltageisgeneratedattheexternalcontacts,
sothatcurrentcanflowwhenaloadisconnected.Thephotocurrent(Iph),
whichisinternallygeneratedinthesolarcell,isproportionaltothe
radiationintensity.

FIGURE1.1

Principleoftheoperationofasolarcell[

].

Asimplifiedequivalentcircuitofasolarcellconsistsofacurrentsource
inparallelwithadiodeasshowninFig.1.2a.Avariableresistoris
connectedtothesolarcellgeneratorasaload.Whentheterminalsare
shortcircuited,theoutputvoltageandalsothevoltageacrossthediodeis
zero.Theentirephotocurrent(Iph)generatedbythesolarradiationthen
flowstotheoutput.Thesolarcellcurrenthasitsmaximum(Isc).Ifthe
loadresistanceisincreased,whichresultsinanincreasingvoltageacross
thepnjunctionofthediode,aportionofthecurrentflowsthroughthe
diodeandtheoutputcurrentdecreasesbythesameamount.Whenthe
loadresistorisopencircuited,theoutputcurrentiszeroandtheentire
photocurrentflowsthroughthediode.Therelationshipbetweencurrent
andvoltagemaybedeterminedfromthediodecharacteristicequation

(1.1)

FIGURE1.2

Simplifiedequivalentcircuitforasolarcell.

whereqistheelectroncharge,kistheBoltzmannconstant,Iphis
photocurrent,I0isthereversesaturationcurrent,Idisdiodecurrent,andT
isthesolarcelloperatingtemperature(K).Thecurrentvsvoltage(IV)
ofasolarcellisthusequivalenttoaninverteddiodecharacteristic
curveshowninFig.1.2b.
Anumberofsemiconductormaterialsaresuitableforthemanufacturing
ofsolarcells.Themostcommontypesusingsiliconsemiconductor
material(Si)are:
MonocrystallineSicells.
PolycrystallineSicells.
AmorphousSicells.
Asolarcellcanbeoperatedatanypointalongitscharacteristiccurrent
voltagecurve,asshowninFig.1.3.Twoimportantpointsonthiscurve
aretheopencircuitvoltage(Voc)andshortcircuitcurrent(Isc).Theopen
circuitvoltageisthemaximumvoltageatzerocurrent,whileshortcircuit
currentisthemaximumcurrentatzerovoltage.Forasiliconsolarcell
understandardtestconditions,Vocistypically0.60.7V,andIscis
typically2040mAforeverysquarecentimeterofthecellarea.Toagood
approximation,Iscisproportionaltotheilluminationlevel,whereasVocis
proportionaltothelogarithmoftheilluminationlevel.

FIGURE1.3

Currentvsvoltage(IV)andcurrentpower

(PV)characteristicsforasolarcell.

Aplotofpower(P)againstvoltage(V)forthisdevice(Fig.1.3)showsthat
thereisauniquepointontheIVcurveatwhichthesolarcellwill
generatemaximumpower.Thisisknownasthemaximumpowerpoint
(Vmp,Imp).Tomaximizethepoweroutput,stepsareusuallytakenduring
fabrication,thethreebasiccellparameters:opencircuitvoltage,short
circuitcurrent,andfillfactor(FF)atermdescribinghowsquarethe
IVcurveis,givenby

(1.2)

Forasiliconsolarcell,FFistypically0.60.8.Becausesiliconsolarcells
typicallyproduceonlyabout0.5V,anumberofcellsareconnectedin
seriesinaPVmodule.Apanelisacollectionofmodulesphysicallyand
electricallygroupedtogetheronasupportstructure.Anarrayisa
collectionofpanels(seeFig.1.4).

FIGURE1.4

PVgeneratorterms.

Theeffectoftemperatureontheperformanceofsiliconsolarmoduleis
illustratedinFig.1.5.NotethatIscslightlyincreaseslinearlywith
temperature,but,Vocandthemaximumpower,Pmdecreasewith
temperature[ 1 ].

FIGURE1.5

Effectsoftemperatureonsiliconsolarcells.

Figure1.6showsthevariationofPVcurrentandvoltagesatdifferent
insolationlevels.FromFigs.1.5and1.6,itcanbeseenthattheIV
characteristicsofsolarcellsatagiveninsolationandtemperatureconsist
ofaconstantvoltagesegmentandaconstantcurrentsegment[ 3 ].The
currentislimited,asthecellisshortcircuited.Themaximumpower
conditionoccursatthekneeofthecharacteristiccurvewherethetwo
segmentsmeet.

FIGURE1.6

Typicalcurrent/voltage(IV)characteristic

curvesfordifferentinsolation.

1.2.2 Types of PV power systems

Photovoltaicpowersystemscanbeclassifiedas:
StandalonePVsystems.
HybridPVsystems.
GridconnectedPVsystems.
StandalonePVsystems,showninFig.1.7,areusedinremoteareaswith
noaccesstoautilitygrid.Conventionalpowersystemsusedinremote
areasoftenbasedonmanuallycontrolleddieselgeneratorsoperating
continuouslyorforafewhours.Extendedoperationofdieselgenerators
atlowloadlevelssignificantlyincreasesmaintenancecostsandreduces
theirusefullife.RenewableenergysourcessuchasPVcanbeaddedto
remoteareapowersystemsusingdieselandotherfossilfuelpowered
generatorstoprovide24hourpowereconomicallyandefficiently.Such
systemsarecalledhybridenergysystems.Figure1.8showsaschematic
ofaPVdieselhybridsystem.IngridconnectedPVsystemsshowninFig.
1.9,PVpanelsareconnectedtoagridthroughinverterswithoutbattery
storage.Thesesystemscanbeclassifiedassmallsystemslikethe
residentialrooftopsystemsorlargegridconnectedsystems.Thegrid
interactiveinvertersmustbesynchronizedwiththegridintermsof
voltageandfrequency.

FIGURE1.7

StandalonePVsystem.

FIGURE1.8

PVdieselhybridsystem.

FIGURE1.9

GridconnectedPVsystem.

1.2.3 Stand-alone PV systems

ThetwomainstandalonePVapplicationsare:
Batterycharging.
Solarwaterpumping.
1.2.3.1 Battery charging
1.2.3.1.1 Batteries for PV systems

StandalonePVenergysystemrequiresstoragetomeettheenergy
demandduringperiodsoflowsolarirradiationandnighttime.Several
typesofbatteriesareavailablesuchastheleadacid,nickelcadmium,
lithium,zincbromide,zincchloride,sodiumsulfur,nickelhydrogen,
redox,andvanadiumbatteries.Theprovisionofcosteffectiveelectrical
energystorageremainsoneofthemajorchallengesforthedevelopment
ofimprovedPVpowersystems.Typically,leadacidbatteriesareusedto
guaranteeseveralhourstoafewdaysofenergystorage.Theirreasonable
costandgeneralavailabilityhasresultedinthewidespreadapplicationof
leadacidbatteriesforremoteareapowersuppliesdespitetheirlimited
lifetimecomparedtoothersystemcomponents.Leadacidbatteriescan
bedeeporshallowcyclinggelledbatteries,batterieswithcaptiveor
liquidelectrolyte,sealedandnonsealedbatteriesetc.[ 4 ].Sealed
batteriesarevalveregulatedtopermitevolutionofexcesshydrogengas
(althoughcatalyticconvertersareusedtoconvertasmuchevolved
hydrogenandoxygenbacktowateraspossible).Sealedbatteriesneed
lessmaintenance.Thefollowingfactorsareconsideredintheselectionof
batteriesforPVapplications[ 1 ]:
Deepdischarge(7080%depthofdischarge).
Lowcharging/dischargingcurrent.
Longdurationcharge(slow)anddischarge(longdutycycle).
Irregularandvaryingcharge/discharge.
Lowselfdischarge.
Longlifetime.
Lessmaintenancerequirement.
Highenergystorageefficiency.
Lowcost.
Batterymanufacturersspecifythenominalnumberofcompletecharge
anddischargecyclesasafunctionofthedepthofdischarge(DOD),as
showninFig.1.10.Whilethisinformationcanbeusedreliablytopredict
thelifetimeofleadacidbatteriesinconventionalapplications,suchas
uninterruptablepowersuppliesorelectricvehicles,itusuallyresultsin
anoverestimationoftheusefullifeofthebatterybankinrenewable
energysystems.

FIGURE1.10

NominalnumberofbatterycyclesvsDOD.

Twoofthemainfactorsthathavebeenidentifiedaslimitingcriteriafor
thecyclelifeofbatteriesinPVpowersystemsareincompletecharging
andprolongedoperationatalowstateofcharge(SOC).Theobjectiveof
improvedbatterycontrolstrategiesistoextendthelifetimeofleadacid
batteriestoachieveatypicalnumberofcyclesshowninFig.1.10.Ifthisis
achieved,anoptimumsolutionfortherequiredstoragecapacityandthe

maximumDODofthebatterycanbefoundbyreferringto
manufacturersinformation.Increasingthecapacitywillreducethe
typicalDODandthereforeprolongthebatterylifetime.Conversely,it
maybemoreeconomictoreplaceasmallerbatterybankmorefrequently.
1.2.3.1.2 PV charge controllers

BlockingdiodesinserieswithPVmodulesareusedtopreventthe
batteriesfrombeingdischargedthroughthePVcellsatnightwhenthere
isnosunavailabletogenerateenergy.Theseblockingdiodesalsoprotect
thebatteryfromshortcircuits.Inasolarpowersystemconsistingofmore
thanonestringconnectedinparallel,ifashortcircuitoccursinoneofthe
strings,theblockingdiodepreventstheotherPVstringstodischarge
throughtheshortcircuitedstring.
ThebatterystorageinaPVsystemshouldbeproperlycontrolledtoavoid
catastrophicoperatingconditionslikeoverchargingorfrequentdeep
discharging.StoragebatteriesaccountformostPVsystemfailuresand
contributesignificantlytoboththeinitialandtheeventualreplacement
costs.Chargecontrollersregulatethechargetransferandpreventthe
batteryfrombeingexcessivelychargedanddischarged.Threetypesof
chargecontrollersarecommonlyused:
Serieschargeregulators.
Shuntchargeregulators.
DCDCconverters.
1.2.3.1.2.1 A. Series charge regulators

ThebasiccircuitfortheseriesregulatorsisgiveninFig.1.11.Intheseries
chargecontroller,theswitchS1disconnectsthePVgeneratorwhena
predefinedbatteryvoltageisachieved.Whenthevoltagereducesbelow
thedischargelimit,theloadisdisconnectedfromthebatterytoavoid
deepdischargebeyondthelimit.Themainproblemassociatedwiththis
typeofcontrolleristhelossesassociatedwiththeswitches.Thisextra
powerlosshastocomefromthePVpowerandthiscanbequite
significant.Bipolartransistors,metaloxidesemiconductorfieldeffect
transistors(MOSFETs),orrelaysareusedastheswitches.

FIGURE1.11

Serieschargeregulator.

1.2.3.1.2.2 B. Shunt charge regulators

Inthistype,asillustratedinFig.1.12,whenthebatteryisfullycharged
thePVgeneratorisshortcircuitedusinganelectronicswitch(S1).Unlike
seriescontrollers,thismethodworksmoreefficientlyevenwhenthe
batteryiscompletelydischargedastheshortcircuitswitchneednotbe
activateduntilthebatteryisfullydischarged[ 1 ].

FIGURE1.12

Shuntchargeregulator.

Theblockingdiodepreventsshortcircuitingofthebattery.Shuntcharge
regulatorsareusedforthesmallPVapplications(lessthan20A).
Deepdischargeprotectionisusedtoprotectthebatteryagainstthedeep
discharge.Whenthebatteryvoltagereachesbelowtheminimumset
pointfordeepdischargelimit,switchS2disconnectstheload.Simple
seriesandshuntregulatorsallowonlyrelativelycoarseadjustmentofthe
currentflowandseldommeettheexactrequirementsofPVsystems.
1.2.3.1.2.3 C. DCDC Converter type charge regulators

SwitchmodeDCtoDCconvertersareusedtomatchtheoutputofaPV
generatortoavariableload.TherearevarioustypesofDCDC
converterssuchas:
Buck(stepdown)converter.
Boost(stepup)converter.
Buckboost(stepdown/up)converter.

Figures1.131.15showsimplifieddiagramsofthesethreebasictypes
converters.Thebasicconceptsareanelectronicswitch,aninductorto
storeenergy,andaflywheeldiode,whichcarriesthecurrentduring
thatpartofswitchingcyclewhentheswitchisoff.TheDCDCconverters
allowthechargecurrenttobereducedcontinuouslyinsuchawaythat
theresultingbatteryvoltageismaintainedataspecifiedvalue.

FIGURE1.13

Buckconverter.

FIGURE1.14

Boostconverter.

FIGURE1.15

Boostbuckconverter.

1.2.3.1.3 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)

AcontrollerthattracksthemaximumpowerpointlocusofthePVarray
isknownastheMPPT.InFig.1.17,thePVpoweroutputisplotted
2

againstthevoltageforinsolationlevelsfrom200to1000W/m [ 5 ].The
pointsofmaximumarraypowerformacurvetermedasthemaximum
powerlocus.Duetohighcostofsolarcells,itisnecessarytooperatethe
PVarrayatitsmaximumpowerpoint(MPP).Foroveralloptimal
operationofthesystem,theloadlinemustmatchthePVarraysMPP
locus.

FIGURE1.16

Typicalpower/voltagecharacteristicsfor

increasedinsolation.

FIGURE1.17

PVarrayandloadcharacteristics.

ReferringtoFig.1.16,theloadcharacteristicscanbeeithercurveOAor
curveOBdependinguponthenatureoftheloadanditscurrentand
voltagerequirements.IfloadOAisconsideredandtheloadisdirectly
coupledtothesolararray,thearraywilloperateatpointA1,delivering
onlypowerP1.Themaximumarraypoweravailableatthegiven

insolationisP2.InordertousePVarraypowerP2,apowerconditioner
coupledbetweenarrayandtheloadisneeded.
TherearegenerallytwowaysofoperatingPVmodulesatmaximum
powerpoint.Thesewaystakeadvantageofanalogand/ordigital
hardwarecontroltotracktheMPPofPVarrays.
1.2.3.1.4 Analog control

Therearemanyanalogcontrolmechanismsproposedindifferentarticles.
Forinstance,fractionalshortcircuitcurrent(ISC)[ 6 9 ],fractional
opencircuitvoltage(VOP)[ 6 ,,7,1013,],andripplecorrelationcontrol
(RCC)[1417].
Fractionalopencircuitvoltage(VOP)isoneofthesimpleanaloguecontrol
method.Itisbasedontheassumptionthatthemaximumpowerpoint
voltage,VMPP,isalinearfunctionoftheopencircuitvoltage,VOC.For
exampleVMPP=kVOCwherek0.76.Thisassumptionisreasonably
accurateevenforlargevariationsinthecellshortcircuitcurrentand
temperature.ThistypeofMPPTisprobablythemostcommontype.A
variationtothismethodinvolvesperiodicallyopencircuitingthecell
stringandmeasuringtheopencircuitvoltage.Theappropriatevalueof
VMPPcanthenbeobtainedwithasimplevoltagedivider.
1.2.3.1.5 Digital control

Therearemanydigitalcontrolmechanismsthatwereproposedin
differentarticles.Forinstance,perturbationandobservation(P&O)orhill
climbing[1823],fuzzylogic[2428],neuralnetwork[18,2931,],and
incrementalconductance(IncCond)[3235].
TheP&Oorhillclimbingcontrolinvolvesaroundvaryingtheinput
voltagearoundtheoptimumvaluebygivingitasmallincrementor
decrementalternately.Theeffectontheoutputpoweristhenassessed
andafurthersmallcorrectionismadetotheinputvoltage.Therefore,this
typeofcontroliscalledahillclimbingcontrol.Thepoweroutputofthe
PVarrayissampledataneverydefinitesamplingperiodandcompared
withthepreviousvalue.Intheevent,whenpowerisincreasedthenthe
solararrayvoltageissteppedinthesamedirectionastheprevious
sampletime,butifthepowerisreducedthenthearrayvoltageisstepped
intheoppositewayandtrytooperatethePVarrayatits
optimum/maximumpowerpoint.
TooperatethePVarrayattheMPP,perturbandadjustmethodcanbe
usedatregularintervals.Currentdrawnissampledeveryfewseconds
andtheresultingpoweroutputofthesolarcellsismonitoredatregular
intervals.Whenanincreasedcurrentresultsinahigherpower,itis
furtherincreaseduntilpoweroutputstartstoreduce.Butiftheincreased
PVcurrentresultsinlesseramountofpowerthanintheprevioussample,
thenthecurrentisreduceduntiltheMPPisreached.
1.2.3.2 Inverters for stand-alone PV systems

InvertersconvertpowerfromDCtoACwhilerectifiersconvertitfrom
ACtoDC.Manyinvertersarebidirectional,i.e.theyareabletooperate
inbothinvertingandrectifyingmodes.InmanystandalonePV
installations,alternatingcurrentisneededtooperate230V(or110V),
50Hz(or60Hz)appliances.Generallystandaloneinvertersoperateat
12,24,48,96,120,or240VDCdependinguponthepowerlevel.Ideally,
aninverterforastandalonePVsystemshouldhavethefollowing
features:
Sinusoidaloutputvoltage.
Voltageandfrequencywithintheallowablelimits.
Cabletohandlelargevariationininputvoltage.
Outputvoltageregulation.
Highefficiencyatlightloads.
Lessharmonicgenerationbytheinvertertoavoiddamagetoelectronic
appliancesliketelevision,additionallosses,andheatingofappliances.
Photovoltaicinvertersmustbeabletowithstandoverloadingforshort
termtotakecareofhigherstartingcurrentsfrompumps,refrigerators,
etc.
Adequateprotectionarrangementforover/undervoltageand
frequency,shortcircuitetc.
Surgecapacity.
Lowidlingandnoloadlosses.
Lowbatteryvoltagedisconnect.
Lowaudioandradiofrequency(RF)noise.
Severaldifferentsemiconductordevicessuchasmetaloxide

semiconductorfieldeffecttransistor(MOSFETs)andinsulatedgate
bipolartransistors(IGBTs)areusedinthepowerstageofinverters.
TypicallyMOSFETsareusedinunitsupto5kVAand96VDC.They
havetheadvantageoflowswitchinglossesathigherfrequencies.Because
theonstatevoltagedropis2VDC,IGBTsaregenerallyusedonlyabove
96VDCsystems.
Voltagesourceinvertersareusuallyusedinstandaloneapplications.
Theycanbesinglephaseorthreephase.Therearethreeswitching
techniquescommonlyused:squarewave,quasisquarewave,andpulse
widthmodulation.Squarewaveormodifiedsquarewaveinverterscan
supplypowertools,resistiveheaters,orincandescentlights,whichdonot
requireahighqualitysinewaveforreliableandefficientoperation.
However,manyhouseholdappliancesrequirelowdistortionsinusoidal
waveforms.Theuseoftruesinewaveinvertersisrecommendedfor
remoteareapowersystems.Pulsewidthmodulated(PWM)switchingis
generallyusedforobtainingsinusoidaloutputfromtheinverters.
Agenerallayoutofasinglephasesystem,bothhalfbridgeandfull
bridge,isshowninFig.1.18.InFig.1.18a,singlephasehalfbridgeiswith
twoswitches,S1andS2,thecapacitorsC1andC2areconnectedinseries
acrosstheDCsource.Thejunctionbetweenthecapacitorsisatthemid
potential.VoltageacrosseachcapacitorisVdc/2.SwitchesS1andS2canbe
switchedon/offperiodicallytoproduceACvoltage.Filter(LfandCf)is
usedtoreducehighswitchfrequencycomponentsandtoproduce
sinusoidaloutputfromtheinverter.Theoutputofinverterisconnected
toloadthroughatransformer.Figure1.18bshowsthesimilar
arrangementforfullbridgeconfigurationwithfourswitches.Forthe
sameinputsourcevoltage,thefullbridgeoutputistwiceandthe
switchescarrylesscurrentforthesameloadpower.

FIGURE1.18

Singlephaseinverter:(a)halfbridgeand(b)

fullbridge.

ThepowercircuitofathreephasefourwireinverterisshowninFig.
1.19.Theoutputoftheinverterisconnectedtoloadviathreephase
transformer(delta/Y).Thestarpointofthetransformersecondarygives
theneutralconnection.Threephaseorsinglephasecanbeconnectedto
thissystem.Alternatively,acentertapDCsourcecanbeusedtosupply
theconverterandthemidpointcanbeusedastheneutral.

FIGURE1.19

Astandalonethreephasefourwireinverter.

Figure1.20showstheinverterefficiencyforatypicalinverterusedin
remoteareapowersystems.Itisimportanttoconsiderthatthesystem
loadistypicallywellbelowthenominalinvertercapacityPnom,which
resultsinlowconversionefficienciesatloadsbelow10%oftherated
inverteroutputpower.Optimumoverallsystemoperationisachievedif
thetotalenergydissipatedintheinverterisminimized.Thehigh
conversionefficiencyatlowpowerlevelsofrecentlydevelopedinverters
forgridconnectedPVsystemsshowsthatthereisasignificantpotential
forfurtherimprovementsinefficiency.

FIGURE1.20

Typicalinverterefficiencycurve.

BidirectionalinvertersconvertDCpowertoACpower(inverter)orAC
powertoDCpower(rectifier)andarebecomingverypopularinremote
areapowersystems[ 4 , 5 ].Theprincipleofastandalonesingle
phasebidirectionalinverterusedinaPV/battery/dieselhybridsystem
canbeexplainedbyreferringFig.1.21.Achargecontrollerisusedto

interfacethePVarrayandthebattery.Theinverterhasafullbridge
configurationrealizedusingfourpowerelectronicswitches(MOSFETor
IGBTs)S1S4.Inthisscheme,thediagonallyoppositeswitches(S1,S4)and
(S2,S3)areswitchedusingasinusoidallyPWMgatepulses.Theinverter
producessinusoidaloutputvoltage.TheinductorsX1,X2,andtheAC
outputcapacitorC2filteroutthehighswitchfrequencycomponentsfrom
theoutputwaveform.Mostinvertertopologiesusealowfrequency(50or
60Hz)transformertostepuptheinverteroutputvoltage.Inthisscheme,
thedieselgeneratorandtheconverterareconnectedinparalleltosupply
theload.Thevoltagesources,dieselandinverter,areseparatedbythe
linkinductorXm.Thebidirectionalpowerflowbetweeninverterandthe
dieselgeneratorcanbeestablished.

FIGURE1.21

Bidirectionalinvertersystem.

Thepowerflowthroughthelinkinductor,Xm,is

(1.3)

(1.4)

(1.5)

(1.6)

whereisthephaseanglebetweenthetwovoltages.FromEq.(1.4),it
canbeseenthatthepowersuppliedbytheinverterfromthebatteries
(invertermode)orsuppliedtothebatteries(chargingmode)canbe
controlledbycontrollingthephaseangle.ThePWMpulsesseparately
controltheamplitudeoftheconvertervoltage,Vc,whilethephaseangle
withrespecttothedieselvoltageisvariedforpowerflow.
1.2.3.3 Solar water pumping

Inmanyremoteandruralareas,handpumpsordieseldrivenpumpsare
usedforwatersupply.Dieselpumpsconsumefossilfuel,affects
environment,needsmoremaintenance,andarelessreliable.Photovoltaic
poweredwaterpumpshavereceivedconsiderableattentionrecentlydue
tomajordevelopmentsinthefieldofsolarcellmaterialsandpower
electronicsystemstechnology.
1.2.3.3.1 Types of pumps

Twotypesofpumpsarecommonlyusedforthewaterpumping
applications:positiveandcentrifugaldisplacement.Bothcentrifugaland
positivedisplacementpumpscanbefurtherclassifiedintothosewith
motorsthatare(a)surfacemountedandthosewhichare(b)submerged
intothewater(submersible).
Displacementpumpshavewateroutputdirectlyproportionaltothe
speedofthepump,but,almostindependentofhead.Thesepumpsare
usedforsolarwaterpumpingfromdeepwellsorbores.Theymaybe
pistontypepumps,orusediaphragmdrivenbyacam,rotaryscrewtype,
oruseprogressivecavitysystem.Thepumpingrateofthesepumpsis
directlyrelatedtothespeedandhenceconstanttorqueisdesired.
Centrifugalpumpsareusedforlowheadapplicationsespeciallyifthey
aredirectlyinterfacedwiththesolarpanels.Centrifugalpumpsare
designedforfixedheadapplicationsandthepressuredifference
generatedincreasesinrelationtothespeedofpump.Thesepumpsare
rotatingimpellertype,whichthrowsthewaterradiallyagainstacasing,
soshapedthatthemomentumofthewaterisconvertedintouseful
pressureforlifting[ 4 ].Thecentrifugalpumpshaverelativelyhigh
efficiencybutitreducesatlowerspeeds,whichcanbeaproblemforthe
solarwaterpumpingsystematthetimeoflowlightlevels.Thesingle
stagecentrifugalpumphasjustoneimpellerwhereasmostborehole
pumpsaremultistagetypeswheretheoutletfromoneimpellergoesinto
thecenterofanotherandeachonekeepsincreasingthepressure
difference.

FromFig.1.22,itisquiteobviousthattheloadlineislocatedrelatively
farawayfromPmaxline.Ithasbeenreportedthatthedailyutilization
efficiencyforaDCmotordriveis87%foracentrifugalpumpcompared
to57%foraconstanttorquecharacteristicsload.Hence,centrifugal
pumpsaremorecompatiblewithPVarrays.Thesystemoperatingpoint
isdeterminedbytheintersectionoftheIVcharacteristicsofthePVarray
andthemotorasshowninFig.1.22.Thetorquespeedslopeisnormally
largeduetothearmatureresistancebeingsmall.Attheinstantof
starting,thespeedandthebackemfarezero.Hencethemotorstarting
currentisapproximatelytheshortcircuitcurrentofthePVarray.By
matchingtheloadtothePVsourcethroughMPPT,thestartingtorque
increases.

FIGURE1.22

IVcharacteristicsofaPVarrayandtwo

mechanicalloads:(a)constanttorqueand(b)centrifugal
pump.

ThematchingofaDCmotordependsuponthetypeofloadbeingused.
Forinstance,acentrifugalpumpischaracterizedbyhavingtheload
torqueproportionaltothesquareofspeed.Theoperatingcharacteristics
ofthesystem(i.e.PVsource,permanentmagnet(PM)DCmotorand
load)areattheintersectionofthemotorandloadcharacteristicsas
showninFig.1.23(i.e.pointsa,b,c,d,e,andfforcentrifugalpump).
FromFig.1.23,thesystemutilizingthecentrifugalpumpasitsloadtends
tostartatlowsolarirradiation(pointa)level.However,forthesystems
withanalmostconstanttorquecharacteristicsinFig.1.22,thestartisat
almost50%ofonesun(fullinsolation)whichresultsinshortperiodof
operation.

FIGURE1.23

SpeedtorquecharacteristicsofaDCmotor

andtwomechanicalloads:(a)helicalrotorand(b)centrifugal
pump.

1.2.3.3.2 Types of motors

TherearevarioustypesofmotorsavailableforthePVwaterpumping
applications:
DCmotors.
ACmotors.
DCmotorsarepreferredwheredirectcouplingtoPVpanelsisdesired
whereasACmotorsarecoupledtothesolarpanelsthroughinverters.AC
motorsingeneralarecheaperthantheDCmotorsandaremorereliable
buttheDCmotorsaremoreefficient.TheDCmotorsusedforsolar
pumpingapplicationsare:
PermanentmagnetDCmotorswithbrushes.
PermanentDCmagnetmotorswithoutbrushes.
InDCmotorswiththebrushes,thebrushesareusedtodeliverpowerto
thecommutatorandneedfrequentreplacementduetowearandtear.
Thesemotorsarenotsuitableforsubmersibleapplicationsunlesslong
transmissionshaftsareused.BrushlessDCpermanentmagnetmotors
havebeendevelopedforsubmersibleapplications.
TheACmotorsareoftheinductionmotortype,whichischeaperthan
DCmotorsandavailable,worldwide.However,theyneedinvertersto
changeDCinputfromPVtoACpower.Acomparisonofthedifferent
typesofmotorsusedforPVwaterpumpingisgiveninTable1.1.

Table1.1
ComparisonoftheDifferentTypesofMotorUsedforPVWater
Pumping

Typesof
motor
BrushedDC

Advantages

Simpleand
efficientfor
PV
applications.

Disadvantages

Mainfeatures

Brushesneedtobe

Requires

replacedperiodically

MPPTfor

(typicalreplacement

optimum

intervalis2000

performance.

4000hror2years).

Nocomplex

Available

control

onlyinsmall

circuitsis

motorsizes.

requiredas

Increasing

themotor

current(by

startswithout

paralleling

highcurrent
surge.

PVmodules)

Thesemotors

torque.

increasesthe

willrun

Increasing

slowlybutdo

voltage(by

notoverheat

seriesPV

withreduced

modules)

voltage.

increasesthe
speed.

Brushless
DC

Efficient.

Electronic

Growingtrend

computationadds

Less
maintenance
isrequired.

toextracost,
complexity,and
increasedriskof
failure/malfunction.
Inmostcases,oil
cooled,cantbe
submergedasdeep
aswatercooledAC
units.

AC
induction
motors

amongPV
pump
manufacturers
tousebrush
lessDC
motors,
primarilyfor
centrifugal
type
submersible
pumps.

Nobrushesto

Needsaninverterto

Availablefor

replace.

convertDCoutput

singleor

fromPVtoAC

threesupply.

Canuse
existingAC
motor/pump

addingadditional
costand

Invertersare

complexity.

designedto

whichis

Lessefficientthan

frequencyto

cheaperand

DCmotorpump

maximize

easily

units.

powertothe

technology

available
worldwide.
Thesemotors
canhandle
larger
pumping
requirements.

Proneto
overheatingif
currentisnot
adequatetostartthe
motororifthe

regulate

motorin
responseto
changing
insolation
levels.

voltageistoolow.

1.2.3.3.3 Power conditioning units for PV water pumping

MostPVpumpmanufacturersincludepowerconditioningunits(PCU)
whichareusedforoperatingthePVpanelsclosetotheirMPPovera
rangeofloadconditionsandvaryinginsolationlevelsandalsoforpower
conversion.DCorACmotorpumpunitscanbeusedforPVwater
pumping.Initssimplestform,asolarwaterpumpingsystemcomprises
ofPVarray,PCU,andDCwaterpumpunitasshowninFig.1.24.

FIGURE1.24

BlockdiagramforDCmotordrivenpumping

scheme.

Incaseoflowerlightlevels,highcurrentscanbegeneratedthrough
powerconditioningtohelpinstartingthemotorpumpunitsespecially
forreciprocatingpositivedisplacementtypepumpswithconstanttorque
characteristics,requiringconstantcurrentthroughouttheoperating
region.Inpositivedisplacementtypepumps,thetorquegeneratedbythe

pumpsdependsonthepumpinghead,friction,andpipediameteretc.
andneedscertainlevelofcurrenttoproducethenecessarytorque.Some
systemsuseelectroniccontrollerstoassiststartingandoperationofthe
motorunderlowsolarradiation.Thisisparticularlyimportantwhen
usingpositivedisplacementpumps.ThesolarpanelsgenerateDC
voltageandcurrent.ThesolarwaterpumpingsystemsusuallyhasDCor
ACpumps.ForDCpumps,thePVoutputcanbedirectlyconnectedto
thepumpthroughMPPToraDCDCconvertercanalsobeusedfor
interfacingforcontrolledDCoutputfromPVpanels.TofeedtheAC
motors,asuitableinterfacingisrequiredforthepowerconditioning.
ThesePVinvertersforthestandaloneapplicationsareveryexpensive.
Theaimofpowerconditioningequipmentistosupplythecontrolled
voltage/currentoutputfromtheconverters/inverterstothemotorpump
unit.
ThesepowerconditioningunitsarealsousedforoperatingthePVpanels
closetotheirmaximumefficiencyforfluctuatingsolarconditions.The
speedofthepumpisgovernedbytheavailabledrivingvoltage.Current
lowerthantheacceptablelimitwillstopthepumping.Whenthelight
levelincreases,theoperatingpointwillshiftfromtheMPPleadingtothe
reductionofefficiency.Forcentrifugalpumps,thereisanincreasein
currentatincreasedspeedandthematchingofIVcharacteristicsis
closerforwiderangeoflightintensitylevels.Forcentrifugalpumps,the
torqueisproportionaltothesquareofspeedandthetorqueproducedby
themotorsisproportionaltothecurrent.DuetodecreaseinPVcurrent
output,thetorquefromthemotorandconsequentlythespeedofthe
pumpisreducedresultingindecreaseinbackemfandtherequired
voltageofthemotor.Maximumpowerpointtrackercanbeusedfor
controllingthevoltage/currentoutputsfromthePVinverterstooperate
thePVclosetomaximumoperatingpointforthesmoothoperationof
motorpumpunits.TheDCDCconvertercanbeusedforkeepingthePV
panelsoutputvoltageconstantandhelpinoperatingthesolararrays
closetoMPP.Inthebeginning,highstartingcurrentisrequiredto
producehighstartingtorque.ThePVpanelscannotsupplythishigh
startingcurrentwithoutadequatepowerconditioningequipmentlike
DCDCconverterorbyusingastartingcapacitor.TheDCDCconverter
cangeneratethehighstartingcurrentsbyregulatingtheexcessPVarray
voltage.DCDCconvertercanbeboostorbuckconverter.
BrushlessDCmotor(BDCM)andhelicalrotorpumpscanalsobeused
forPVwaterpumping[36].BrushlessDCmotorsareaselfsynchronous
typeofmotorcharacteristicsbytrapezoidalwaveformsforbackemfand
airfluxdensity.TheycanoperateoffalowvoltageDCsupplywhichis
switchedthroughaninvertertocreatearotatingstatorfield.Thecurrent
generationofBDCMsuserareearthmagnetsontherotortogivehighair
gapfluxdensitiesandarewellsuitedtosolarapplication.Theblock
diagramofsuchanarrangementisshowninFig.1.25whichconsistsof
PVpanels,DCDCconverter,MPPT,andBDCM.

FIGURE1.25

BlockdiagramforBDCMforPVapplication.

ThePVinvertersareusedtoconverttheDCoutputofthesolararraysto
theACquantitysoastoruntheACmotorsdrivenpumps.ThesePV
inverterscanbevariablefrequencytype,whichcanbecontrolledto
operatethemotorsoverwiderangeofloads.ThePVinvertersmay
involveimpedancematchingtomatchtheelectricalcharacteristicsofthe
loadandarray.ThemotorpumpunitandPVpanelsoperateattheir
maximumefficiencies.Maximumpowerpointtrackerisalsousedinthe
powerconditioning.Tokeepthevoltagestablefortheinverters,theDC
DCconvertercanbeused.Theinverter/converterhasacapabilityof
injectinghighswitchfrequencycomponents,whichcanleadtothe
overheatingandthelosses.Socareshallbetakenforthis.ThePVarrays
areusuallyconnectedinseries,parallel,oracombinationofseries
parallel,configurations.Thefunctionofpowerelectronicinterface,as
mentionedbefore,istoconverttheDCpowerfromthearraytothe
requiredvoltageandfrequencytodrivetheACmotors.Themotorpump
systemloadshouldbesuchthatthearrayoperatesclosetoitsMPPatall
solarinsolationlevels.Therearemainlythreetypessolarpoweredwater
pumpingsystemsasshowninFig.1.26.

FIGURE1.26

BlockdiagramsforvariousACmotordriven

pumpingschemes.

ThefirstsystemshowninFig.1.26aisanimportedcommercially

availableunit,whichusesaspeciallywoundlowvoltageinductionmotor
drivensubmersiblepump.SuchalowvoltagemotorpermitsthePV
arrayvoltagetobeconvertedtoACwithoutusingastepuptransformer.
Thesecondsystem,showninFig.1.26bmakesuseofaconventionaloff
theshelf415V,50Hz,inductionmotor[ 6 ].Thisschemeneedsastep
uptransformertoraiseinverteroutputvoltagetohighvoltage.Third
schemeasshowninFig.1.26ccomprisesofaDCDCconverter,an
inverterthatswitchesathighfrequency,andamainsvoltagemotor
drivenpump.Togettheoptimumdischarge(Q),atagiveninsolation
level,theefficiencyoftheDCDCconverterandtheinvertershouldbe
high.SothepurposeshouldbetooptimizetheoutputfromPVarray,
motor,andthepump.Theprincipleusedhereistovarythedutycycleof
aDCDCconvertersothattheoutputvoltageismaximum.TheDCDC
converterisusedtoboostthesolararrayvoltagetoeliminatetheneedfor
astepuptransformerandoperatethearrayattheMPP.Thethreephase
inverterusedintheinterfaceisdesignedtooperateinavariable
frequencymodeovertherangeof2050Hz,whichisthepracticallimit
formost50Hzinductionmotorapplications.Blockdiagramfor
frequencycontrolisgiveninFig.1.27.

FIGURE1.27

Blockdiagramforvoltage/frequencycontrol.

Thisinverterwouldbesuitablefordrivingpermanentmagnetmotorsby
incorporatingadditionalcircuitryforpositionsensingofthemotors
shaft.Alsotheinvertercouldbemodified,ifrequired,toproducehigher
outputfrequenciesforhighspeedpermanentmagnetmotors.The
inverterhasathreephasefullbridgeconfigurationimplementedby
MOSFETpowertransistors.

1.2.4 Hybrid energy systems

ThecombinationofRES,suchasPVarraysorwindturbines,withengine
drivengeneratorsandbatterystorage,iswidelyrecognizedasaviable
alternativetoconventionalremoteareapowersupplies(RAPS).These
systemsaregenerallyclassifiedashybridenergysystems(HES).Theyare
usedincreasinglyforelectrificationinremoteareaswherethecostofgrid
extensionisprohibitiveandthepriceforfuelincreasesdrasticallywith
theremotenessofthelocation.Formanyapplications,thecombinationof
renewableandconventionalenergysourcescomparesfavorablywith
fossilfuelbasedRAPSsystems,bothinregardtotheircostandtechnical
performance.Becausethesesystemsemploytwoormoredifferent
sourcesofenergy,theyenjoyaveryhighdegreeofreliabilityas
comparedtosinglesourcesystemssuchasastandalonedieselgenerator
orastandalonePVorwindsystem.Applicationsofhybridenergy
systemsrangefromsmallpowersuppliesforremotehouseholds,
providingelectricityforlightingandotheressentialelectricalappliances,
tovillageelectrificationforremotecommunitieshasbeenreported[37].
HybridenergysystemsgenerateACelectricitybycombiningRESsuchas
PVarraywithaninverter,whichcanoperatealternatelyorinparallel
withaconventionalenginedrivengenerator.Theycanbeclassified
accordingtotheirconfigurationas[38]:
Serieshybridenergysystems.
Switchedhybridenergysystems.
Parallelhybridenergysystems.
TheparallelhybridsystemscanbefurtherdividedtoDCorACcoupling.
Anoverviewofthethreemostcommonsystemtopologiesispresented
byBower[39].InthefollowingcomparisonoftypicalPVdieselsystem
configurationsaredescribed.
1.2.4.1 Series configuration

IntheconventionalserieshybridsystemsshowninFig.1.28,allpower
generatorsfeedDCpowerintoabattery.Eachcomponenthastherefore
tobeequippedwithanindividualchargecontrollerandinthecaseofa
dieselgeneratorwitharectifier.

FIGURE1.28

Serieshybridenergysystem.

Toensurereliableoperationofserieshybridenergysystemsboththe
dieselgeneratorandtheinverterhavetobesizedtomeetpeakloads.This
resultsinatypicalsystemoperationwherealargefractionofthe
generatedenergyispassedthroughthebatterybank,thereforeresulting
inincreasedcyclingofthebatterybankandreducedsystemefficiency.
ACpowerdeliveredtotheloadisconvertedfromDCtoregulatedACby
aninverteroramotorgeneratorunit.Thepowergeneratedbythediesel
generatorisfirstrectifiedandsubsequentlyconvertedbacktoACbefore
beingsuppliedtotheload,whichincurssignificantconversionlosses.
Theactualloaddemanddeterminestheamountofelectricalpower
deliveredbythePVarray,windgenerator,thebatterybank,orthediesel
generator.Thesolarandwindchargerpreventsoverchargingofthe
batterybankfromthePVgeneratorwhenthePVpowerexceedstheload
demandandthebatteriesarefullycharged.ItmayincludeMPPTto
improvetheutilizationoftheavailablePVenergy,althoughtheenergy
gainismarginalforawellsizedsystem.Thesystemcanbeoperatedin
manualorautomaticmode,withtheadditionofappropriatebattery
voltagesensingandstart/stopcontroloftheenginedrivengenerator.
Advantages:
Theenginedrivengeneratorcanbesizedtobeoptimallyloadedwhile
supplyingtheloadandchargingthebatterybank,untilabatterySOCof
7080%isreached.
NoswitchingofACpowerbetweenthedifferentenergysourcesis
required,whichsimplifiestheelectricaloutputinterface.
Thepowersuppliedtotheloadisnotinterruptedwhenthediesel
generatorisstarted.
Theinvertercangenerateasinewave,modifiedsquarewave,or
squarewavedependingontheapplication.
Disadvantages:
Theinvertercannotoperateinparallelwiththeenginedriven
generator,thereforetheinvertermustbesizedtosupplythepeakloadof
thesystem.
Thebatterybankiscycledfrequently,whichshortensitslifetime.
Thecyclingprofilerequiresalargebatterybanktolimitthedepthof
discharge(DOD).
Theoverallsystemefficiencyislow,sincethedieselcannotsupply
powerdirectlytotheload.
Inverterfailureresultsincompletelossofpowertotheload,unlessthe
loadcanbesupplieddirectlyfromthedieselgeneratorforemergency
purposes.
1.2.4.2 Switched configuration

Despiteitsoperationallimitations,theswitchedconfigurationremains
oneofthemostcommoninstallationsinsomedevelopingcountries.It
allowsoperationwitheithertheenginedrivengeneratorortheinverter
astheACsource,yetnoparalleloperationofthemaingenerationsources
ispossible.ThedieselgeneratorandtheREScanchargethebatterybank.
Themainadvantagecomparedwiththeseriessystemisthattheloadcan
besupplieddirectlybytheenginedrivengenerator,whichresultsina
higheroverallconversionefficiency.Typically,thedieselgenerator
powerwillexceedtheloaddemand,withexcessenergybeingusedto
rechargethebatterybank.Duringperiodsoflowelectricitydemandthe
dieselgeneratorisswitchedoffandtheloadissuppliedfromthePV
arraytogetherwithstoredenergy.Switchedhybridenergysystemscan
beoperatedinmanualmode,althoughtheincreasedcomplexityofthe
systemmakesithighlydesirabletoincludeanautomaticcontroller,
whichcanbeimplementedwiththeadditionofappropriatebattery
voltagesensingandstart/stopcontroloftheenginedrivengenerator(Fig.
1.29).

FIGURE1.29

SwitchedPVdieselhybridenergysystem.

Advantages:
Theinvertercangenerateasinewave,modifiedsquarewave,or
squarewave,dependingontheparticularapplication.
Thedieselgeneratorcansupplytheloaddirectly,thereforeimproving
thesystemefficiencyandreducingthefuelconsumption.
Disadvantages:
PowertotheloadisinterruptedmomentarilywhentheACpower
sourcesaretransferred.
Theenginedrivenalternatorandinverteraretypicallydesignedto
supplythepeakload,whichreducestheirefficiencyatpartload
operation.
1.2.4.3 Parallel configuration

TheparallelhybridsystemcanbefurtherclassifiedasDCandAC
couplingsasshowninFig.1.30.Inbothschemes,abidirectionalinverter
isusedtolinkbetweenthebatteryandanACsource(typicallytheoutput
ofadieselgenerator).Thebidirectionalinvertercanchargethebattery
bank(rectifieroperation)whenexcessenergyisavailablefromthediesel
generatororbytherenewablesources,aswellasactasaDCAC
converter(inverteroperation).Thebidirectionalinvertermayalso
providepeakshavingaspartofacontrolstrategywhenthediesel
engineisoverloaded.InFig.1.30a,therenewableenergysources(RES)
suchasphotovoltaicandwindarecoupledontheDCside.DC
integrationofRESresultsincustomsystemsolutionsforindividual
supplycasesrequiringhighcostsforengineering,hardware,repair,and
maintenance.Furthermore,powersystemexpandabilityforcovering
needsofgrowingenergyandpowerdemandisalsodifficult.Abetter
approachwouldbetointegratetheRESontheACsideratherthanonthe
DCsideasshowninFig.1.30b.

FIGURE1.30

ParallelPVdieselhybridenergysystem:(a)

DCdecouplingand(b)ACcoupling.

Parallelhybridenergysystemsarecharacterizedbytwosignificant
improvementsovertheseriesandswitchedsystemconfiguration.
Theinverterplusthedieselgeneratorcapacityratherthantheir
individualcomponentratingslimitthemaximumloadthatcanbe
supplied.Typically,thiswillleadtoadoublingofthesystemcapacity.
Thecapabilitytosynchronizetheinverterwiththedieselgenerator
allowsgreaterflexibilitytooptimizetheoperationofthesystem.Future
systemsshouldbesizedwithareducedpeakcapacityofthediesel
generator,whichresultsinahigherfractionofdirectlyusedenergyand
hencehighersystemefficiencies.
Byusingthesamepowerelectronicdevicesforbothinverterandrectifier
operation,thenumberofsystemcomponentsisminimized.Additionally,
wiringandsysteminstallationcostsarereducedthroughtheintegration

ofallpowerconditioningdevicesinonecentralpowerunit.Thishighly
integratedsystemconcepthasadvantagesoveramoremodularapproach
tosystemdesign,butitmaypreventconvenientsystemupgradeswhen
theloaddemandincreases.
Theparallelconfigurationoffersanumberofpotentialadvantagesover
othersystemconfigurations.Theseobjectivescanonlybemetifthe
interactiveoperationoftheindividualcomponentsiscontrolledbyan
intelligenthybridenergymanagementsystem.Althoughtodays
generationofparallelsystemsincludesystemcontrollersofvarying
complexityandsophistication,theydonotoptimizetheperformanceof
thecompletesystem.Typically,boththedieselgeneratorandtheinverter
aresizedtosupplyanticipatedpeakloads.Asaresultmostparallel
hybridenergysystemsdonotutilizetheircapabilityofparallel,
synchronizedoperationofmultiplepowersources.
Advantages:
Thesystemloadcanbemetinanoptimalway.
Dieselgeneratorefficiencycanbemaximized.
Dieselgeneratormaintenancecanbeminimized.
Areductionintheratedcapacitiesofthedieselgenerator,batterybank,
inverter,andrenewableresourcesisfeasible,whilealsomeetingthepeak
loads.
Disadvantages:
Automaticcontrolisessentialforthereliableoperationofthesystem.
Theinverterhastobeatruesinewaveinverterwiththeabilityto
synchronizewithasecondaryACsource.
Systemoperationislesstransparenttotheuntraineduserofthesystem.
1.2.4.4 Control of hybrid energy systems

Thedesignprocessofhybridenergysystemsrequirestheselectionofthe
mostsuitablecombinationofenergysources,powerconditioning
devices,andenergystoragesystemtogetherwiththeimplementationof
anefficientenergydispatchstrategy.Systemsimulationsoftwareisan
essentialtooltoanalyzeandcomparepossiblesystemcombinations.The
objectiveofthecontrolstrategyistoachieveoptimaloperational
performanceatthesystemlevel.Inefficientoperationofthediesel
generatoranddumpingofexcessenergyiscommonformanyRAPS,
operatinginthefield.Componentmaintenanceandreplacement
contributessignificantlytothelifecyclecostofsystems.Theseaspectsof
systemoperationareclearlyrelatedtotheselectedcontrolstrategyand
havetobeconsideredinthesystemdesignphase.
Advancedsystemcontrolstrategiesseektoreducethenumberofcycles
andtheDODforthebatterybank,runthedieselgeneratorinitsmost
efficientoperatingrange,maximizetheutilizationoftherenewable
resource,andensurehighreliabilityofthesystem.Duetothevarying
natureoftheloaddemand,thefluctuatingpowersuppliedbythe
photovoltaicgenerator,andtheresultingvariationofbatterySOC,the
hybridenergysystemcontrollerhastorespondtocontinuouslychanging
operatingconditions.Figure1.31showsdifferentoperatingmodesfora
PVsingledieselsystemusingatypicaldieseldispatchstrategy.

FIGURE1.31

OperatingmodesforaPVsinglediesel

hybridenergysystem.

Mode(I):Thebaseload,whichistypicallyexperiencedatnighttimeand
duringtheearlymorninghours,issuppliedbyenergystoredinthe
batteries.Photovoltaicpowerisnotavailableandthedieselgeneratoris
notstarted.
Mode(II):PVpowerissupplementedbystoredenergytomeetthe
mediumloaddemand.
Mode(III):ExcessenergyisavailablefromthePVgenerator,whichis
storedinthebattery.ThemediumloaddemandissuppliedfromthePV
generator.
Mode(IV):Thedieselgeneratorisstartedandoperatedatitsnominal
powertomeetthehigheveningload.Excessenergyavailablefromthe
dieselgeneratorisusedtorechargethebatteries.
Mode(V):Thedieselgeneratorpowerisinsufficienttomeetthepeak

loaddemand.Additionalpowerissuppliedfromthebatteriesby
synchronizingtheinverterACoutputvoltagewiththealternator
waveform.
Mode(VI):Thedieselgeneratorpowerexceedstheloaddemand,butitis
keptoperationaluntilthebatteriesarerechargedtoahighSOClevel.
Inprinciple,mostefficientoperationisachievedifthegeneratedpoweris
supplieddirectlytotheloadfromallenergysources,whichalsoreduces
cyclingofthebatterybank.However,sincedieselgeneratoroperationat
lightloadsisinherentlyinefficient,itiscommonpracticetooperatethe
enginedrivengeneratoratitsnominalpowerratingandtorechargethe
batteriesfromtheexcessenergy.Theselectionofthemostefficient
controlstrategydependsonfuel,maintenanceandcomponent
replacementcost,thesystemconfiguration,environmentalconditions,as
wellasconstraintsimposedontheoperationofthehybridenergysystem.

1.2.5 Grid-connected PV systems

Theutilityinteractiveinvertersnotonlyconditionsthepoweroutputof
thePVarraysbutensuresthatthePVsystemoutputisfullysynchronized
withtheutilitypower.Thesesystemscanbebatterylessorwithbattery
backup.Systemswithbatterystorage(orflywheel)provideadditional
powersupplyreliability.ThegridconnectionofPVsystemsisgathering
momentumbecauseofvariousrebateandincentiveschemes.Thissystem
allowstheconsumertofeeditsownloadutilizingtheavailablesolar
energyandthesurplusenergycanbeinjectedintothegridunderthe
energybybackschemetoreducethepaybackperiod.GridconnectedPV
systemscanbecomeapartoftheutilitysystem.Thecontributionofsolar
powerdependsuponthesizeofsystemandtheloadcurveofthehouse.
WhenthePVsystemisintegratedwiththeutilitygrid,atwowaypower
flowisestablished.TheutilitygridwillabsorbexcessPVpowerandwill
feedthehouseduringnighttimeandatinstantswhilethePVpoweris
inadequate.Theutilitycompaniesareencouragingthisschemeinmany
partsoftheworld.Thegridconnectedsystemcanbeclassifiedas:
RooftopapplicationofgridconnectedPVsystem.
Utilityscalelargesystem.
ForsmallhouseholdPVapplications,aroofmountedPVarraycanbethe
bestoption.Solarcellsprovideanenvironmentallycleanwayof
producingelectricity,androoftopshavealwaysbeentheidealplaceto
putthem.WithaPVarrayontherooftop,thesolargeneratedpowercan
supplyresidentialload.TherooftopPVsystemscanhelpinreducingthe
peaksummerloadtothebenefitofutilitycompaniesbyfeedingthe
householdlighting,cooling,andotherdomesticloads.Thebattery
storagecanfurtherimprovethereliabilityofthesystematthetimeoflow
insolationlevel,nighttime,orcloudydays.Butthebatterystoragehas
someinherentproblemslikemaintenanceandhighercost.
Forroofintegratedapplications,thesolararrayscanbeeithermounted
ontheroofordirectlyintegratedintotheroof.Iftheroofintegrationdoes
notallowforanairchannelbehindthePVmodulesforventilation
purpose,thenitcanincreasethecelltemperatureduringtheoperation
consequentlyleadingtosomeenergylosses.Thedisadvantagewiththe
rooftopapplicationisthatthePVarrayorientationisdictatedbytheroof.
Incase,whentherooforientationdiffersfromtheoptimalorientation
requiredforthecells,thenefficiencyoftheentiresystemwouldbe
suboptimal.
UtilityinterestinPVhascenteredonthelargegridconnectedPV
systems.InGermany,USA,Spain,andinseveralotherpartsoftheworld,
somelargePVscaleplantshavebeeninstalled.Theutilitiesaremore
inclinedwithlargescale,centralizedpowersupply.ThePVsystemscan
becentralizedordistributedsystems.
GridconnectedPVsystemsmustobservetheislandingsituation,when
theutilitysupplyfails.Incaseofislanding,thePVgeneratorsshouldbe
disconnectedfrommains.PVgeneratorscancontinuetomeetonlythe
localload,ifthePVoutputmatchestheload.Ifthegridisreconnected
duringislanding,transientovercurrentscanflowthroughthePVsystem
invertersandtheprotectiveequipmentslikecircuitbreakersmaybe
damaged.Theislandingcontrolcanbeachievedthroughinvertersorvia
thedistributionnetwork.Invertercontrolscanbedesignedonthebasisof
detectionofgridvoltage,measurementofimpedance,frequency
variation,orincreaseinharmonics.Protectionshallbedesignedforthe
islanding,shortcircuits,over/undervoltages/currents,grounding,and
lightening,etc.
TheimportanceofthepowergeneratedbythePVsystemdependsupon
thetimeofthedayspeciallywhentheutilityisexperiencingthepeak
load.ThePVplantsarewellsuitedtosummerpeakingbutitdepends
upontheclimaticconditionofthesite.PVsystemsbeinginvestigatedfor
useaspeakingstationswouldbecompetitiveforloadmanagement.The
PVuserscandefertheirloadbyadoptingloadmanagementtogetthe
maximumbenefitoutofthegridconnectedPVplantsandfeedingmore
powerintothegridatthetimeofpeakload.

Theassignedcapacitycreditisbasedonthestatisticalprobabilitywith
whichthegridcanmeetpeakdemand[ 4 ].Thecapacityfactorduring
thepeaksisverysimilartothatofconventionalplantsandsimilar
capacitycreditcanbegivenforthePVgenerationexceptatthetimes
whenthePVplantsaregeneratingverylesspowerunlessadequate
storageisprovided.WiththeinstallationofPVplants,theneedofextra
transmissionlines,transformerscanbedelayedoravoided.The
distributedPVplantscanalsocontributeinprovidingreactivepower
supporttothegridandreduceburdenonVARcompensators.
1.2.5.1 Inverters for grid-connected applications

PowerconditioneristhekeylinkbetweenthePVarrayandmainsinthe
gridconnectedPVsystem.ItactsasaninterfacethatconvertsDCcurrent
producedbythesolarcellsintoutilitygradeACcurrent.ThePVsystem
behaviorreliesheavilyonthepowerconditioningunit.Theinverters
shallproducegoodqualitysinewaveoutput.Theinvertermustfollow
thefrequencyandvoltageofthegridandtheinverterhastoextract
maximumpowerfromthesolarcellswiththehelpofMPPTandthe
inverterinputstagevariestheinputvoltageuntiltheMPPontheIV
curveisfound.Theinvertershallmonitorallthephasesofthegrid.The
inverteroutputshallbecontrolledintermsofvoltageandfrequency
variation.AtypicalgridconnectedinvertermayuseaPWMschemeand
operatesintherangeof220kHz.
1.2.5.2 Inverter classifications

Theinvertersusedforthegridinterfacingarebroadlyclassifiedas:
Voltagesourceinverters(VSI).
Currentsourceinverters(CSI).
Whereastheinvertersbasedonthecontrolschemescanbeclassifiedas:
Currentcontrolled(CC).
Voltagecontrolled(VC).
Thesourceisnotnecessarilycharacterizedbytheenergysourceforthe
system.Itisacharacteristicofthetopologyoftheinverter.Itispossibleto
changefromonesourcetypetoanothersourcetypebytheadditionof
passivecomponents.Inthevoltagesourceinverter(VSI),theDCsideis
madetoappeartotheinverterasavoltagesource.TheVSIshavea
capacitorinparallelacrosstheinputwhereastheCSIshaveaninductoris
serieswiththeDCinput.IntheCSI,theDCsourceappearsasacurrent
sourcetotheinverter.Solararraysarefairlygoodapproximationtoa
currentsource.MostPVinvertersarevoltagesourceeventhoughthePV
isacurrentsource.Currentsourceinvertersaregenerallyusedforlarge
motordrivesthoughtherehavebeensomePVinvertersbuiltusinga
currentsourcetopology.TheVSIismorepopularwiththePWMVSI
dominatingthesinewaveinvertertopologies.
Figure1.32ashowsasinglephasefullbridgebidirectionalVSIwith(a)
voltagecontrolandphaseshift()controlvoltagecontrolledvoltage
sourceinverter(VCVSI).TheactivepowertransferfromthePVpanelsis
accomplishedbycontrollingthephaseanglebetweentheconverter
voltageandthegridvoltage.Theconvertervoltagefollowsthegrid
voltage.Figure1.32bshowsthesameVSIoperatedasacurrentcontrolled
(CCVSI).Theobjectiveofthisschemeistocontrolactiveandreactive
componentsofthecurrentfedintothegridusingPWMtechniques.

FIGURE1.32

Voltagesourceinverter:(a)voltagecontrol

and(b)currentcontrol.

1.2.5.3 Inverter types

DifferenttypesarebeinginuseforthegridconnectedPVapplications
suchas:

Linecommutatedinverter.
Selfcommutatedinverter.
Inverterwithhighfrequencytransformer.
1.2.5.3.1 Line-commutated inverter

Thelinecommutatedinvertersaregenerallyusedfortheelectricmotor
applications.Thepowerstageisequippedwiththyristors.Themaximum
powertrackingcontrolisrequiredinthecontrolalgorithmforsolar
application.Thebasicdiagramforasinglephaselinecommutated
inverterisshownintheFig.1.33[ 3 ].

FIGURE1.33

Linecommutedsinglephaseinverter.

Thedrivercircuithastobechangedtoshiftthefiringanglefromthe
rectifieroperation(0<<90)toinverteroperation(90<<180).Six
pulseor12pulseinverterareusedforthegridinterfacingbut12pulse
invertersproducelessharmonics.Thethyristortypeinvertersrequirea
lowimpedancegridinterfaceconnectionforcommutationpurpose.Ifthe
maximumpoweravailablefromthegridconnectionislessthantwicethe
ratedPVinverterpower,thenthelinecommutatedinvertershouldnot
beused[ 3 ].Thelinecommutatedinvertersarecheaperbutinhibits
poorpowerquality.Theharmonicsinjectedintothegridcanbelarge
unlesstakencareofbyemployingadequatefilters.Theseline
commutatedinvertersalsohavepoorpowerfactor,poorpowerquality,
andneedadditionalcontroltoimprovethepowerfactor.Transformer
canbeusedtoprovidetheelectricalisolation.Tosuppresstheharmonics
generatedbytheseinverters,tunedfiltersareemployedandreactive
powercompensationisrequiredtoimprovethelaggingpowerfactor.
1.2.5.3.2 Self-commutated inverter

Aswitchmodeinverterusingpulsewidthmodulated(PWM)switching
control,canbeusedforthegridconnectionofPVsystems.Thebasic
blockdiagramforthistypeofinverterisshownintheFig.1.34.The
inverterbridgesmayconsistofbipolartransistors,MOSFETtransistors,
IGBTs,orgateturnoffthyristors(GTOs),dependinguponthetypeof
application.GTOsareusedforthehigherpowerapplications,whereas
IGBTscanbeswitchedathigherfrequenciesi.e.16kHz,andare
generallyusedformanygridconnectedPVapplications.Mostofthe
presentdayinvertersareselfcommutatedsinewaveinverters.

FIGURE1.34

SelfcommutatedinverterwithPWM

switching.

Basedontheswitchingcontrol,thevoltagesourceinverterscanbe
furtherclassifiedbasedontheswitchingcontrolas:
PWM(pulsewidthmodulated)inverters.
Squarewaveinverters.
Singlephaseinverterswithvoltagecancellations.
Programmedharmoniceliminationswitching.
Currentcontrolledmodulation.
1.2.5.3.3 Inverter with high-frequency transformer

The50HztransformerforastandardPVinverterwithPWMswitching
schemecanbeveryheavyandcostly.Whileusingfrequenciesmorethan
20kHz,aferritecoretransformercanbeabetteroption[ 3 ].Acircuit
diagramofagridconnectedPVsystemusinghighfrequencytransformer
isshownintheFig.1.35.

FIGURE1.35

PVinverterwithhighfrequencytransformer.

Thecapacitorontheinputsideofhighfrequencyinverteractsasthe
filter.ThehighfrequencyinverterwithPWMisusedtoproduceahigh
frequencyACacrosstheprimarywindingofthehighfrequency
transformer.Thesecondaryvoltageofthistransformerisrectifiedusing
highfrequencyrectifier.TheDCvoltageisinterfacedwithathyristor
inverterthroughlowpassinductorfilterandhenceconnectedtothegrid.
Thelinecurrentisrequiredtobesinusoidalandinphasewiththeline
voltage.Toachievethis,thelinevoltage(V1)ismeasuredtoestablishthe
referencewaveformforthelinecurrentI*L.ThisreferencecurrentI*L
multipliedbythetransformerratiogivesthereferencecurrentatthe
outputofhighfrequencyinverter.Theinverteroutputcanbecontrolled
usingcurrentcontroltechnique[40].Theseinverterscanbewithlow
frequencytransformerisolationorhighfrequencytransformerisolation.
Thelowfrequency(50/60Hz)transformerofastandardinverterwith
PWMisaveryheavyandbulkycomponent.Forresidentialgrid
interactiverooftopinvertersbelow3kWrating,highfrequency
transformerisolationisoftenpreferred.
1.2.5.3.4 Other PV inverter topologies

Inthissection,someoftheinvertertopologiesdiscussedinvarious
researchpapershavebeendiscussed.
A. Multilevel converters

MultilevelconverterscanbeusedwithlargePVsystemswheremultiple
PVpanelscanbeconfiguredtocreatevoltagesteps.Thesemultilevel
voltagesourceconverterscansynthesizetheACoutputterminalvoltage
fromdifferentlevelofDCvoltagesandcanproducestaircasewaveforms.
Thisschemeinvolveslesscomplexity,andneedslessfiltering.Oneofthe
schemes(halfbridgediodeclampedthreelevelinverter[41])isgivenin
Fig.1.36.Thereisnotransformerinthistopology.Multilevelconverters
canbebeneficialforlargesystemsintermsofcostandefficiency.
ProblemsassociatedwithshadingandmalfunctionofPVunitsneedtobe
addressed.

FIGURE1.36

Halfbridgediodeclampedthreelevel

inverter.

B. Non-insulated voltage source

Inthisscheme[42],stringoflowvoltagePVpanelsoronehighvoltage
unitcanbecoupledwiththegridthroughDCtoDCconverterand
voltagesourceinverter.ThistopologyisshowninFig.1.37.PWM
switchingschemecanbeusedtogenerateACoutput.Filterhasbeen
usedtorejecttheswitchingcomponents.

FIGURE1.37

Noninsulatedvoltagesource.

C. Non-insulated current source

ThistypeofconfigurationisshowninFig.1.38.Noninsulatedcurrent
sourceinverters[42]canbeusedtointerfacethePVpanelswiththegrid.
Thistopologyinvolveslowcostwhichcanprovidebetterefficiency.
Appropriatecontrollercanbeusedtoreducecurrentharmonics.

FIGURE1.38

Noninsulatedcurrentsource.

D. Buck converter with half-bridge transformer link

PVpanelsareconnectedtogridviabuckconverterandhalfbridgeas
showninFig.1.39.Inthis,highfrequencyPWMswitchinghasbeenused
atthelowvoltagePVsidetogenerateanattenuatedrectified100Hzsine

wavecurrentwaveform[43].Halfwavebridgeisutilizedtoconvertthis
outputto50Hzsignalsuitableforgridinterconnection.Tostepupthe
voltage,transformerhasalsobeenconnectedbeforethegridconnection
point.

FIGURE1.39

Buckconverterwithhalfbridgetransformer

link.

E. Flyback converter

ThisconvertertopologystepsupthePVvoltagetoDCbusvoltage.Pulse
widthmodulationoperatedconverterhasbeenusedforgridconnection
ofPVsystem(Fig.1.40).Thisschemeislesscomplexandhaslessnumber
ofswitches.Flybackconverterscanbebeneficialforremoteareasdueto
lesscomplexpowerconditioningcomponents.

FIGURE1.40

Flybackconverter.

F. Interface using paralleled PV panels

LowvoltageACbusscheme[44]canbecomparativelyefficientand
cheaperoption.OneoftheschemesisshowninFig.1.41.Anumberof
smallerPVunitscanbeparalleledtogetherandthenconnectedto
combinesinglelowfrequencytransformer.Inthisscheme,thePVpanels
areconnectedinparallelratherthanseriestoavoidproblemsassociated
withshadingormalfunctionofoneofthepanelsinseriesconnection.

FIGURE1.41

ConverterusingparallelPVunits.

1.2.5.4 Power control through PV inverters

ThesystemshowninFig.1.42showscontrolofpowerflowontothegrid
[45].Thiscontrolcanbeananalogoramicroprocessorsystem.This
controlsystemgeneratesthewaveformsandregulatesthewaveform
amplitudeandphasetocontrolthepowerflowbetweentheinverterand
thegrid.ThegridinterfacedPVinverters,voltagecontrolledVSI
(VCVSI),orcurrentcontrolledVSI(CCVSI)havethepotentialofbi
directionalpowerflow.Theycannotonlyfeedthelocalloadbutalsocan
exporttheexcessactiveandreactivepowertotheutilitygrid.An
appropriatecontrollerisrequiredinordertoavoidanyerrorinpower
exportduetoerrorsinsynchronization,whichcanoverloadtheinverter.

FIGURE1.42

Schematicdiagramofaparallelprocessing

DGS.

Thereareadvantagesandlimitationsassociatedwitheachcontrol
mechanism.Forinstance,VCVSIsprovidevoltagesupporttotheload
(heretheVSIoperatesasavoltagesource),whileCCVSIsprovidecurrent
support(heretheVSIoperatesasacurrentsource).TheCCVSIisfasterin
responsecomparedtotheVCVSI,asitspowerflowiscontrolledbythe
switchinginstant,whereasintheVCVSIthepowerflowiscontrolledby
adjustingthevoltageacrossthedecouplinginductor.Activeandreactive
powerarecontrolledindependentlyintheCCVSI,butarecoupledinthe
VCVSI.Generally,theadvantagesofonetypeofVSIareconsideredasa
limitationoftheothertype[46].
Figure1.43showsthesimplified/equivalentschematicdiagramofa
VCVSI.Forthefollowinganalysisitisassumedthattheoutputlowpass
filters(LfandCf)ofVSIswillfilterouthighorderharmonicsgeneratedby
PWMs.Thedecouplinginductor(Xm)isanessentialpartofanyVCVSIas
itmakesthepowerflowcontrolpossible.InaVCVSI,thepowerflowof
thedistributedgenerationsystem(DGS)iscontrolledbyadjustingthe
amplitudeandphase(powerangle())oftheinverteroutputvoltage

withrespecttothegridvoltage.Hence,itisimportanttoconsiderthe
propersizingofthedecouplinginductorandthemaximumpowerangle
toprovidetherequiredpowerflowwhendesigningVCVSIs.Thephasor
diagramofasimplegridinverterinterfacewithafirstorderfilterare
showninFig.1.44.

FIGURE1.43

TheequivalentcircuitdiagramofaVCVSI.

FIGURE1.44

PhasordiagramofaVCVSIwithresistive

loadandassumingthegridisresponsibleforsupplyingthe
activepower[46].

ReferringtoFig.1.43,thefundamentalgridcurrent(Ig)canbeexpressed
byEq.(1.7):

(1.7)

whereVgandVcarerespectivelythegridandtheVCVSIsfundamental
voltages,andXmisthedecouplinginductorimpedance.Usingperunit
values(Sbase=V

/Zbase,Vbase=Vc,andZbase=Xm)whereVbase,Zbase,andSbase

base

arethebasevoltage,impedanceandcomplexpowervaluesrespectively.
ThegridapparentpowercanbeexpressedasEq.(1.8).

(1.8)

Usingperunitvalues,thecomplexpoweroftheVCVSIanddecoupling
inductorare

(1.9)

(1.10)

whereSgpu,Scpu,andSxpuareperunitvaluesofthegrid,VCVSI,and
decouplinginductorapparentpowerrespectively,andVgpuistheperunit
valueofthegridvoltage.
Figure1.45showstheequivalentschematicdiagramofaCCVSI.Asa
CCVSIcontrolsthecurrentflowusingtheVSIswitchinginstants,itcan
bemodeledasacurrentsourceandthereisnoneedforadecoupling
inductor(Fig.1.45).AsthecurrentgeneratedfromtheCCVSIcanbe
controlledindependentlyfromtheACvoltage,theactiveandreactive
powercontrolsaredecoupled.Hence,unitypowerfactoroperationis
possibleforthewholerangeoftheload.Thisisoneofthemain
advantagesofCCVSIs.

FIGURE1.45

TheequivalentcircuitofaCCVSI.

AstheCCVSIisconnectedinparalleltotheDGS,itfollowsthegrid
voltage.Figure1.46showsthephasordiagramofaCCVSIbasedDGSin

thepresenceofaninductiveload(consideringthesameassumptionas
VCVSIsection).Figure1.49showsthatwhenthegridvoltageincreases,
theloadsactivepowerconsumption,whichsuppliedbythegrid
increasesandtheCCVSIcompensatestheincreaseintheloadreactive
powerdemand.Inthiscase,theCCVSImaintainsgridsupplyatunity
powerfactor,keepingthecurrentphasedelaywithrespecttothegrid
voltageatafixedvalue().Therefore,theCCVSIcannotmaintainthe
loadvoltageinthepresenceofaDGSwithoututilizingextrahardware
andcontrolmechanisms.Thislimitationonloadvoltagestabilizationis
oneofthemaindrawbacksofCCVSIbasedDGS.

FIGURE1.46

PhasordiagramofaCCVSIwithinductive

loadandassuminggridisresponsibleforsupplyingtheactive
power[46].

Assumingtheloadactivecurrentdemandissuppliedbythegrid
(reactivepowersupportfunction),therequiredgridcurrentcanbe
rewrittenasfollows

(1.11)

where,SListhedemandedloadapparentpower.For
gridpowerconditioning,itispreferredthattheloadoperateatunity
powerfactor.Therefore,theCCVSImustprovidetheremainderofthe
requiredcurrentEq.(1.12)

(1.12)

Fordemandsidemanagement(DSM),itisdesirabletosupplytheactive
powerbytheRES,whereexcessenergyfromtheRESisinjectedintothe
DGS.TheremainingloadreactivepowerwillbesuppliedbytheCCVSI.
HenceEq.(1.12)canberewrittenasEq.(1.13).

(1.13)

WhenusingavoltagecontrollerforgridconnectedPVinverter,ithas
beenobservedthataslighterrorinthephaseofsynchronizingwaveform
cangrosslyoverloadtheinverterwhereasacurrentcontrollerismuch
lesssusceptibletovoltagephaseshifts[45].Duetothisreason,thecurrent
controllersarebettersuitedforthecontrolofpowerexportfromthePV
inverterstotheutilitygridsincetheyarelesssensitivetoerrorsin
synchronizingsinusoidalvoltagewaveforms.
Aprototypecurrentcontrolledtypepowerconditioningsystemhasbeen
developedbythefirstauthorandtestedonaweakruralfeederlineat
KalbarriinWesternAustralia[47].Thechoicemaybebetweenadditional
conventionalgeneratingcapacityatacentralizedlocationoradding
smallerdistributedgeneratingcapacitiesusingRESlikePV.Thelatter
optioncanhaveanumberofadvantageslike:
Theadditionalcapacityisaddedwhereveritisrequiredwithout
addingadditionalpowerdistributioninfrastructure.Thisisacritical
considerationwherethepowerlinesandtransformersarealreadyator
closetotheirmaximumratings.
Thepowerconditioningsystemcanbedesignedtoprovidemuchmore
thanjustasourceofrealpower,forminimalextracost.Aconverter
providingrealpowerneedsonlyaslightincreaseinratingstohandle
significantamountsofreactiveorevenharmonicpower.Thesame
converterthatconvertsDCPVpowertoACpowercansimultaneously
providethereactivepowersupporttotheweekutilitygrid.
TheblockdiagramofthepowerconditioningsystemusedintheKalbarri
projecthasbeenshownintheFig.1.47.ThisCCVSIoperateswitha
relativelynarrowswitchingfrequencybandnear10kHz.Thecontrol
diagramindicatesthebasicoperationofthepowerconditioningsystem.
Thetwooutercontrolloopsoperatetoindependentlycontroltherealand

reactivepowerflowfromthePVinverter.Therealpoweriscontrolledby
anouterMPPTalgorithmwithaninnerDClinkvoltagecontrolloop
providingtherealcurrentmagnituderequestI*pandhencethereal
powerexportthroughPVconverteriscontrolledthroughtheDClink
voltageregulation.TheDClinkvoltageismaintainedatareferencevalue
byaPIcontrolloop,whichgivestherealcurrentreferencemagnitudeas
itsoutput.Atregularintervals,theDClinkvoltageisscannedoverthe
entirevoltagerangetocheckthatthealgorithmisoperatingonthe
absoluteMPPandisnotstuckaroundalocalMPP.Duringthenight,the
convertercanstillbeusedtoregulatereactivepowerofthegrid
connectedsystemalthoughitcannotprovideactivepower.Duringthis
time,thePIcontrollermaintainaminimumDClinkvoltagetoallowthe
powerconditioningsystemtocontinuetooperate,providingthe
necessaryreactivepower.

FIGURE1.47

BlockdiagramofKalbarripowerconditioning

system.

TheAClinevoltageregulationisprovidedbyaseparatereactivepower
control,whichprovidesthereactivecurrentmagnitudereferenceI*Q.The
controlsystemhasasimpletransferfunction,whichvariesthereactive
powercommandinresponsetotheACvoltagefluctuations.Commonto
theouterrealandreactivepowercontrolloopsisaninnerhigher
bandwidthzeroaveragecurrenterror(ZACE)currentcontrolloop.I*pis
inphasewiththelinevoltages,andI*Qisat90tothelinevoltage.These
areaddedtogethertogiveone(perphase)sinusoidalconvertercurrent
referencewaveform(I*ac).TheCCVSIcontrolconsistsofanalogand
digitalcircuitrywhichactsasaZACEtransconductanceamplifierin
convertingI*acintoACpowercurrents[48].
1.2.5.5 System configurations

Theutilitycompatibleinvertersareusedforpowerconditioningand
synchronizationofPVoutputwiththeutilitypower.Ingeneral,four
typesofbatterylessgridconnectedPVsystemconfigurationshavebeen
identified:
Centralplantinverter.
MultiplestringDC/DCconverterwithsingleoutputinverter.
Multiplestringinverter.
Moduleintegratedinverter.
1.2.5.5.1 Central plant inverter

Inthecentralplantinverter,usuallyalargeinverterisusedtoconvertDC
poweroutputofPVarraystoACpower.Inthissystem,thePVmodules
areseriallystringedtoformapanel(orstring)andseveralsuchpanels
areconnectedinparalleltoasingleDCbus.Theblockdiagramofsucha
schemeisshowninFig.1.48.

FIGURE1.48

Centralplantinverter.

1.2.5.5.2 Multiple string DC/DC converter

InmultiplestringDC/DCconverter,asshowninFig.1.49,eachstringwill
haveaboostDC/DCconverterwithtransformerisolation.Therewillbea
commonDClink,whichfeedsatransformerlessinverter.

FIGURE1.49

MultiplestringDC/DCconverter.

1.2.5.5.3 Multiple string inverters

Figure1.50showstheblockdiagramofmultiplestringinvertersystem.In
thisscheme,severalmodulesareconnectedinseriesontheDCsideto
formastring.TheoutputfromeachstringisconvertedtoACthrougha
smallerindividualinverter.Manysuchinvertersareconnectedinparallel
ontheACside.Thisarrangementisnotbadlyaffectedbytheshadingof

thepanels.Itisalsonotseriouslyaffectedbyinverterfailure.

FIGURE1.50

Multiplestringinverter.

1.2.5.5.4 Module integrated inverter

Inthemoduleintegratedinvertersystem(Fig.1.51),eachmodule
(typically50300W)willhaveasmallinverter.Nocablingisrequired.It
isexpectedthathighvolumeofsmallinverterswillbringdownthecost.

FIGURE1.51

Moduleintegratedinverter.

1.2.5.6 Grid-compatible inverters characteristics

Thecharacteristicsofthegridcompatibleinvertersare:
Responsetime.
Powerfactor.
Frequencycontrol.
Harmonicoutput.
Synchronization.
Faultcurrentcontribution.
DCcurrentinjection.
Protection.
Theresponsetimeoftheinvertersshallbeextremelyfastandgoverned
bythebandwidthofthecontrolsystem.Absenceofrotatingmassanduse
ofsemiconductorswitchesallowinverterstorespondinmillisecondtime
frame.Thepowerfactoroftheinvertersistraditionallypoordueto
displacementpowerfactorandtheharmonics.Butwiththelatest
developmentintheinvertertechnology,itispossibletomaintainthe
powerfactorclosetounity.Theconverters/invertershavethecapability
ofcreatinglargevoltagefluctuationbydrawingreactivepowerfromthe
utilityratherthansupplying[49].Withpropercontrol,inverterscan
providevoltagesupportbyimporting/exportingreactivepowerto
push/pulltowardsadesiredsetpoint.Thisfunctionwouldbeofmore
usetotheutilitiesasitcanassistintheregulationofthegridsystemat
thedomesticconsumerlevel.
Frequencyoftheinverteroutputwaveshapeislockedtothegrid.
Frequencybiasiswheretheinverterfrequencyisdeliberatelymadeto
runat53Hz.Whenthegridispresent,thiswillbepulleddowntothe
nominal50Hz.Ifthegridfails,itwilldriftupwardstowards53Hzand
triponoverfrequency.Thiscanhelpinpreventingislanding.
Harmonicsoutputfromtheinvertershavebeenverypoortraditionally.
Oldthyristorbasedinvertersareoperatedwithslowswitchingspeeds
andcouldnotbepulsewidthmodulated.Thisresultedininverters
knownassixpulseortwelvepulseinverters.Theharmonicssoproduced
fromtheinverterscanbeinjectedintothegrid,resultinginlosses,heating
ofappliances,trippingofprotectionequipments,andpoorpowerquality.
Thenumberofpulsesbeingthenumberofstepsinasinewavecycle.
Withthepresentadventinthepowerelectronicstechnology,theinverter
controlscanbemadeverygood.Pulsewidthmodulatedinverters
producehighqualitysinewaves.Theharmoniclevelsareverylow,and
canbelowerthanthecommondomesticappliances.Iftheharmonicsare
presentinthegridvoltagewaveform,harmoniccurrentscanbeinduced
intheinverter.Theseharmoniccurrents,particularlythosegeneratedby
avoltagecontrolledinverter,willinfacthelpinsupportingthegrid.
Thesearegoodharmoniccurrents.Thisisthereasonthattheharmonic
currentoutputofinvertersmustbemeasuredontoacleangridsourceso
thattheonlyharmonicsbeingproducedbytheinvertersaremeasured.
Synchronizationofinverterwiththegridisperformedautomaticallyand
typicallyuseszerocrossingdetectiononthevoltagewaveform.An

inverterhasnorotatingmassandhencehasnoinertia.Synchronization
doesnotinvolvetheaccelerationofarotatingmachine.Consequentlythe
referencewaveformsintheinvertercanbejumpedtoanypointrequired
withinasamplingperiod.Ifphaselockedloopsareused,itcouldtakeup
afewseconds.Phaselockedloopsareusedtoincreasetheimmunityto
noise.Thisallowsthesynchronizationtobebasedonseveralcyclesof
zerocrossinginformation.Theresponsetimeforthistypeoflockingwill
beslower.
Photovoltaicpanelsproduceacurrentthatisproportionaltotheamount
oflightfallingonthem.Thepanelsarenormallyratedtoproduce
2

1000W/m at25C.Undertheseconditions,theshortcircuitcurrent
possiblefromthesepanelsistypicallyonly20%higherthanthenominal
currentwhereasitisextremelyvariableforwind.Ifthesolarradiationis
lowthenthemaximumcurrentpossibleundershortcircuitisgoingtobe
lessthanthenominalfullloadcurrent.ConsequentlyPVsystemscannot
providetheshortcircuitcapacitytothegrid.Ifabatteryispresent,the
faultcurrentcontributionislimitedbytheinverter.Withthebattery
storage,itispossibleforthebatterytoprovidetheenergy.However,
invertersaretypicallylimitedbetween100and200%ofnominalrating
undercurrentlimitconditions.Theinverterneedstoprotectitselfagainst
theshortcircuitsbecausethepowerelectroniccomponentswilltypically
bedestroyedbeforeaprotectiondevicelikecircuitbreakertrips.
Incaseofinvertermalfunction,invertershavethecapabilitytoinjectthe
DCcomponentsintothegrid.Mostutilitieshaveguidelinesforthis
purpose.Atransformershallbeinstalledatthepointofconnectiononthe
ACsidetopreventDCfrombeingenteringintotheutilitynetwork.The
transformercanbeomittedwhenaDCdetectiondeviceisinstalledatthe
pointofconnectionontheACsideintheinverter.TheDCinjectionis
essentiallycausedbythereferenceorpowerelectronicsdeviceproducing
apositivehalfcyclethatisdifferentfromthenegativehalfcycleresulting
intheDCcomponentintheoutput.IftheDCcomponentcanbe
measured,itcanthenbeaddedintothefeedbackpathtoeliminatethe
DCquantity.
1.2.5.6.1 Protection requirements

Aminimumrequirementtofacilitatethepreventionofislandingisthat
theinverterenergysystemprotectionoperatesandisolatestheinverter
energysystemfromthegridif:
Overvoltage.
Undervoltage.
Overfrequency.
Underfrequencyexists.
Theselimitsmaybeeitherfactorysetorsiteprogrammable.The
protectionvoltageoperatingpointsmaybesetinanarrowerbandif
required,e.g.220260V.Inadditiontothepassiveprotectiondetailed
above,andtopreventthesituationwhereislandingmayoccurbecause
multipleinvertersprovideafrequencyreferenceforoneanother,
invertersmusthaveanacceptedactivemethodofislandingprevention
followinggridfailure,e.g.frequencydrift,impedancemeasurement,etc.
Invertercontrolsforislandingcanbedesignedonthebasisofdetectionof
gridvoltage,measurementofimpedance,frequencyvariation,orincrease
inharmonics.Thisfunctionmustoperatetoforcetheinverteroutput
outsidetheprotectiontolerancesspecifiedpreviously,therebyresulting
inisolationoftheinverterenergysystemfromthegrid.Themaximum
combinedoperationtimeofbothpassiveandactiveprotectionsshouldbe
2saftergridfailureunderalllocalloadconditions.Iffrequencyshiftis
used,itisrecommendedthatthedirectionofshiftbedown.Theinverter
energysystemmustremaindisconnectedfromthegriduntilthe
reconnectionconditionsaremet.Someinvertersproducehighvoltage
spikes,especiallyatlightload,whichcanbedangerousfortheelectronic
equipment.IEEEP929givessomeideaaboutthepermittedvoltagelimits.
Iftheinverterenergysystemdoesnothavetheabovefrequencyfeatures,
theinvertermustincorporateanalternateantiislandingprotection
featurethatisacceptabletotherelevantelectricitydistributor.Ifthe
protectionfunctionaboveistobeincorporatedintheinverteritmustbe
typetestedforcompliancewiththeserequirementsandacceptedbythe
relevantelectricitydistributor.Otherwiseotherformsofexternal
protectionrelayingarerequiredwhichhavebeentypetestedfor
compliancewiththeserequirementsandapprovedbytherelevant
electricitydistributor.Theinvertershallhaveadequateprotectionagainst
shortcircuit,otherfaults,andoverheatingofinvertercomponents.

1.3 Power electronics for wind power systems

InruralUSA,thefirstwindmillwascommissionedin1890togenerate
electricity.Today,largewindgeneratorsarecompetingwithutilitiesin
supplyingcleanpowereconomically.Theaveragewindturbinesizehas
been300600kWuntilrecently.Thenewwindgeneratorsof13MW
havebeendevelopedandarebeinginstalledworldwide,andprototype
ofevenhighercapacityisunderdevelopment.Improvedwindturbine

designsandplantutilizationhaveresultedinsignificantreductionin
windenergygenerationcostfrom35centsperkWhin1980tolessthan
5centsperkWhin1999,inlocationswherewindregimeisfavorable.At
thisgenerationcost,windenergyhasbecomeoneoftheleastcostpower
sources.Mainfactorsthathavecontributedtothewindpowertechnology
developmentare:
Highstrengthfibercompositesformanufacturinglargelowcost
blades.
Variablespeedoperationofwindgeneratorstocapturemaximum
energy.
Advancementinpowerelectronicsandassociatedcost.
Improvedplantoperationandefficiency.
Economyofscaleduetoavailabilityoflargewindgenerationplants.
Accumulatedfieldexperienceimprovingthecapacityfactor.
Computerprototypingbyaccuratesystemmodelingandsimulation.
TheTable1.2isforwindsiteswithaverageannualwindspeedof7m/sat
30mhubheight.Since1980s,windtechnologycapitalcostshavereduced
by80%worldwide.Operationandmaintenancecostshavedeclinedby
80%andtheavailabilityfactorofgridconnectedwindplantshas
increasedto95%.Atpresent,thecapitalcostofwindgeneratorplantshas
droppedtoabout$600perkWandtheelectricitygenerationcosthas
reducedto6centsperkWh.Itisexpectedtoreducethegenerationcost
below4centsperkWh.Keepingthisinview,thewindgenerationis
goingtobehighlycompetitivewiththeconventionalpowerplants.In
Europe,USA,andAsiathewindpowergenerationisincreasingrapidly
andthistrendisgoingtocontinueduetoeconomicviabilityofwind
powergeneration.
Table1.2
WindPowerTechnologyDevelopments

1980

1999

Future

CostperkWh

$0.350.40

$0.050.07

CapitalcostperkW

$20003000 $500700

<$0.04
<$400

Operatinglife

57Years

20Years

30Years

Capacityfactor(average)

15%

2530%

>30%

Availability

5065%

95%

>95%

Windturbineunitsize

50150kW 3001000kW 5002000kW

range

Thetechnicaladvancementinpowerelectronicsisplayinganimportant
partinthedevelopmentofwindpowertechnology.Thecontributionof
powerelectronicsincontroloffixedspeed/variablespeedwindturbines
andinterfacingtothegridisofextremeimportance.Becauseofthe
fluctuatingnatureofwindspeed,thepowerqualityandreliabilityofthe
windbasedpowersystemneedstobeevaluatedindetail.Appropriate
controlschemesrequirepowerconditioning.

1.3.1 Basics of wind power

Theabilityofawindturbinetoextractpowerfromwindisafunctionof
threemainfactors:
Windpoweravailability.
Powercurveofthemachine.
Abilityofthemachinetorespondtowindperturbations.
Themechanicalpowerproducedbyawindturbineisgivenby

(1.14)

Thepowerfromthewindisacubicfunctionofwind
speed.ThecurveforpowercoefficientCpandisrequiredtoinferthe
valueofCpforbasedonwindspeedatthattime.

Wheretipspeedratio,

,=Airdensity,Kgm ,Cp=
2

powercoefficient,A=windturbinerotorsweptarea,m ,U=windspeed
inm/s.
Thecaseofavariablespeedwindturbinewithapitchmechanismthat

alterstheeffectiverotordynamicefficiency,canbeeasilyconsideredifan
appropriateexpressionforCpasafunctionofthepitchangleisapplied.
ThepowercurveofatypicalwindturbineisgiveninFig.1.52asa
functionofwindspeed.

FIGURE1.52

Powercurveofwindturbineasafunctionof

windspeed[50].

TheCpcurvefor150kWwindmastermachineisgiveninFig.1.53,
whichhasbeeninferredfromthepowercurveofthemachine.Theratio
ofshaftpowertotheavailablepowerinthewindistheefficiencyof
conversion,knownasthepowercoefficientCp

(1.15)

FIGURE1.53

Cpcurveofwindmachine[50].

Thepowercoefficientisafunctionofturbinebladetipspeedtowind
speedratio().Atipspeedratioof1meansthebladetipsaremovingat
thesamespeedasthewindandwhenis2thetipsaremovingattwice
thespeedofthewindandsoon[51].Solidity()isdefinedastheratioof
thesumofthewidthofallthebladestothecircumferenceoftherotor.
Hence,

(1.16)

whereN=numberofbladesandd=widthoftheblades.
Thepowerfromawindturbinedoublesastheareasweptbytheblades
doubles.Butdoublingofthewindspeedincreasesthepoweroutput
eighttimes.Figure1.54givesafamilyofpowercurvesforawindturbine.
Iftheloadingoftheturbineiscontrolledsuchthattheoperatingpointis
alongthemaximumpowerlocusatdifferentwindspeeds,thenthewind
energysystemwillbemoreefficient.

FIGURE1.54

Turbinepowervsshaftspeedcurves.

1.3.1.1 Types of wind turbines

TherearetwotypesofwindturbinesavailableFig.1.55:

FIGURE1.55

TypicaldiagramofHAWTsandVAWTs.

Horizontalaxiswindturbines(HAWTs).
Verticalaxiswindturbines(VAWTs).
Verticalaxiswindturbines(VAWTs)haveanaxisofrotationthatis
vertical,andso,unlikethehorizontalwindturbines,theycancapture
windsfromanydirectionwithouttheneedtorepositiontherotorwhen
thewinddirectionchanges(withoutaspecialyawmechanism).Vertical
axiswindturbineswerealsousedinsomeapplicationsastheyhavethe
advantagethattheydonotdependonthedirectionofthewind.Itis
possibletoextractpowerrelativelyeasier.Buttherearesome
disadvantagessuchasnoselfstartingsystem,smallerpowercoefficient
thanobtainedinthehorizontalaxiswindturbines,strongdiscontinuation
ofrotationsduetoperiodicchangesintheliftforce,andtheregulationof
powerisnotyetsatisfactory.
Thehorizontalaxiswindturbinesaregenerallyused.Horizontalaxis
windturbinesare,byfar,themostcommondesign.Therearealarge
numberofdesignscommerciallyavailablerangingfrom50Wto4.5MW.
Thenumberofbladesrangesfromonetomanyinthefamiliaragriculture
windmill.Thebestcompromiseforelectricitygeneration,wherehigh
rotationalspeedallowsuseofasmallerandcheaperelectricgenerator,is
twoorthreeblades.Themechanicalandaerodynamicbalanceisbetter
forthreebladedrotor.Insmallwindturbines,threebladesarecommon.
Multibladewindturbinesareusedforwaterpumpingonfarms.
Basedonthepitchcontrolmechanisms,thewindturbinescanalsobe
classifiedas:
Fixedpitchwindturbines.
Variablepitchwindturbines.
Differentmanufacturersofferfixedpitchandvariablepitchblades.
Variablepitchisdesirableonlargemachinesbecausetheaerodynamic
loadsonthebladescanbereducedandwhenusedinfixedspeed
operationtheycanextractmoreenergy.Butnecessarymechanisms
requiremaintenanceandforsmallmachines,installedinremoteareas,
fixedpitchseemsmoredesirableandeconomical.Insomemachines,
poweroutputregulationinvolvesyawingbladessothattheynolonger
pointintothewind.OnesuchsystemdesignedinWesternAustraliahas
atailthatprogressivelytiltsthebladesinaverticalplanesothatthey
presentasmallsurfacetothewindathighspeeds.
Theactivepowerofawindturbinecanberegulatedbyeitherdesigning
thebladestogointoanaerodynamicstallbeyondthedesignatedwind
speed,orbyfeatheringthebladesoutofthewind,whichresultsin
reducingexcesspowerusingamechanicalandelectricalmechanism.
Recently,anactivestallhasbeenusedtoimprovethestabilityofwind
farms.Thisstallmechanismcanpreventpowerdeviationfromgusty
windstopassthroughthedrivetrain[52].
Horizontalaxiswindturbinescanbefurtherclassifiedintofixedspeed
(FS)orvariablespeed(VS).TheFSwindturbinegenerator(FSWT)is
designedtooperateatmaximumefficiencywhileoperatingatarated
windspeed.Inthiscase,theoptimumtipspeedratioisobtainedforthe
rotorairfoilataratedwindspeed.ForaVSwindturbinegenerator
(VSWT),itispossibletoobtainoptimumwindspeedatdifferentwind
speeds.HencethisenablestheVSwindturbinetoincreaseitsenergy
capture.ThegeneraladvantagesofaVSWTaresummarizedasfollows:
VSWTsaremoreefficientthantheFSWTs.
Atlowwindspeedsthewindturbinescanstillcapturethemaximum
availablepowerattherotor,henceincreasingthepossibilityofproviding
theratedpowerforwidespeedrange.
1.3.1.2 Types of wind generators

Schemesbasedonpermanentmagnetsynchronousgenerators(PMSG)
andinductiongeneratorsarereceivingcloseattentioninwindpower
applicationsbecauseoftheirqualitiessuchasruggedness,lowcost,
manufacturingsimplicity,andlowmaintenancerequirements.Despite
manypositivefeaturesovertheconventionalsynchronousgenerators,the
PMSGwasnotbeingusedwidely[23].However,withtherecentadvent
inpowerelectronics,itisnowpossibletocontrolthevariablevoltage,

variablefrequencyoutputofPMSG.Thepermanentmagnetmachineis
generallyfavoredfordevelopingnewdesigns,becauseofhigher
efficiencyandthepossibilityofarathersmallerdiameter.ThesePMSG
machinesarenowbeingusedwithvariablespeedwindmachines.
Inlargepowersystemnetworks,synchronousgeneratorsaregenerally
usedwithfixedspeedwindturbines.Thesynchronousgeneratorscan
supplytheactiveandreactivepowerboth,andtheirreactivepowerflow
canbecontrolled.Thesynchronousgeneratorscanoperateatanypower
factor.Fortheinductiongenerator,drivenbyawindturbine,itisawell
knownfactthatitcandeliveronlyactivepower,whileconsuming
reactivepower
Synchronousgeneratorswithhighpowerratingaresignificantlymore
expensivethaninductiongeneratorsofsimilarsize.Moreover,direct
connectedsynchronousgeneratorshavethelimitationofrotationalspeed
beingfixedbythegridfrequency.Hence,fluctuationintherotorspeed
duetowindgustsleadtohighertorqueinhighpoweroutput
fluctuationsandthederivedtrain.Thereforeingridconnected
application,synchronousgeneratorsareinterfacedviapowerconverters
tothegrid.Thisalsoallowsthesynchronousgeneratorstooperatewind
turbinesinVS,whichmakesgearlessoperationoftheVSWTpossible.
Thesquirrelcageinductiongeneratorsarewidelyusedwiththefixed
speedwindturbines.Insomeapplications,woundrotorinduction
generatorshavealsobeenusedwithadequatecontrolschemefor
regulatingspeedbyexternalrotorresistance.Thisallowstheshapeofthe
torqueslipcurvetobecontrolledtoimprovethedynamicsofthedrive
train.IncaseofPMSG,theconverter/invertercanbeusedtocontrolthe
variablevoltage,variablefrequencysignalofthewindgeneratorat
varyingwindspeed.TheconverterconvertsthisvaryingsignaltotheDC
signalandtheoutputofconverterisconvertedtoACsignalofdesired
amplitudeandfrequency.
Theinductiongeneratorsarenotlockedtothefrequencyofthenetwork.
Thecyclictorquefluctuationsatthewindturbinecanbeabsorbedby
verysmallchangeintheslipspeed.Incaseofthecapacitorexcited
inductiongenerators,theyobtainthemagnetizingcurrentfrom
capacitorsconnectedacrossitsoutputterminals[51,53,54].
TotakeadvantageofVSWTs,itisnecessarytodecoupletherotorspeed
andthegridfrequency.Therearedifferentapproachestooperatethe
VSWTwithinacertainoperationalrange(cutinandcutoutwindspeed).
Oneoftheapproachesisdynamicslipcontrol,wheretheslipisallowed
tovaryupto10%[55].Inthesecases,doublyfedinductiongenerators
(DFIG)areused(Fig.1.56).OnelimitationisthatDFIGrequirereactive
powertooperate.Asitisnotdesiredthatthegridsupplythisreactive
power,thesegeneratorsareusuallyequippedwithcapacitors.Agearbox
formsanessentialcomponentofthewindturbinegenerator(WTG)using
inductiongenerators.Thisresultsinthefollowinglimitations:

FIGURE1.56

Variablespeeddoublyfedinduction

generator(VSDFIG)system.

Frequentmaintenance.
Additionalcost.
Additionallosses.
Withtheemergenceoflargewindpowergeneration,increasedattention
isbeingdirectedtowardswoundrotorinductiongenerators(WRIG)
controlledfromtherotorsideforvariablespeedconstantfrequency
(VSCF)applications.Awoundrotorinductiongeneratorhasarotor
containinga3phasewinding.Thesewindingsaremadeaccessibletothe
outsideviasliprings.Themainadvantagesofawoundrotorinduction
generatorforVSCFapplicationsare:
Easiergeneratortorquecontrolusingrotorcurrentcontrol.
Smallergeneratorcapacityasthegeneratedpowercanbeaccessed
fromthestatoraswellasfromtherotor.Usuallytherotorpoweris
proportionaltotheslipspeed(shaftspeedsynchronousspeed).
Consequentlysmallerrotorpowerconvertersarerequired.Thefrequency
converterintherotor(inverter)directlycontrolsthecurrentintherotor
winding,whichenablesthecontrolofthewholegeneratoroutput.The
powerelectronicconvertersgenerallyusedareratedat2030%ofthe
nominalgeneratorpower.
Fewerharmonicsexistbecausecontrolisintherotorwhilethestatoris

directlyconnectedtothegrid.
Iftherotorisshortcircuited(makingittheequivalentofacagerotor
inductionmachine),thespeedisprimarilydeterminedbythesupply
frequencyandthenominalslipiswithin5%.Themechanicalpowerinput
(PTURBINE)isconvertedintostatorelectricalpoweroutput(PSTATOR)andis
fedtotheACsupply.Therotorpowerloss,beingproportionaltotheslip
speed,iscommonlyreferredtoastheslippower(PROTOR).Thepossibility
ofaccessingtherotorinadoublyfedinductiongeneratormakesa
numberofconfigurationspossible.Theseincludeslippowerrecovery
usingacycloconverter,whichconvertstheacvoltageofonefrequencyto
anotherwithoutanintermediateDClink[5658],orbacktobackinverter
configurations[59,60].
Usingvoltagesourceinverters(VSIs)intherotorcircuit,therotor
currentscanbecontrolledatthedesiredphase,frequency,and
magnitude.Thisenablesreversibleflowofactivepowerintherotorand
thesystemcanoperateinsubsynchronousandsupersynchronous
speeds,bothinmotoringandgeneratingmodes.TheDClinkcapacitor
actsasasourceofreactivepoweranditispossibletosupplythe
magnetizingcurrent,partiallyorfully,fromtherotorside.Therefore,the
statorsidepowerfactorcanalsobecontrolled.Usingvectorcontrol
techniques,theactiveandreactivepowerscanbecontrolled
independentlyandhencefastdynamicperformancecanalsobeachieved.
Theconverterusedatthegridinterfaceistermedasthelineside
converterorthefrontendconverter(FEC).Unliketherotorside
converter,thisoperatesatthegridfrequency.Flowofactiveandreactive
powersiscontrolledbyadjustingthephaseandamplitudeoftheinverter
terminalvoltagewithrespecttothegridvoltage.Activepowercanflow
eithertothegridortotherotorcircuitdependingonthemodeof
operation.Bycontrollingtheflowofactivepower,theDCbusvoltageis
regulatedwithinasmallband.Controlofreactivepowerenablesunity
powerfactoroperationatthegridinterface.Infact,theFECcanbe
operatedataleadingpowerfactor,ifitissodesired.Itshouldbenoted
that,sincethesliprangeislimited,theDCbusvoltageislessinthiscase
whencomparedtothestatorsidecontrol.Atransformeristherefore
necessarytomatchthevoltagelevelsbetweenthegridandtheDCsideof
theFEC.WithaPWMconverterintherotorcircuit,therotorcurrentscan
becontrolledatthedesiredphase,frequency,andmagnitude.This
enablesreversibleflowofactivepowerintherotorandthesystemcan
operateinsubsynchronousandsupersynchronousspeeds,bothin
motoringandgeneratingmodes(Fig.1.57).

FIGURE1.57

Doublyfedinductiongeneratorpowerflowin

generatingmode:(a)subsynchronousand(b)super
synchronous.

1.3.2 Types of wind power systems

Windpowersystemscanbeclassifiedas:
Standalone.
Hybrid.
Gridconnected.

1.3.3 Stand-alone wind power systems

Standalonewindpowersystemsarebeingusedforthefollowing
purposesinremoteareapowersystems:
Batterycharging.
Householdpowersupply.
1.3.3.1 Battery charging with stand-alone wind energy system

Thebasicelementsofastandalonewindenergyconversionsystemare:
Windgenerator.
Tower.
Chargecontrolsystem.
Batterystorage.
Distributionnetwork.
Inremoteareapowersupply,aninverterandadieselgeneratoraremore
reliableandsophisticatedsystems.Mostsmallisolatedwindenergy
systemsusebatteriesasastoragedevicetoleveloutthemismatch
betweentheavailabilityofthewindandtheloadrequirement.Batteries
areamajorcostcomponentinanisolatedpowersystem.

1.3.3.2 Wind turbine charge controller

Thebasicblockdiagramofastandalonewindgeneratorandbattery
chargingsystemisshowninFig.1.58.

FIGURE1.58

Blockdiagramforastandalonewind

generatorandbatterychargingsystem.

Thefunctionofchargecontrolleristofeedthepowerfromthewind
generatortothebatterybankinacontrolledmanner.Inthecommonly
usedpermanentmagnetgenerators,thisisusuallydonebyusingthe
controlledrectifiers[61].Thecontrollershouldbedesignedtolimitthe
maximumcurrentintothebattery,reducechargingcurrentforhigh
batterySoC,andmaintainatricklechargeduringfullSoCperiods.

1.3.4 Wind-diesel hybrid systems

ThedetailsofhybridsystemsarealreadycoveredinSection1.2.4.Diesel
systemswithoutbatteriesinremoteareaarecharacterizedbypoor
efficiency,highmaintenance,andfuelcosts.Thedieselgeneratorsmust
beoperatedaboveacertainminimumloadleveltoreducecylinderwear
andtearduetoincompletecombustion.Itisacommonpracticetoinstall
dumploadstodissipateextraenergy.Moreefficientsystemscanbe
devisedbycombiningthedieselgeneratorwithabatteryinverter
subsystemandincorporatingRES,suchaswind/solarwhereappropriate.
Anintegratedhybridenergysystemincorporatingadieselgenerator,
windgenerator,batteryorflywheelstorage,andinverterwillbecost
effectiveatmanysiteswithanaveragedailyenergydemandexceeding
25kWh[62].Thesehybridenergysystemscanserveasaminigridasa
partofdistributedgenerationratherthanextendingthegridtothe
remoteruralareas.Theheartofthehybridsystemisahighqualitysine
waveinverter,whichcanalsobeoperatedinreverseasbatterycharger.
Thesystemcancopewithloadsrangingfromzero(inverteronly
operation)toapproximatelythreetimesgreatercapacity(inverterand
dieseloperatinginparallel).
Decentralizedformofgenerationcanbebeneficialinremoteareapower
supply.DuetohighcostofPVsystems,problemsassociatedwithstoring
electricityoverlongerperiods(likemaintenancedifficultiesandcosts),
windturbinescanbeaviablealternativeinhybridsystems.Systemswith
batterystoragealthoughprovidebetterreliability.Windpower
penetrationcanbehighenoughtomakeasignificantimpactonthe
operationofdieselgenerators.
Highwindpenetrationalsoposessignificanttechnicalproblemsforthe
systemdesignerintermsofcontrolandtransientstability[30].Inearlier
stages,winddieselsystemswereinstalledwithoutassessingthesystem
behaviorduetolackofdesigntools/software.Withthecontinualresearch
inthisarea,therearenowsoftwareavailabletoassistinthisprocess.
Winddieseltechnologyhasnowmaturedduetoresearchand
developmentinthisarea.Nowthereisaneedtoutilizethisknowledge
intocosteffectiveandreliablehybridsystems[63].InWesternAustralia,
dynamicmodelingofwinddieselhybridsystemhasbeendevelopedin
Curtin/MUERI,supportedbytheAustralianCooperativeResearchCentre
forRenewableEnergy(ACRE)program5.21.

1.3.5 Grid-connected wind energy systems

Smallscalewindturbines,connectedtothegrid(weakorstronggrid),
havebeendiscussedhere.Winddieselsystemshavebeengetting
attentioninmanyremotepartsoftheworldlately.Remoteareapower
suppliesarecharacterizedbylowinertia,lowdamping,andpoorreactive
powersupport.Suchweakpowersystemsaremoresusceptibleto
suddenchangeinnetworkoperatingconditions[64].Inthisweakgrid
situation,thesignificantpowerfluctuationsinthegridwouldleadto
reducedqualityofsupplytousers.Thismaymanifestitselfasvoltage
andfrequencyvariationsorspikesinthepowersupply.Theseweakgrid
systemsneedappropriatestorageandcontrolsystemstosmoothout
thesefluctuationswithoutsacrificingthepeakpowertrackingcapability.
Thesesystemscanhavetwostorageelements.Thefirstistheinertiaof
therotatingmechanicalparts,whichincludestheblades,gearbox,and
therotorofthegenerators.Insteadofwindspeedfluctuationcausing
largeandimmediatechangeintheelectricaloutputofthegeneratorasin
afixedspeedmachine,thefluctuationwillcauseachangeinshaftspeed
andnotcreateasignificantchangeingeneratoroutput.Thesecond
energystorageelementisthesmallbatterystoragebetweentheDCDC
converterandtheinverter.Theenergyinagustcouldbestored
temporarilyinthebatterybankandreleasedduringalullinthewind
speed,thusreducingthesizeoffluctuations.
Inlargerscalewindturbines,theadditionofinvertercontrolfurther
reducesfluctuationandincreasesthetotaloutputpower.Thusthetotal
outputofthewindenergysystemcanbestabilizedorsmoothedtotrack

theaveragewindspeedandcanomitcertaingusts.Thesystemcontroller
shouldtrackthepeakpowertomaximizetheoutputofthewindenergy
system.Itshouldmonitorthestatoroutputandadjusttheinverterto
smooththetotaloutput.TheamountofsmoothingwoulddependonSoC
ofthebattery.Thenominaltotaloutputwouldbeadjustedtokeepthe
batterybankSoCatareasonablelevel.Inthisway,thetotalwindenergy
systemwilltrackthelongtermvariationsinthewindspeedwithout
havingfluctuationscausedbythewind.Thestoragecapacityofthe
batterybankneedonlybeseveralminutestosmoothoutthegustsinthe
wind,whichcanbeeasilyhandledbytheweakgrid.Inthecases,where
theweakgridispoweredbydieselgenerators,theconventionalwind
turbinecancausethedieselenginestooperateatlowcapacity.Incaseof
strongwindapplication,thefluctuationsintheoutputofthewindenergy
generatorsystemcanbereadilyabsorbedbythegrid.Themainaimhere
istoextractthemaximumenergyfromthewind.Thebasicblocklayout
ofsuchasystem[65]isshownintheFig.1.59.

FIGURE1.59

Systemblockdiagramofgridconnected

windenergysystem.

ThefunctionoftheDCDCconverterwillbetoadjustthetorqueonthe
machineandhenceensurebymeasurementofwindspeedandshaft
speedthattheturbinebladesareoperatingsoastoextractoptimum
power.Thepurposeoftheinverteristofeedtheenergygatheredbythe
rotorandDCDCconverter,intheprocessofpeakpowertracking,tothe
gridsystem.Theinteractionbetweenthetwosectionswouldbetightly
controlledsoastominimizeoreliminatetheneedforabatterybank.The
controlmustbefastenoughsothattheinverteroutputpowersetpoint
matchestheoutputoftheDCDCconverter.Forawoundrotorinduction
machineoperatingoveratwotoonespeedrange,themaximumpower
extractedfromtherotorisequaltothepowerratingofthestator.Thus
theratingofthegeneratorfromatraditionalpointofviewisonlyhalf
thatofthewindturbine[65].Sincehalfthepowercomesfromthestator
andhalffromtherotor,thepowerelectronicsoftheDCDCconverter
andinverterneedtohandleonlyhalfthetotalwindturbineoutputand
nobatterywouldberequired.
Powerelectronictechnologyalsoplaysanimportantroleinbothsystem
configurationsandincontrolofoffshorewindfarms[66].Windfarms
connectinvariousconfigurationsandcontrolmethodsusingdifferent
generatortypesandcompensationarrangements.Forinstance,wind
farmscanbeconnectedtotheAClocalnetworkwithcentralized
compensationorwithaHVDCtransmissionsystem,andDClocal
network.DecentralizedcontrolwithaDCtransmissionsystemhasalso
beenused[67].
1.3.5.1 Soft starters for induction generators

Whenaninductiongeneratorisconnectedtoaload,alargeinrush
currentflows.Thisissomethingsimilartothedirectonlinestarting
problemofinductionmachines.Ithasbeenobservedthattheinitialtime
constantsoftheinductionmachinesarehigherwhenittriestostabilize
initiallyatthenormaloperatingconditions.Thereisaneedtousesome
typeofsoftstartingequipmenttostartthelargeinductiongenerators.A
simpleschemetoachievethisisshownintheFig.1.60.

FIGURE1.60

Softstartingforwindturbinecoupledwith

inductiongenerator.

Twothyristorsareconnectedineachphase,backtoback.Initially,when
theinductiongeneratorisconnected,thethyristorsareusedtocontrolthe
voltageappliedtothestatorandtolimitthelargeinrushcurrent.Assoon
asthegeneratorisfullyconnected,thebypassswitchisusedtobypass
thesoftstarterunit.

1.3.6 Control of wind turbines

Theoryindicatesthatoperationofawindturbineatfixedtipspeedratio
(Cpmax)ensuresenhancedenergycapture[50].Thewindenergysystems
mustbedesignedsothatabovetheratedwindspeed,thecontrolsystem

limittheturbineoutput.Innormaloperation,mediumtolargescalewind
turbinesareconnectedtoalargegrid.Variouswindturbinecontrol
policieshavebeenstudiedaroundtheworld.Gridconnectedwind
turbinesgeneratorscanbeclassifiedas:
Fixedspeedwindturbines.
Variablespeedwindturbines.
1.3.6.1 Fixed speed wind turbines

Incaseofafixedspeedwindturbine,synchronousorsquirrelcage
inductiongeneratorsareemployedandischaracterizedbythestiffpower
traindynamics.Therotationalspeedofthewindturbinegeneratorinthis
caseisfixedbythegridfrequency.Thegeneratorislockedtothegrid,
therebypermittingonlysmalldeviationsoftherotorshaftspeedfromthe
nominalvalue.Thespeedisveryresponsivetowindspeedfluctuations.
Thenormalmethodtosmooththesurgescausedbythewindistochange
theturbineaerodynamiccharacteristics,eitherpassivelybystall
regulationoractivelybybladepitchregulation.Thewindturbinesoften
subjectedtoverylow(belowcutinspeed)orhighwindspeed(above
ratedvalue).Sometimestheygeneratebelowratedpower.Nopitch
regulationisappliedwhenthewindturbineisoperatingbelowrated
speed,butpitchcontrolisrequiredwhenthemachineisoperatingabove
ratedwindspeedtominimizethestress.Figure1.61showstheeffectof
bladepitchangleonthetorquespeedcurveatagivenwindspeed.

FIGURE1.61

Cp/curvesfordifferentpitchsettings.

Bladepitchcontrolisaveryeffectivewayofcontrollingwindturbine
speedathighwindspeeds,hencelimitingthepowerandtorqueoutput
ofthewindmachine.Analternativebutcrudercontroltechniqueisbased
onairfoilstall[50].Asynchronouslinkmaintainingfixedturbinespeed
incombinationwithanappropriateairfoilcanbedesignedsothat,at
higherthanratedwindspeedsthetorquereducesduetoairfoilstall.This
methoddoesnotrequireexternalinterventionorcomplicatedhardware,
butitcaptureslessenergyandhasgreaterbladefatigue.
Theaimsofvariablepitchcontrolofmediumandlargescalewind
turbinesweretohelpinstartupandshutdownoperation,toprotect
againstoverspeedandtolimittheloadonthewindturbine[68].The
turbineisnormallyoperatedbetweenalowerandanupperlimitofwind
speed(typically4.526m/s).Whenthewindspeedistoolowortoohigh,
thewindturbineisstoppedtoreducewearanddamage.Thewind
turbinemustbecapableofbeingstartedandrunuptospeedinasafe
andcontrolledmanner.Theaerodynamiccharacteristicsofsometurbines
aresuchthattheyarenotselfstarting.Therequiredstartingtorquemay
beprovidedbymotoringorchangingthepitchangleoftheblade.Incase
ofgridconnectedwindturbinesystem,therotationalspeedofthe
generatorislockedtothefrequencyofthegrid.Whenthegeneratoris
directlyrunbytherotor,thegridactslikeaninfiniteload.Whenthegrid
fails,theloadrapidlydecreasestozeroresultingintheturbinerotorto
acceleratequickly.Overspeedprotectionmustbeprovidedbyrapid
brakingoftheturbine.Asimplemechanismofoneofbladepitchcontrol
techniquesisshowninFig.1.62.

FIGURE1.62

PitchcontrolblockdiagramofaPMSG.

Inthissystem,thepermanentmagnetsynchronousgenerator(PMSG)has
beenusedwithoutanygearbox.Directconnectionofgeneratortothe
windturbinerequiresthegeneratortohavealargenumberofpoles.Both
inductiongeneratorsandwoundfiledsynchronousgeneratorsofhigh
polenumberrequirealargediameterforefficientoperation.Permanent
magnetsynchronousgeneratorsallowasmallpolepitchtobeused[69].
Thepoweroutput,Pmech,ofanyturbinedependsmainlyuponthewind

speed,whichdictatestherotationalspeedofthewindturbinerotor.
Dependinguponthewindspeedandrotationalspeedofturbine,tip
speedratioisdetermined.Basedoncomputed,thepowercoefficient
Cpisinferred.Inthecontrolstrategyabove,thetorqueoutput,Tactual,of
thegeneratorismonitoredforagivenwindspeedandcomparedwith
thedesiredtorque,Tactual,dependingupontheloadrequirement.The
generatoroutputtorqueispassedthroughthemeasurementfilter.The
pitchcontrollertheninfersthemodifiedpitchanglebasedonthetorque
error.Thismodifiedpitchangledemandandcomputeddecidesthe
newCpresultinginthemodifiedwindgeneratorpowerandtorque
output.Thecontrollerwillkeepadjustingthebladepitchangletillthe
desiredpowerandtorqueoutputareachieved.
Someofthewindturbinegeneratorincludesthegearboxforinterfacing
theturbinerotorandthegenerator.Thegeneraldrivetrainmodel[68]for
suchasystemisshowninFig.1.63.Thissystemalsocontainstheblade
pitchanglecontrolprovision.

FIGURE1.63

Blockdiagramofdrivetrainmodel.

Thedrivetrainconvertstheinputaerodynamictorqueontherotorinto
thetorqueonthelowspeedshaft.Thistorqueonthelowspeedshaftis
convertedtohighspeedshafttorqueusingthegearboxandfluid
coupling.Thespeedofthewindturbinehereislowandthegearboxis
requiredtoincreasethespeedsoastodrivethegeneratoratratedrpm
e.g.1500rpm.Thefluidcouplingworksasavelocityintorqueoutdevice
andtransferthetorque[68].Theactuatorregulatesthetipanglebasedon
thecontrolsystemapplied.Thecontrolsystemhereisbasedonapitch
regulationschemewherethebladepitchangleisadjustedtoobtainthe
desiredoutputpower.
1.3.6.2 Variable speed wind turbines

Thevariablespeedconstantfrequencyturbinedrivetrainsarenot
directlycoupledtothegrid.Thepowerconditioningdeviceisusedto
interfacethewindgeneratortothegrid.Theoutputofthewindgenerator
canbevariablevoltageandvariablefrequency,whichisnotsuitablefor
gridintegrationandappropriateinterfacingisrequired.Thewindturbine
rotorinthiscaseispermittedtorotateatanywindspeedbypower
generatingunit.
Anumberofschemeshavebeenproposedinthepastwhichallowwind
turbinestooperatewithvariablerotorspeedwhilefeedingthepowertoa
constantfrequencygrid.Someofthebenefitsthathavebeenclaimedfor
variablespeedconstantfrequencywindturbineconfigurationisasfollow
[65]:
Thevariablespeedoperationresultsinincreasedenergycaptureby
maintainingthebladetipspeedtowindspeedrationeartheoptimum
value.
Byallowingthewindturbinegeneratortorunatvariablespeed,the
torquecanbefixed,buttheshaftpowerallowedtoincrease.Thismeans
thattheratedpowerofthemachinecanbeincreasedwithnostructural
changes.
Avariablespeedturbineiscapableofabsorbingenergyinwindgusts
asitspeedsupandgivesbackthisenergytothesystemasitslowsdown.
Thisreducesturbulenceinducedstressesandallowscaptureofalarge
percentageoftheturbulentenergyinthewind.
Moreefficientoperationcanbeachievedbyavoidingaerodynamicstall
overmostofoperatingrange.
Bettergridqualityduetosupportofgridvoltage.
Progressinthepowerelectronicsconversionsystemhasgivenamajor
boosttoimplementingtheconceptofvariablespeedoperation.The
researchstudieshaveshownthatthemostsignificantpotential

advancementforwindturbinetechnologywasintheareaofpower
electroniccontrolledvariablespeedoperation.Thereismuchresearch
underwayintheUnitedStatesandEuropeondevelopingvariablespeed
windturbineascosteffectiveaspossible.InUnitedStates,theNASA

Enjoy Safari? Subscribe TodayMOD0andMOD5Bwereoperatedasvariablespeedwindturbines[65].

CompaniesinUnitedStatesandEnercon(Germany)mademachines
incorporateavariablespeedfeature.Enerconvariablespeedwind
machineisalreadyinoperationinDenham,WesternAustralia.
Theabilitytooperateatvaryingrotorspeed,effectivelyaddscompliance
tothepowertraindynamicsofthewindturbine.Althoughmany
approacheshavebeensuggestedforvariablespeedwindturbines,they
canbegroupedintotwomainclasses:(a)discretelyvariablespeedand
(b)continuouslyvariablespeed[65,70].

1.3.6.3 Discretely variable speed systems

Thediscretelyvariablespeedcategoryincludeselectricalsystemwhere
multiplegeneratorsareused,eitherwithdifferentnumberofpolesor
connectedtothewindrotorviadifferentratiogearing.Italsoincludes
thosegenerators,whichcanusedifferentnumberofpolesinthestatoror
canapproximatetheeffectbyappropriateswitching.Someofthe
generatorsinthiscategoryarethosewithconsequentpoles,dual
winding,orpoleamplitudemodulation.Abriefsummaryofsomeof
theseconceptsispresentedbelow.
1.3.6.3.1 Pole changing type induction generators

Thesegeneratorsprovidetwospeeds,afactoroftwoapart,suchasfour
pole/eightpole(1500/750rpmatasupplyfrequencyof50Hzor
1800/900rpmat60Hz).Theydothisbyusingonehalfthepolesatthe
higherspeed.Thesemachinesarecommerciallyavailableandcostabout
50%morethanthecorrespondingsinglespeedmachines.Theirmain
disadvantage,incomparisonwithotherdiscretelyvariablemachinesis
thatthetwotoonespeedrangeiswiderthantheoptimumrangefora
windturbine[71].
1.3.6.3.2 Dual stator winding two speed induction generators

Thesemachineshavetwoseparatestatorwindings,onlyoneofwhichis
activeatatime.Assuch,avarietyofspeedrangescanbeobtained
dependingonthenumberofpolesineachwinding.Asintheconsequent
polemachinesonlytwospeedsmaybeobtained.Thesemachinesare
significantlyheavierthansinglespeedmachinesandtheirefficiencyis
less,sinceonewindingisalwaysunusedwhichleadstoincreasedlosses.
Thesemachinesarecommerciallyavailable.Theircostisapproximately
twicethatofsinglespeedmachines[71].
1.3.6.3.3 Multiple generators

Thisconfigurationisbasedontheuseofamultiplegeneratordesign.In
onecase,theremaysimplybetwoseparategenerators(asusedonsome
Europeanwindturbines).Anotherpossibilityistohavetwogenerators
onthesameshaft,onlyoneofwhichiselectricallyconnectedatatime.
Thegearingisarrangedsuchthatthegeneratorsreachsynchronous
speedatdifferentturbinerotorspeeds.
1.3.6.3.4 Two speed pole amplitude modulated induction generator (PAM)

Thisconfigurationconsistsofaninductionmachinewithasinglestator,
whichmayhavetwodifferentoperatingspeeds.Itdiffersfrom
conventionalgeneratorsonlyinthewindingdesign.Speediscontrolled
byswitchingtheconnectionsofthesixstatorleads.Thewindingisbuilt
intwosectionswhichwillbeinparallelforonespeedandinseriesfor
theother.Theresultisthesuperpositionofonealternatingfrequencyon
another.Thiscausesthefieldtohaveaneffectivelydifferentnumberof
polesinthetwocases,resultingintwodifferentoperatingspeeds.The
efficiencyofthePAMiscomparabletothatofasinglespeedmachine.
Thecostisapproximatelytwicethatofconventionalinduction
generators.
Theuseofadiscretelyvariablespeedgeneratorwillresultinsomeofthe
benefitsofcontinuouslyvariablespeedoperation,butnotallofthem.The
maineffectwillbeinincreasedenergyproductivity,becausethewind
turbinewillbeabletooperateclosetoitsoptimumtipspeedratioovera
greatrangeofwindspeedsthanwillaconstantspeedmachine.Onthe
otherhand,itwillperformassinglespeedmachinewithrespecttorapid
changesinwindspeed(turbulence).Thusitcouldnotbeexpectedto
extractthefluctuatingenergyaseffectivefromthewindaswouldbe
continuouslyvariablespeedmachine.Moreimportantly,itcouldnotuse
theinertiaoftherotortoabsorbtorquespikes.Thus,thisapproachwould
notresultinimprovedfatiguelifeofthemachineanditcouldnotbean
integralpartofanoptimizeddesignsuchasoneusingyaw/speedcontrol
orpitch/speedcontrol.
1.3.6.4 Continuously variable speed systems

Thesecondmainclassofsystemsforvariablespeedoperationarethose
thatallowthespeedtobevariedcontinuously.Forthecontinuously
variablespeedwindturbine,theremaybemorethanonecontrol,
dependinguponthedesiredcontrolaction[7276]:
Mechanicalcontrol.
Combinationofelectrical/mechanicalcontrol.
Electricalcontrol.
Electrical/powerelectronicscontrol.
Themechanicalmethodsincludehydraulicandvariableratio
transmissions.Anexampleofanelectrical/mechanicalsystemisonein
whichthestatorofthegeneratorisallowedtorotate.Alltheelectrical
categoryincludeshighslipinductiongeneratorsandthetandem
generator.Thepowerelectroniccategorycontainsanumberofpossible
options.Oneoptionistouseasynchronousgeneratororawoundrotor
inductiongenerator,althoughaconventionalinductiongeneratormay
alsobeused.Thepowerelectronicsisusedtoconditionsomeorallthe
powertoformaappropriatetothegrid.Thepowerelectronicsmayalso

beusedtorectifysomeorallthepowerfromthegenerator,tocontrolthe
rotationalspeedofthegenerator,ortosupplyreactivepower.These
systemsarediscussedbelow.
1.3.6.4.1 Mechanical systems
A. Variable speed hydraulic transmission

Onemethodofgeneratingelectricalpoweratafixedfrequency,while
allowingtherotortoturnatvariablespeed,istheuseofavariablespeed
hydraulictransmission.Inthisconfiguration,ahydraulicsystemisused
inthetransferofthepowerfromthetopofthetowertogroundlevel
(assumingahorizontalaxiswindturbine).Afixeddisplacement
hydraulicpumpisconnecteddirectlytotheturbine(orpossiblygearbox)
shaft.Thehydraulicfluidisfedtoandfromthenacelleviaarotaryfluid
coupling.Atthebaseofthetowerisavariabledisplacementhydraulic
motor,whichisgovernedtorunatconstantspeedanddriveastandard
generator.
Oneadvantageofthisconceptisthattheelectricalequipmentcanbe
placedatgroundlevelmakingtherestofthemachinesimpler.For
smallermachines,itmaybepossibletodispensewithagearbox
altogether.Ontheotherhand,thereareanumberofproblemsusing
hydraulictransmissionsinwindturbines.Foronething,pumpsand
motorsofthesizeneededinwindturbinesofgreaterthanabout200kW
arenotreadilyavailable.Multiplesofsmallerunitsarepossiblebutthis
wouldcomplicatethedesign.Thelifeexpectancyofmanyoftheparts,
especiallyseals,maywellbelessthanfiveyears.Leakageofhydraulic
fluidcanbeasignificantproblem,necessitatingfrequentmaintenance.
Lossesinthehydraulicscouldalsomaketheoverallsystemlessefficient
thanconventionalelectricgeneration.Experienceoverthelastmany
yearshasnotshowngreatsuccesswiththewindmachinesusing
hydraulictransmission.
B. Variable ratio transmission

Avariableratiotransmission(VRT)isoneinwhichthegearratiomaybe
variedcontinuouslywithinagivenrange.OnetypeofVRTsuggestedfor
windturbinesisusingbeltsandpulleys,suchasareusedinsome
industrialdrives[65,77].Thesehavetheadvantageofbeingabletodrive
aconventionalfixedspeedgenerator,whilebeingdrivenbyavariable
speedturbinerotor.Ontheotherhand,theydonotappeartobe
commerciallyavailableinlargersizesandthose,whichdoexist,have
relativelyhighlosses.
1.3.6.4.2 Electrical/mechanical variable speed systems-rotating stator induction
generator

Thissystemusesaconventionalsquirrelinductiongeneratorwhoseshaft
isdrivenbyawindturbinethroughagearbox[50,77].However,the
statorismountedtoasupport,whichallowsbidirectionalrotation.This
supportisinturndrivenbyaDCmachine.ThearmatureoftheDC
machineisfedfromabidirectionalinverter,whichisconnectedtothe
fixedfrequencyACgrid.Ifthestatorsupportallowedtoturninthesame
directionasthewindturbine,theturbinewillturnfaster.Someofthe
powerfromthewindturbinewillbeabsorbedbytheinductiongenerator
statorandfedtothegridthroughtheinverter.Conversely,thewind
turbinewillturnmoreslowlywhenthestatorsupportisdriveninthe
oppositedirection.Theamountofcurrent(andthusthetorque)delivered
toorfromtheDCmachineisdeterminedbyaclosedloopcontrolcircuit
whosefeedbacksignalisdrivenbyatachometermountedontheshaftof
theDCmachine.
Oneoftheproblemswiththissystemisthatthestatorslipringsand
brushesmustbesizedtotakethefullpowerofthegenerator.Theywould
besubjectedtowearandwouldrequiremaintenance.TheDCmachine
alsoaddstocost,complexity,andmaintenance.
1.3.6.4.3 Electrical variable speed systems
A. High slip induction generator

Thisisthesimplestvariablespeedsystem,whichisaccomplishedby
havingarelativelylargeamountofresistanceintherotorofaninduction
generator.However,thelossesincreasewithincreasedrotorresistance.
WestwindTurbinesinAustraliainvestigatedsuchaschemeona30kW
machinein1989.
B. Tandem induction generator

Atandeminductiongeneratorconsistsofaninductionmachinefitted
withtwomagneticallyindependentstators,onefixedinpositionandthe
otherabletoberotated,andasinglesquirrelcagerotorwhosebars
extendtothelengthofbothstators[65,77].Torquecontrolisachievedby
physicaladjustmentoftheangulardisplacementbetweenthetwostators,
whichcausesaphaseshiftbetweentheinducedrotorvoltages.
1.3.6.4.4 Electrical/power electronics

ThegeneralconfigurationisshownintheFig.1.64.Itconsistsofthe
followingcomponents:

FIGURE1.64

Gridconnectedwindenergysystemthrough

AC/DC/ACconverter.

Windgenerator.
Rectifier.
Inverter.
ThegeneratormaybeDC,synchronous(woundrotororpermanent
magnettype),squirrelcagewoundrotor,orbrushlessdoublyfed
inductiongenerator.Therectifierisusedtoconvertthevariablevoltage
variablefrequencyinputtoaDCvoltage.ThisDCvoltageisconverted
intoACofconstantvoltageandfrequencyofdesiredamplitude.The
inverterwillalsobeusedtocontroltheactive/reactivepowerflowfrom
theinverter.IncaseofDCgenerator,theconvertermaynotberequired
orwhenacycloconverterisusedtoconverttheACdirectlyfromone
frequencytoanother.
1.3.6.5 Types of generator options for variable speed wind turbines using power
electronics

Powerelectronicsmaybeappliedtofourtypesofgeneratorstofacilitate
variablespeedoperation:
Synchronousgenerators.
Permanentmagnetsynchronousgenerators.
Squirrelcageinductiongenerators.
Woundrotorinductiongenerators.
1.3.6.5.1 Synchronous generator

Inthisconfiguration,thesynchronousgeneratorisallowedtorunat
variablespeed,producingpowerofvariablevoltageandfrequency.
Controlmaybefacilitatedbyadjustinganexternallysuppliedfield
current.Themostcommontypeofpowerconversionusesabridge
rectifier(controlled/uncontrolled),aDClink,andinverterasshownin
Fig.1.64.Thedisadvantageofthisconfigurationincludetherelatively
highcostandmaintenancerequirementsofsynchronousgeneratorsand
theneedforthepowerconversionsystemtotakethefullpower
generated(asopposedtothewoundrotorsystem).
1.3.6.5.2 Permanent magnet synchronous generators

Thepermanentmagnetsynchronousgenerator(PMSG)hasseveral
significantadvantageousproperties.Theconstructionissimpleanddoes
notrequiredexternalmagnetization,whichisimportantespeciallyin
standalonewindpowerapplicationsandalsoinremoteareaswherethe
gridcannoteasilysupplythereactivepowerrequiredtomagnetizethe
inductiongenerator.Similartothepreviousexternallysuppliedfield
currentsynchronousgenerator,themostcommontypeofpower
conversionusesabridgerectifier(controlled/uncontrolled),aDClink,
andinverterasshowninFig.1.65[7880].

FIGURE1.65

GridconnectedPMSGwindenergysystem

throughDC/ACconverter.

Figure1.66showsawindenergysystemwhereaPMSGisconnectedtoa
threephaserectifierfollowedbyaboostconverter.Inthiscase,theboost
convertercontrolstheelectromagnettorqueandthesupplyside
converterregulatestheDClinkvoltageaswellascontrollingtheinput
powerfactor.Onedrawbackofthisconfigurationistheuseofdiode
rectifierthatincreasesthecurrentamplitudeanddistortionofthePMSG.
Asaresult,thisconfigurationhavebeenconsideredforsmallsizewind
energyconversionsystems(smallerthan50kW).

FIGURE1.66

GridconnectedPMSGwindenergysystem

throughDC/ACconverterwithaboostchopper.

TheadvantageofthesysteminFig.1.65withregardanttothesystem
showedinFig.1.66is,itallowsthegeneratortooperatenearitsoptimal
workingpointinordertominimizethelossesinthegeneratorandpower
electroniccircuit.However,theperformanceisdependentonthegood
knowledgeofthegeneratorparameterthatvarieswithtemperatureand
frequency.Themaindrawbacks,intheuseofPMSG,arethecostof
permanentmagnetthatincreasethepriceofmachine,demagnetizationof
thepermanentmagnetmaterial,anditisnotpossibletocontrolthe
powerfactorofthemachine
ToextractmaximumpoweratunitypowerfactorfromaPMSGandfeed
thispower(alsoatunitypowerfactor)tothegrid,theuseofbacktoback
connectedPWMvoltagesourceconvertersareproposed[81].Moreover,
toreducetheoverallcost,reducedswitchPWMvoltagesourceconverters
(fourswitch)insteadofconventional(sixswitch)convertersforvariable
speeddrivesystemscanbeused.Itisshownthatbyusingbothrectifier
andinvertercurrentcontrolorfluxbasedcontrol,itispossibletoobtain
unitypowerfactoroperationbothattheWTGandthegrid.Other
mechanismscanalsobeincludedtomaximizepowerextractionfromthe
VSWT(i.e.MPPTtechniques)orsensorlessapproachestofurtherreduce
costandincreasereliabilityandperformanceofthesystems.
1.3.6.5.3 Squirrel-cage induction generator

Possiblearchitectureforsystemsusingconventionalinductiongenerators
whichhaveasolidsquirrelcagerotorhavemanysimilaritiestothose
withsynchronousgenerators.Themaindifferenceisthattheinduction
generatorisnotinherentlyselfexcitinganditneedsasourceofreactive
power.Thiscouldbedonebyageneratorsideselfcommutatedconverter
operatingintherectifiermode.Asignificantadvantageofthis
configurationisthelowcostandlowmaintenancerequirementsof
inductiongenerators.Anotheradvantageofusingtheselfcommutated
doubleconverteristhatitcanbeontheground,completelyseparate
fromthewindmachine.Ifthereisaproblemintheconverter,itcouldbe
switchedoutofthecircuitforrepairandthewindmachinecould
continuetorunatconstantspeed.Themaindisadvantagewiththis
configurationisthat,aswiththesynchronousgenerator,thepower
conversionsystemwouldhavetotakethefullpowergeneratedand
couldberelativelycostlycomparedtosomeotherconfigurations.There
wouldalsobeadditionalcomplexitiesassociatedwiththesupplyof
reactivepowertothegenerator.
1.3.6.5.4 Wound rotor induction generator

Awoundrotorinductionrotorhasthreephasewindingontherotor,
accessibletotheoutsideviasliprings.Thepossibilityofaccessingthe
rotorcanhavethefollowingconfigurations:
Slippowerrecovery.
Useofcycloconverter.
Rotorresistancechoppercontrol.
A. Slip power recovery (static kramer system)

Theslippowerrecoveryconfigurationbehavessimilarlytoa
conventionalinductiongeneratorwithverylargeslip,butinaddition
energyisrecoveredfromtherotor.Therotorpowerisfirstcarriedout
throughsliprings,thenrectifiedandpassedthroughaDClinktoaline
commutatedinverterandintothegrid.Therestofthepowercomes
directlyfromthestatorasitnormallydoes.Adisadvantagewiththis
systemisthatitcanonlyallowsupersynchronousvariablespeed
operation.ItspossibleuseinthewindpowerwasreportedbySmithand
Nigim[82].
InthisschemeshowninFig.1.67,thestatorisdirectlyconnectedtothe
grid.Powerconverterhasbeenconnectedtotherotorofwoundrotor
inductiongeneratortoobtaintheoptimumpowerfromvariablespeed
windturbine.Themainadvantageofthisschemeisthatthepower
conditioningunithastohandleonlyafractionofthetotalpowersoasto
obtainfullcontrolofthegenerator.Thisisveryimportantwhenthewind
turbinesizesareincreasingforthegridconnectedapplicationsforhigher
penetrationofwindenergyandthesmallersizeofconvertercanbeused
inthisscheme.

FIGURE1.67

Schematicdiagramofdoublyfedinduction

generator.

B. Cycloconverter (static scherbius system)

Acycloconverterisaconverter,whichconvertsACvoltageofone
frequencytoanotherfrequencywithoutanintermediateDClink.Whena
cycloconverterisconnectedtotherotorcircuit,subandsuper
synchronousoperationvariablespeedoperationispossible.Insuper
synchronousoperation,thisconfigurationissimilartotheslippower
recovery.Inaddition,energymaybefedintotherotor,thusallowingthe
machinetogenerateatsubsynchronousspeeds.Forthatreason,the
generatorissaidtobedoublyfed[83].Thissystemhasalimitedabilityto
controlreactivepowerattheterminalsofthegenerator,althoughasa
wholeitisanetconsumerofreactivepower.Ontheotherhand,if
coupledwithcapacitorexcitation,thiscapabilitycouldbeusefulfromthe
utilitypointofview.Becauseofitsabilitytorapidlyadjustphaseangle
andmagnitudeoftheterminalvoltage,thegeneratorcanbe
resynchronizedafteramajorelectricaldisturbancewithoutgoing
throughacompletestop/startsequence.Withsomewindturbines,this
couldbeausefulfeature.
C. Rotor resistance chopper control

Afairlysimpleschemeofextractingrotorpowerasintheformofheat
hasbeenproposedin[44].
1.3.6.6 Isolated grid supply system with multiple wind turbines

TheisolatedgridsupplysystemwithawindparkisshowninFig.1.68.
Twoormorewindturbinescanbeconnectedtothissystem.Adiesel
generatorcanbeconnectedinparallel.Theconverters,connectedwith
windgeneratorswillworkinparallelandthesupervisorycontrolblock
willcontroltheoutputofthesewindgeneratorsinconjunctionwiththe
dieselgenerator.Thistypeofdecentralizedgenerationcanbeabetter
optionwherehighpenetrationofwindgenerationissought.The
individualconverterwillcontrolthevoltageandfrequencyofthesystem.
Thesupervisorycontrolsystemwillplayanimportantpartin
coordinationbetweenmultiplepowergenerationsystemsinaremote
areapowersupplyhavingweakgrid.

FIGURE1.68

Schematicdiagramofisolatedgridsystem

havingawindpark.

1.3.6.7 Power electronics technology development

Tomeettheneedsoffuturepowergenerationsystems,powerelectronics
technologywillneedtoevolveonalllevels,fromdevicestosystems.The
developmentneedsareasfollows:
Thereisaneedformodularpowerconverterswithplugandplay
controls.Thisisparticularlyimportantforhighpowerutilitysystems,
suchaswindpower.Thepowerelectronicsequipmentusedtodayis
basedonindustrialmotordrivestechnology.Havingdedicated,high
powerdensity,modularsystemswillprovideflexibilityandefficiencyin
dealingwithdifferentenergysourcesandlargevariationofgeneration
systemsarchitectures.
Thereisaneedfornewpackagingandcoolingtechnologies,aswellas
integrationwithPVandfuelcellwillhavetobeaddressed.Thethermal
issuesinintegratedsystemsarecomplex,andnewtechnologiessuchas
directfluidcoolingormicrochannelcoolingmayfindapplicationin
futuresystems.Thereislargepotentialforadvancementinthisarea.
Thereisaneedfornewswitchingdeviceswithhighertemperature
capability,higherswitchingspeed,andhighercurrentdensity/voltage
capability.Thegrowthinalternativeenergymarketswillprovidea
strongerpullforfurtherdevelopmentofthesetechnologies.

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