Data Communication and Networking: For Under-graduate Students
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Data Communication and Networking - DR LILADHAR REWATKAR
Imprint: Lulu.com
Any brand names and product names mentioned in this book are subject to trademark, brand or patent protection and are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective holders. The use of brand names, product names, common names, table names, product descriptions etc. even without a particular marking in this work is in no way to be construed to mean that such names may be regarded as unrestricted in respect of trademark and brand protection legislation and could thus be used by anyone.
Publisher: Lulu Press Inc.
ISBN: 978-1-716-53265-8
Copyright © Dr. Liladhar Rewatkar
Copyright © 2020 Lulu.com
Contents
CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS
AND NETWORKING
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides an introduction to Computer networks and covers fundamental topics like data, information to the definition of communication and computer networks.
The main objective of data communication and networking is to enable seamless exchange of data between any two points in the world. This exchange of data takes place over a computer network.
Data & Information- Data refers to the raw facts that are collected while information refers to processed data that enables us to take decisions.
Ex. When result of a particular test is declared it contains data of all students, when you find the marks you have scored you have the information that lets you know whether you have passed or failed.
The word data refers to any information which is presented in a form that is agreed and accepted upon by is creators and users.
1.2 HISTORY
A network is a group of connected communicating devices such as computers and printers. An internet (the lowercase letter i) is two or more networks that can communicate with each other. The most notable internet is called the Internet (uppercase letter I), a collaboration of more than hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks.
Private individuals as well as various organizations such as government agencies, schools, research facilities, corporations, and libraries in more than 100 countries use the Internet. Millions of people are users. This extraordinary communication system only came into being in 1969.
In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were standalone devices. Computers from different manufacturers were unable to communicate with one another. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of defence (DoD) was interested in finding a way to connect computers so that the researchers they funded could share their findings, thereby reducing costs and eliminating duplication of effort.
In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA presented its ideas for ARPANET, a small network of connected computers. The idea was that each host computer (either from same or different manufacturer) would be attached to a specialized computer, called an Interface Message Processor (IMP). The IMPs would be connected to one another. Each IMP had to be able to communicate with other IMPs as well as with its own attached host.
By 1969, four nodes, at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), the University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB), Stanford Research Institute (SRI), and the University of Utah, were connected via the IMPs to form a network. Software called the Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided communication between the hosts.
In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of the core ARPANET group, collaborated on the Internetting Project. Cerf and Kahn's landmark 1973 paper outlined the protocols to achieve end-to-end delivery of packets. This paper on Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) included concepts such as encapsulation, the datagram, and the functions of a gateway.
Shortly thereafter, authorities made a decision to split TCP into two protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internetworking Protocol (lP). IP would handle datagram routing while TCP would be responsible for higher-level functions such as segmentation, reassembly, and error detection. The internetworking protocol became known as TCP/IP.
1.2.1 The Internet Today- The Internet has come a long way since the 1960s. The Internet today is not a simple hierarchical structure. It is made up of many wide- and local-area networks joined by connecting devices and switching stations. It is difficult to give an accurate representation of the Internet because it is continually changing-new networks are being added, existing networks are adding addresses, and networks of defunct companies are being removed.
International Internet Service Providers
National Internet Service Providers
Regional Internet Service Providers
Local Internet Service Providers
Today most end users who want Internet connection use the services of Internet service providers (lSPs). There are international service providers, national service providers, regional service providers, and local service providers. The Internet today is run by private companies, not the government. Following are the different levels of ISPs
Figure 1.1 shows a conceptual (not geographic) view of the Internet.
Structure of a National ISP
National
ISP
National
ISP
National
ISP
National
ISP
National
ISP
Interconnection of National ISPs
Figure 1.1 – Hierarchical Organization of the Internet
1.3 DATA COMMUNICATION
Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or information. In case of computer networks, this exchange is done between two devices over a transmission medium.
This process involves a communication system which is made up of hardware and software. The hardware part involves the sender and receiver devices and the intermediate devices through which the data passes. The software part involves certain rules which specify what is to be communicated, how it is to be communicated and when. It is also called as a Protocol.
The following sections describe the fundamental characteristics that are important for the effective working of data communication process and are followed by the components that make up a data communications system.
1.3.1 Characteristics of Data Communication- The effectiveness of any data communications system depends upon the following four fundamental characteristics:
Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user. When a sender transmits data for an intended recipient, the data must reach only the intended recipient and not another.
Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without introducing any errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the delivered data. The data sent must be received in the same form as the one in which it was sent. There must not be any sort of alterations to it in transit.
Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any delay; such a data delivery is called real time transmission of data. The data must travel from the sender to the receiver in a finite amount of time.
Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the timeliness of data being transmitted.
1.3.2 Components of Data Communication- A Data Communication system has five components as shown in the diagram below:
Figure 1.2 - Components of a Data Communication System
Device that generates the data to be passed on to the Destination device. It could be a user computer trying to make a query to a server computer.
This receives the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a form that is suitable to the destination device. For example, a modem accepts analog signal from a transmission channel and transforms it into digital bit stream.
1.4 DATA REPRESENTATION
Data is collection of raw facts which is processed to deduce information. There may be different forms in which data may be represented. Some of the forms of data used in communications are as follows:
Text- Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well as upper case. It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system : ASCII, Unicode
Numbers- Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9. It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system : ASCII, Unicode
Images
An image is worth a thousand words
is a very famous saying. In computers images are digitally stored.
A Pixel is the smallest element of an image. To put it in simple terms, a picture or image is a matrix of pixel elements.
The pixels are represented in the form of bits. Depending upon the type of image (black n white or color) each pixel would require different number of bits to represent the value of a pixel.
The size of an image depends upon the number of pixels (also called resolution) and the bit pattern used to indicate the value of each pixel.
Example: if an image is purely black and white (two color) each pixel can be represented by a value either 0 or 1, so an image made up of 10 x 10 pixel elements would require only 100 bits in memory to be stored.
On the other hand an image that includes gray may require 2 bits to represent every pixel value (00 - black, 01 – dark gray, 10 - light gray, 11 –white). So the same 10 x 10 pixel image would now require 200 bits of memory to be stored.
Commonly used Image formats : jpg, png, bmp, etc
Audio- Data can also be in the form of sound which can be recorded and broadcasted. Example: What we hear on the radio is a source of data or information. Audio data is continuous, not discrete.
Video- Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie
1.5 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
The way that networking products are constructed. Networking hardware and software is implemented on systems via a mechanism called network