Hate crimes: Bartol and Bartol (8th Edition), Chapter 1, pages 19-20; (9th

Edition), Chapter 1, pages 17-20. (10th Edition), Chapter 1, pages 9-10. Sam
Domestic violence: Bartol & Bartol (8th Edition): Chapter 9, pages 300 329.;
Bartol & Bartol (9th Edition): Chapter 9, pages 264 289.; Batol & Bartol (10th Edition):
Chapter 9: pages 331 358. Eva
Sander: Rape: Bartol and Bartol (8th, 9th & 10th editions); Chapter 12
Pedophilia: Bartol and Bartol (8th Edition), Chapter 13, pages 421 440 and
446 448.; Bartol and Bartol (9th Edition), Chapter 13, pages 378 397 and 406 408.
MARIE
Homicide/serial killing: Bartol & Bartol (8th Edition), Chapter 9 pages 281-300
& Chapter 10.; Bartol & Bartol (9th Edition), Chapter 9, pages 247-264 & Chapter 10.
SANNE
Prevention and treatment: Bartol & Bartol (8th Edition), Chapter 17, pages 578
585. i only just realised this wasnt in the 9th edition; ill do the spousal homicide
paper instead , Ata
Hate crimes: Nolan, J., J. McDevitt, et. al., Learning to See Hate Crimes: A
Framework for Understanding and Clarifying Ambiguities in Bias Crime Classification,
Criminal Justice Studies, Vol. 17, No. 1, March 2004, pp. 91-105; available as pdf file on
the workspace. Juliette
Hate crimes: Craig, Kellina, Examining Hate Motivated Aggression; A Review of
the social psyschological literature on hate crimes as a distinct form of aggression,
Aggression and Violent Behavior 7 (2002) 85-101; available as pdf file on the
workspace. Freddie
Street gangs: Vigil, James, Urban Violence and Street Gangs, Annual Review
of Anthropology, 2003; 32:225-242; article available as pdf file on the workspace. Mirre
Domestic violence: E. Foa, M. Cascardi and L. Zoellner and M. Feeny,
Psychological and Environmental Factors Associated with Partner Violence, Trauma,
Violence and Abuse, Vol, 1, No. 1, January 2000, pages 67 83 (available as PDF file;
can be downloaded from the workspace). Liselotte
Domestic Homicide: Serran, G. & Firestone, P. (2004) 'Intimate Partner
Homicide: A anger, depression, difficult interpersonal relations. Behavioural changes
(avoidant strategies) Petra
Review of the Male Proprietariness and the Self-Defense Theories' Aggression
and Violent Behaviour, 9, pages 1-15 (available as PDF file; can be downloaded from
the workspace).
Dries is doing this one !!!!!!!!!
Domestic Homicide: Showalter, C.R., Bonnie, R.J. and Roddy, V. (1980) 'The
Spousal-Homicide Syndrome' International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 3, pages 117141 (available as PDF file; can be downloaded from the workspace). ATA
Stalking: L. Sheridan, E. Blaauw and G. Davies, Stalking Knowns and
Unknowns, Trauma, Violence and Abuse, Vol. 4, No. 2, April 2003, pages 148-162;
available as a pdf file on the workspace. Daniella
Trafficking: Aronowitz, A.A., Smuggling and Trafficking in Human Beings: The
Phenomenon, The Markets That Drive It and the Organizations That Promote It,
European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research , Volume 9, No.2, Summer 2001;
163-195; available as a pdf file on the workspace. Fred
Trafficking: Aronowitz, A.A., Analyzing the Business Model of Trafficking in

Human Beings to Better Prevent the Crime, Organization for Cooperation and Security in
Europe (OSCE), Vienna, 2010); pp. 17-36 (Chapters 2 and 3);
http://www.osce.org/cthb/69028?download=true. Mayra
Prevention and treatment: Serketich, Wendy J and Dumas, Jean, . The
Effectiveness of Behavioral Parent Training to Modify Antisocial Behavior in Children: A
Meta-Analysis, Behavior Therapy 27, 171-186, 1996. Article can be downloaded from
Workspace. Annika
Prevention and treatment: Marianne Junger & Lynette Feder & Sylvana M.
Ct, Policy Implications of Present Knowledge on the Development and Prevention of
Physical Aggression, European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, DOI
10.1007/s10610-007-9052-5. Article can be downloaded from Workspace.
Reducing domestic violence: Mears, D., Research and Interventions to
Reduce Domestic Violence Revictimization, Trauma, Violence and Abuse Vol 4, No. 2,
April 2003, pages 127-147; available as pdf file on the workspace.

Hate crimes: Bartol and Bartol (8th Edition), Chapter 1, pages 19-20; (9th Edition), Chapter 1,
pages 17-20. (10th Edition), Chapter 1, pages 9-10. Sam

Defenition: Violent attecks directed to a person/group because of race religion, sexual

orientation, ethnicity, or disabillity.
Most hate crimes are motivated by Race
Matthew Shepard act strenghtens federal hate crime law in three ways:
- Prosecute certain bias-motivated crimes
- Remove limitation in existing law to prosecute only when the victim was engaged in a
specifically federally protected activity - (voting, jury, attending school).
- Adds the word gender and gender identity to hate crime statistics.

Street gangs: Vigil, James, Urban Violence and Street Gangs, Annual Review of
Anthropology, 2003; 32:225-242
Crime and Context summary by Mirre van Duin
Short summary
Multiple marginality can be modeled as place/status, together with street socialization leads to a
street subculture and then to a street identity. It includes social control, subculture of violence

and socioeconomic factors, buts lacks qualitative information and insight with regards to why
people become violent if their family is dysfunctional, when they join a violent gang, or when
they need money. Anthropological theories and methods can add to research on gang violence. A
holistic perspective is essential and an integrated framework showing actions and reactions
among factors is contributing towards this.
Though gangs is a difficult population to examine, sociologists know that large numbers count
but details explain human complexity.
Time, place and people are an important part of the explanation, to explain the process, as new
gangs emerge, female gangs increase and young members continue to be contracted.

Long summary
The article looks beyond the normal subculture of violence and routine activity theories and
considers other factors such as ecological, socioeconomic, sociocultural and socio-psychological
factors.
Questions that are addressed:
Where did they settle?
What jobs did they fill?
How and why did their social practices and cultural values undergo
transformations?
When and in what ways did the social environment affect them?
With whom did they interact?
Overall aim is to look at key themes and features of what constitutes urban street gang violence
Violence: conscious physical act aimed at causing injury, which often includes bodily and
psychological trauma
Characteristics
Gang conflicts - turf and drug wars and battles over resources, drivebys and counting coup
escapades (dashing into rivalry turf)
Division between the periods before (industrial) and after (postindustrial) 1970s:
Up to the 1970s gang violence was mainly involving white ethnic enclaves in cities in the
Midwest and East and concerned fights with fists, sticks and knives. Today gangs involve mainly
ethnic groups (African American and Latino Americans predominantly), and concerns guns and
other weapons and mainly take place in cities in West and East.
Mainly adolescent males from low income neighborhoods (10% of youth in most low income
areas join gangs) - they engage in both conventional and antisocial behavior together.
More violence in the post industrial period because of several factors:
Adoption of economic functions by some urban gangs
Use of violence to regulate illicit commerce - drug use and abuse and sales

increase motives for street violence

Proliferation of firearms - access to sophisticated weapons makes violence easier
to carry out - historical importance of guns and the strong political support for guns in the
USA enables this
Effect of prisons on neighborhood gangs
Effect of mainstream cultural values of money and success on gang youth with
limited opportunities
Violence & gender: Female
Female involvement in gang violence is increasing rapidly recently. Female gang members make
up between 4 and 15% of all gang members, but the percentage of females that are incarcerated
represent a very high percentage of gang members. Arrest rates for adolescent women has
increased faster than arrest rates for non-gang males (potential explanation being that the
criminal justice system is less gender biased than before).
Male and female youths are subject to culture conflict, poverty, associated family and school
problems. Female youths moreover, are also subjected to personal devaluation, stricter child
rearing experiences, tension filled gender role expectations and self esteem problems. This rage
can be channeled in gang violence. Female gang members are often dismissed by their male
counterparts but around those that are extremely violence prone they show more respect.
Violence & gender: Male
Most aggressive gang behavior is committed by male youths between 14 and 18 years old, as
they under go social and sexual changes and their identities and roles are uncertain.
Violence explained
Youth violence is mostly explained by psychological and social theories, though there is some
research available on biological determinants.
One of the first ethnographic anthropological studies on gangs took place in 1927 by Thrasher,
and has been the foundation for many studies to follow. Framework of analysis are now more
holistic and the methods have broadened (ethnographic approach is very popular in
anthropological and sociological gang research). Two main explanations of gang violence are
routine activities and subculture of violence. However, mere membership of a subculture of
violence, nor the ,mere presence at a routine violent activity explains the youth violence of gang
members.
Subculture of violence
Normative behavioral system of groups that support, encourage and condone violence guide
gang members in how and when to react to real or imagined slights and threats to themselves or
fellow gang members. Violence is expected or required to avoid the risk of being disrespected by
other gang members and a loss of honor to take place. Central is the preservation of self image
by use of violence.
It should kept in mind that little empirical evidence is available on how violent norms are
transmitted, and norms are mostly derived from behavior. Moreover, this theory requires a

structure in gangs that is not present, as most gags are loosely organized.
Routine activity
Routine activity theory explains violent patterns based on an explanation of space and time
dimensions. The potential for violence is a product of opportunity where one spends more time
with criminal offenders, who are more likely to participate in offending activities. According to
this theory, motivated offenders, suitable targets and an absence of capable guardians increase
the possibility of crime. Young males involved in risky behavior on the streets meet more of
these risky young males, and the interaction heightens the potential for crime, as well as
victimization. Though ecological factors, such as bars, parties and gatherings are mentioned as
high risk factors, it is suggested that free choice is relevant.
Weakness of this theory is that it largely relies on official crime statistics, demographic variables
and victim surveys, but very little ethnographic evidence. Time and space data needs to be
combined with other factors.
A broader picture must be drawn, outside these theories. Street socialization and street state of
mind known as locura, are important factors to gang violence.
Street socialization
Street socialization is important because some individuals with particularly tarnished, traumatic
family and personal backgrounds have had to spend most of their lives on the street. Street
subcultures emerge among children whom law enforcement, families and schools failed to
maintain and guide. Those that are more group oriented, will during their preteens on the street,
merge their activities with those of gangs. Youth who are street socialized will dictate the
behavioral and attitudinal traits of the street.
Locura
Thinking and acting loco is like playing with insanity, moving in and out of crazy, wild events
and adventures, showing fearlessness, toughness, daring, and especially unpredictable forms of
destructive behavior. Locura, the psychological state of quasi-controlled insanity.
The culmination of all street experiences is the shaping of a mindset of locura. Locura is an
attitude that is deeply internalized by certain gang members. Locurea is particularly seen in gang
members with extremely traumatic lives, though it can also be adopted as an instrumental
attitude. Early adoption of locura is a way to gain support of street peers. Locura is a necessity to
survive on the streets, and is valued by gangs as a means of relief.
Multiple marginality
Multiple marginality (Vigil) is a framework that combines sociogenic and psychogenic elements
such as subculture of violence, routine activities, street socialization and locura. This holistic is
applicable to gangs in many ethnic communities, but is limited applicable in the rest of the
world. Other multidimensional frameworks used interpret the phenomena more from a
sociological perspective (Klein, Elliot, Farrington).
Multiple marginality addresses what, where, how, why and with whom. It aids explanations that

show dynamic exchanges and interrelationships. Important is that the model shows sequential,
cumulative linkages among factors.
What: define and describe what constitutes a youth gang
Where: visually distinct and spatially separate from more upscale neighborhoods, in an
environment where violence is more likely
How: social mechanisms and psychological predispositions of gang members
Why: situation and motivations that shape thoughts and actions towards violence
When: time and place likely to trigger gang violence
With whom: characteristics of gangs and gang members that participate in violent street rituals

It is important to look at the sequential, cumulative linkages among factors.

Multiple marginality is similar to the integrative framework by Farrington and Bronfenbrenner
but with more explanatory power, including reciprocal actions and reactions, human aggression
and social and personal development in context of urbanization and culture change.
Historically understanding urban gangs was mainly concerned with immigrants adapting and
adjusting to city life, and the maladaptation that took place, particularly among their children.
Their cultural values and practices were often challenged, undermined and revamped and they
are often stuck in between cultures. The most marginalized families in the most affected
neighborhoods tend to become gang members.
Where:
Today it should be noted that the populations of mostly young ethnic minority populations with
most gang members started their lives in rundown, dilapidated, worn-out residences where a
criminal style is trend. These places of residency are often the only places left for newcomers,
and ecological factors are very important.
Second ring of the city (Chicago school, concentric circle theory) is where immigrants settle and
contains most crime. Routine activity is grounded in this circle. Immigrants settling in these
spatially distinct neighborhoods prevents them from connecting with mainstream people and
institutions and prevents them from being exposed to the dominant culture and customs, limiting
integration. Together with residential overcrowding, this creates aggression and frustration
among poor people, making space a continuos issue and grounds for conflict. It is not
coincidental that most gang violence between gangs from marginal areas. Place has an
explanatory power for this but there are other elements that also play a role.
Again marginality of ethnic minority populations is a source for aggression and violence.

Socioeconomic status plays a role, as the population knows theyre treated unevenly by
authorities, have limited access to entry-level jobs and are faulted for their own problems. Also
competition over resources can spark aggressive behavior. There are little job opportunities in the
neighborhoods, leading to the development of illicit, illegal and informal economic arrangements
(drugs). Fights over markets accelerated and heightened gang violence. - this is actually just
strain theory explained. In the multiple marginality framework the drug connection added to an
already dismal status dissonance.
What determines whether someone from aforementioned neighborhoods becomes involved in
gang violence? How, why and with whim
Socialization routines are transformed when immigrants or migrants of low socioeconomic status
must adapt to a place in the city, particularly applicable to social control institutions such as
family, schools and law enforcement. Social control theory accounts for how the dynamic
changes occur. Families become stressed when their structure and function change as they
undergo urbanization and the marginal situations increase this. Cultural strains between parents
and children in their respective first and second generation roles increase the stress.
Street socialization becomes a substitute for youth with a lacking social control mechanisms. In
schools it is often seen that minority students perform poorly, as a result of cumulative factors
such as language barrier and at home large families in crowded conditions and precarious family
structures contribute to the lacking social control structure most youth experience.
Street socialization leads to a street subculture, which is how and where the violence is learned
and practiced. Youths are the carriers that instruct newcomers about street violence. Street
socialization combines the subculture of violence and the social control theory: people become
exposed to the streets and then learns the gang subculture.
Closely linked to the socialization process, is acculturation. Acculturation to gang culture
intervenes with acculturation of the city. Because of the many different cultural backgrounds,
schooling and family values leads to youth identifying with the street.
Lower-class culture as a generating milieu addresses some aspects of cultural marginalization.
Although street youth aggression and violence have different sources and motives but gang
subculture perpetuates as a surviving mechanism.
Earlier marginal experiences in youths during their adolescent status crisis, leads to a social
identity being formed during this time with ambiguity and conflict, generating violent and
aggressive behavior. Remarkable for the development of a social identity are that most gangs
have initiation and tests for new gang members, and that most gang males come from one parent,
female headed families, and all of the sudden have to adapt to the street socialization dominated
by gang males. This leads to the constituting of an identity and a subculture using different
pieces of past and present, often as a result they learn to act crazy to survive (loco), to be
unpredictable, ready for any action (violence) to show you are there for your homeboys. Many
gang members that had particularly traumatic lives dont only act crazy to survive, but are to
some extend that crazy, as they feel worthless and question why anyone else is worth something.

These are the people responsible for most gang homicides, conflicts and confrontations. The
quasi-controlled insanity mindset and behavior provides strong street bonds. Personal traumas
and a wish to prove their masculinity during adolescence leads to gang members playing a type
of russian roulette where many casualties are involved.

Learning to See Hate Crimes: A Framework for Understanding and

Clarifying Ambiguities in Bias Crime Classification
James J. Nolan III, Jack McDevitt, Shea Cronin & Amy Farrell
Due to the ambiguity in bias crime reporting error occurs in the national hate crime statistics,
and frustration and confusion is induced at the side of law enforcement.
This article provides a framework of understanding and clarifying these ambiguities.
Introduction
According to the FBI the definition of a bias crime is a criminal offense committed against a
person or property which is motivated, in whole or in part, by the offenders bias against race,
religion, disability, ethic/national origin group, or sexual orientation group.
This seemingly clear definition is rather complicated to apply to real-life cases.
Identifying hate crimes is thus complicated, mainly in ambiguous situations in which other
explanations and offender motivations are possible.
Eg. the offender and victim are from different ethnic groups, but the violent act
can be regarded as a response to a triggering event.
How terms take on meaning: intension and extension
Intension: Defining; the definition of a term, so as to single it out; the meaning in principle.
Extension: Division; the group of things that are being separated and distinguished: marking
off certain groups of things that do and do not fit the definition.
Through the dual process of intension and extension, events that fit the definition of bias
crimes will begin to take on shared meaning.
Intension and the ambiguity arising from the official definition of hate crime
The definition of bias crimes serves to mark off the types of events law enforcement should
consider as bias crimes.
The sentence motivated, in whole or in part by the offenders bias is confusing.
Consequently, in its application certain routines are developed to sort cases. Generally,
detectives have used 2 (unofficial requirements):
o
Victim and offender have different identities.
o
The context in which the crime occurred must suggest a bias motivation rather
than some other emotion such as anger or jealousy. Looking into evidence that
suggests other motivation.
But how about crimes that are not necessarily based on hate but for
example on knowledge that a certain group is not likely to inform the

police?
Intension very limited in helping law enforcement in seeing bias crimes.
Preparing for extension: examining the domain of possible hate events
Universal set of all possible hate crimes: All police reports maintained within police department.
Two types of reports:
Crime reports: reports of criminal activity.
Non-criminal incident reports: non-criminal disturbances, such as neighbourhood
disputes or suspicious persons.
Three domains of bias within that universal set of police reports:
Some confirmed or suspected bias-related activity in police report.
Documentation of bias crimes as defined by state and federal definitions for
statistical purposes.
Bias crimes defined by state and local criminal statutes.
Not all crimes that fit the statistical definition of bias crime do necessarily fit the criminal
definition.
Clearest hate crimes are those who fit all three domains (thus, bias indicators and fit federal
statistical and state criminal definitions).
Dealing with bias as a partial motivation
Response/retaliation events: Situation in which the offenders actions are prompted by some
other triggering incident.
The actions of the offender in response to or retaliation for some other triggering
event may or may not be exacerbated by the victim and offender difference.
Action is not necessarily criminal, can be a gesture for example.
Target-selection events: Selection of particular persons, places or objects as a target for ones
action on reasons other than bias. The motivation for the behavior is considered separate from
the motivation for selecting the victim. Two types:
Rational choice (eg low security, not likely to call the police).
Bias motivation: target selected because of offenders bias.

Extension of the term bias crime

These distinctions divide the universal set of possible bias crime events into 21 different
categories of events to consider (see table 1 of the article).

Discussion
Aim of the paper was to help law enforcement officials to see bias crimes, by identifying
categories of events. Two questions:
1. Why do police keep records? These reasons also apply to bias crime reporting.
a. Document community problems.
b. Compile crime and other administrative statistics.
c. Prepare for and support successful prosecution of criminal laws.
2. How does our inquiry sharpen law enforcements professional vision in regards to bias
crimes?
This model hopes to provide some clarity by differentiating types of bias events.
This model can help law enforcement agencies develop training strategies for
identifying and classifying different variations of events that fit the statistical and
criminal definitions of bias crime, but also for criminal investigators.
Conclusions
This model presents a rational way of thinking about bias crimes and extending the definition for
different law enforcement purposes.

PREVENTION
Effectiveness of Behavioral Parent Training to modify Antisocial Behavior in Children: A
Meta-Analysis
Wendy Serketich
BPT to modify child antisocial behavior at home and school, and improve parental personal
adjustment
BPT- one of most widely used therapeutic interventions for children/families, can be
administered by paraprofessionals, relatively cheap, generally much shorter than psychotherapy
forms
Core techniques: differential reinforcement and time-out
BPT emphasizes role of parents
BPT makes following assumptiosn:
1. human behavior = function of reinforcement and punishment to which people are exposed to
in environment
2. antisocial behavior is learned and sustained by positive and negative reinforcement children
receive parent particular
3. therapy seeks to establish a shift in social contingencies so childrens prosocial behaviors
obtain + reinforcement by parents, and aversive behavior punishment/ignored
4. maintenance and generalization of treatment gains relies on process of positive
reinforcement. Newly acquired pattern of children + parents is likely to maintain itself and be
applied in new situations
- parents have been found to be power-assertive and lax discipline (inconsistent)
- however not all studies found that it can be generalized form home setting to classroom
- BPT may be limited in effectiveness with families of adverse sociodemographics lack social
support, tend to end treatment prematurely
led to development and evaluation of variety of enhancement procedures for BPT
117 studies : meta-analysis
overall child outcome: ave. child with one or more parents in BPT was better adjusted after
training than 81% of children who received another form of treatment or no treatment at all
parent, teacher, observer report of child behavior yielded better results: parent participation
resulted in better child adjusted than 80%, 77%, 80% respectively of children whose parents did
not do it
parental adjustment better than 67% of parents who did not
families with older children benefited most from BPT (older sample mean age 10)
elementary age

provides support for the effectiveness of BPT to modify child antisocial behavior
BPT has a strong empirical basis, and has achieved clinical prominence
However, very few studies conduct follow ups
Only small percent compared BPT to control group
This study compares BPT to no treatment more so because not a lot of studies had compared
to other treatments

Policy Implications of Present Knowledge on the Development and Prevention of

Physical Aggression
Junger, Feder, Cote
Within this context we review seven types of interventions to prevent physical aggression
including: (1) promotion of physical health of mother and child, (2) increase family income, (3)
increase access to existing services, (4) home visiting, (5) childcare, (6) preschool programs
and (7) improving parenting.
promoting physical health of mother and child should be more actively purued
increase in family income was not found by itself to help prevent occurrence of physical
aggression
increase in access to existing services does not seem to reduce physical aggression
Nurse home visitation programs like Nurse-Family Partnership, and some other rigorous
preschool programs can be effective in deterring a childs trajectory into violence need more
research
improving parenting through programs like the Parent-Child interaction Therapy program can
reduce likelihood of violent behavior more evidence is necessary
extensive review of literature shows that the best way to limit aggressive behavior is to work on
preventing it before the pattern is established in the child = policies should support programs
that look to prevent rather than waiting to intervene
best time to intervene: early in the childs life as early as in pregnancy and directly after birth
Aggression in young children ages 1-4 is normal: however after 4 it should decline as they learn
to controlthemselves
-some continue to behave in physically aggressive manner at high rates
- aggressive behavior seems to be a constant behavior pattern throughout life considerable
stability coefficients
- aggressive behavior and depressive symptoms in girls ages 5-13 were predictive of
aggressive behavior of their children
- aggressive children have a higher likelihood of experiencing a wide variety of psych. Problems
continued into adult lives, violence predictive of substance abuse and smoking, as well as
physical health problems
- violent individuals have also a high rate of victimization higher mortality rates

-correlated with lower levels of cog. functions, and lower likelihood of graduating from school
and higher of being unemployed

Rules of intervention:
1) importance of adequate evaluation
o randomized control trials
o replication of these studies in community
2) early intervention
o recent research ahs emphasized the importance of early years in healthy development of
children
o aggression tends to be a stable behavioral tendency from a relatively early age
o physical aggression is related to many other negative life outcomes and intervening early
may help to avoid not just the aggression but some of the other associated negative outcomes
o study concluded that most effective way to allocate resources is to invest heavily in first years
of life and interventions later in life produce increasingly less benefit
o intensive home visitations by nurse until age 2 can significantly reduce likelihood of child
maltreatment and provide beneficial effects to mother and child
o after child maltreatment home visitations show no effect
3) intervene in multiple domains
o prevention programs need to address the many risk factors that child and parent occupy
o most pervasive and long lasting results were those which intervene effectively in multiple
domains except parent-child interaction therapy (provides training for parents ad is still
effective)
o eg. High Scope Perry Preschool project
o however no guarantee it will be successful
4) need for attention to treatment fidelity
o treatment fidelity is a predictor of success critical to monitor the integrity of program
implementation to ensure treatment program was delivered as originally intended
5) absence of substantive guidelines for evaluating the content of specific prevention programs
o are there substantive guidelines that would help policy makers pik specific programs that
could be counted upon to be successful if implemented with integrity?
o There is lack of consensus regarding specific programs
o Home visitation programs: intensive/expensive not all successful
o Inconsistent success also with intensive preschool service progams like Housten Parent
Child Developmen Program, and there are many educare programs wihotu significant long-term
results
o Expensive does not always mean it will be successful
programs that: (1) promote the physical health of mother and the child, (2) increase income, (3)
increase access to existing services, (4) use home visitors, (5) include childcare, (6) include
early educational enrichment through preschool and (7) improve parenting skills.
many of these can easily lead to general policies directed at children and/or families

1. Maternal health
o Strong connection betw. Mothers health and child health as assessed by childs cog.
functions, social behavior, physical health
o Smoking, drinking, using drugs consistently related to poor childhood outcomes
o Pregnant women who abuse substances children born severely impaired in motor,
language, cog. development, ADHD
Decrease smoking in mother has somewhat found better child weight
Improving nutrition in pregnant women: increase IQ scores and cog. otucomes fo children
Boys born during WWII and men born right after: those who were exposed to maternal
nutrition deficiency in 1st and 2nd trimester increased risk of antisocial personality disorder
2. Child Health
iodine, iron deficiency , neurotoxic metals like mercury affecting cog. health
children who are small, not breastfed, iron or iodine deficiency and protein-energy
malnutrition have poorer IQ and cog.a achievement, and more ADHD incidences
however, poor nutrition is not an isolated factor
improving childrens nutrition has led to higher IQ scores (manily non-verbal) and better cog.
outcomes
vitamin/mineral supplements also found to improve cog. functions
low levels of iron higher emotionality, lower alertness and soothabiltiy
interventions of proper nutrition, increased exercise, educational boost at age 17 fewer
children with conduct disorder, decreased crime
randomized control study vitamin and mineral supplements: led to overall decrease in
aggressive and or violent incidences, less serious violations
improved brain anatomy and function Higher IQ
functional isolation hypothesis: children who are physically unhealthy do not explore their
environment as actively as healthy children social isolation cannot learn how to act and
react low social skills and higher aggression
poverty poorer childrens health
employment-based welfare programs: children benefited form program if it included parental
employment in combination with earning supplements. Benefits for childrens cog.
achievements, smaller improvement in social behavior. Cog. benefits were small.
3. Increased Access to existing Services
Comprehensive Child Development Program (CCDP) home-visiting programs sought to
help low income parent solve their problems by helping find existing services failed to
demonstrate positive effect
Sure Start Local Programs: to promote the functioning of children and families by improving
access to existing quality services
4. Home Visiting
not all home visiting programs are successful
CCDP failed to demonstrate positive effect
Timeframe when visitations begin may be critical
Nurse-Family Partnership (NFP) starts during mothers pregnancy successful
CCDP start when children are older no positive outcomes

 NFP targets first-time, low income mothers at high risk of child abuse and other social ills
intensive home visits until child is 2 years better health, fewer subsequent pregnancies, better
parenting, safer households, greater likelihood of completing education, children had higher
birth weights, fewer emergency room visits, lower rates of child maltreatment
5. Child Care
should infants stay with mother or be places in child care ?
childcare has a positive impact on cognitive achievements.
Effects of childcare on social and emotional development are less clear
Childcare has long-term and somewhat negative effects on attachment security and social
behavior - not very strong though
Physical aggression more significant if children were looked after by own parents in high risk
families
Age of entry related earlie children entered childcare the better their performance on
outcomes at 13
6. Preschool
most preschool programs have been able to raise cognitive achievement but only one, High
Scope Perry Preschool Program, has provided a long-term follow- up which has
demonstrated enduring postivie effects including social behavior
home visits were done, participants 3-4years, parents followed High/Scope curriculum for 2.5
h per day/5 days a week
-fewer school dorpouts, better economically, higher likelihood of a job, earn salary, own
home, arrested less often, less violent offences
7. Improve Parenting
interventions and therapies to improve parenting skills little evaluated
most interventions fous on parenting during children being older and adolescent behavior
not as malleable
Parent Child Interaction Therapy PCIT reduc conduct disorder in children by improving
the parent-child relationship and teaching parents to use effective behavior management skills
Short term relationship enehancmemet and child behavior management
Significant improvement in conduct disorder in preschool children

Policy choice 1: Promote the physical health of mother and child Research shows that mothers
health is related to the cognitive outcomes in her child. In addition, some research finds mothers health to
be related to the social behaviour of her child. Additionally, the nutritional status of the child has
consistently been found to relate to cognitive outcomes. Although only a few studies investigated social
outcomes, the childs health also seems to be related to social behaviour. While much more research is
needed to clarify the link between health and social behaviour, this line of inquiry offers a strong potential
prevention program.
Policy choice 2: Increase income Experiments which made jobs and income supplements available to
mothers of young children who were on welfare proved to be beneficial to children, but the benefits were
very small. While there were gains in the cognitive development of children, these gains were not
maintained after four to five years. Some studies have shown that children improved in terms of social
behaviour. Overall, however, the findings are not very convincing that increasing income for a mother on

welfare will lead to significant positive and long-lasting outcomes for the child.
income supplements have a small and short-term cognitive and social benefit for young children,
formulated a reasonable policy option. They argue that maternal leave should be reimbursed at 100% for
the first 6 months and that mothers should not work more than 30 hours a week for the following six
months until the child is one year of age. Furthermore, they suggest that there should be generous child
allowances for poor families which would continue until the child is five years of age.
Policy choice 3: home visiting Most home visiting programs have not been found to be successful, with
the Nurse-Family Partnership (NFP) program being one of the exceptions. It has not only produced
significant results that positively impact on the mother and her child, but additionally has demonstrated
beneficial effects on childrens long-term outcomes across many different domains (including education,
professional employment, social behaviour and criminal activity). While the data from this program looks
very promising, we would caution that the NFP has yet to be implemented and its results evaluated by
those not connected to the program. Therefore, we must also advise prudence until it is independently
evaluated.
Policy choice 4: childcare Large numbers of children make use of childcare. In European countries,
these numbers are expected to continue to increase in the near future. Therefore, childcare provides a
possible vehicle for reaching and assisting a significant number of children. Survey research led most
researchers to agree that childcare demonstrates a positive impact on childrens cognitive achievement,
but they disagree whether there are positive effects on social behaviour. Studies taking into account the
background of mothers reported that children from high-risk backgrounds were less physically aggressive
when they were in childcare than when they stayed with their mothers. These findings suggest that
policies desiring to promote positive child development should consider implementing high quality
childcare, focussed especially on high-risk children.
Policy choice 5: preschool As was the case with home visiting, not all preschool programs are effective,
and some preschool programs that have been found to be effective in improving cognition do not show
positive results on social behavioural outcomes. An exception to this which found long-term effects was
the High/Scope Perry Preschool Program. Again, given the number of women who work and must rely
on childcare or preschool programs, this would seem to be a fertile avenue for increased research as, if
found effective, it could be a vehicle for reaching a large number of children.
Policy choice 6: improve parenting skills Our literature review did not reveal many parent effectiveness
training programs for parents of young children. The best possibility to improve parenting for young
children was found in the Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) program. PCIT is a therapy form
that is indicated when parents have either parenting problems or abuse their children or, alternatively,
when their childs behaviour is above the clinical range. PCIT in group format may be applied more easily
in a preventive way for families which are not yet problematic.
Policy choice 7: Increase access to existing services Programs which simply increased access to
existing services consistently failed to show significant improvement in childrens outcomes. In fact, in
some cases and for high-risk groups, adverse outcomes were reported (see Intervention 3: Increase
Access to Existing Services section on the Sure Start programs). It is, therefore, clear that leading
families towards existing services is not an advisable policy unless we can first be sure that these
programs are effective in positively impacting on outcomes. This again establishes the need for rigorous
research to evaluate programs to ensure that they dont lead to unintentional harm.

Chapter 12 - Sexual Assault - Sander Bijl de Vroe

Who offends?
Frequently viewed as homogeneous group, but actually vary widely. No single profile.
Adolescent males 20-30% of rapes. 70% have completely normal background.
More research on girls is starting to be done.
Cause of offending is not straightforward. Influenced by multiple interactive factor (ie they have
no idea)
Sexual aggression rapists can be divided into two categories:
Instrumental aggression offender uses just enough coercion
Expressive aggression offender uses more coercion than necessary enjoys causing harm
Rape brings huge psychological and social costs to society. 13% of individuals have been
victims of sexual assault.
Legislation to deter sexual offenders
Term sex offender ranges from rapist to exhibitionist.
US Congress has passed a number of laws to deter sex offenders.
[Highly unlikely this will be on exam, so will not be described specifically]
Jacob Wetterling Crimes Act, Megans Law, Pam Lychner Act.
Rape: definitions and statistics
Definitions vary. Sexual assault can mean rape in some cases. Many do not use the word rape
in penal code.
Forcible rape: carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and against her will
Statutory rape: carnal knowledge of a girl under the age of consent (note: UCR does not
include males)
Rape by fraud: under fraudulent conditions, eg psychotherapist with client
Marital rape: within marriage
Rape frequently occurs between people that know each other (husbands, boy friends). 83% of
women that had been sexually assaulted said it had been by someone they knew.
Date rape: rape that occurs within a dating relationship
Traumatizing also because society sometimes does not acknowledge this as real rape
Incidence/Prevalence:
Highest in the USA, although other countries (eg Saudi Arabia) are likely underreporting.
Actual rape rate is highly underestimated. Victimization studies find that 2/3 of sexual assaults
go unreported.
In 930 women interviewed in San Francisco area, 19% reported having been raped.
Rates may be even higher for attempted rape.
Impact on victims
It is said that victims are victimized again by legal system. Some prefer term survivor.
Psychological effect: severe. Can be exacerbated by law enforcement, negative reactions from
peers, etc. Police departments starting to be more sensitive. Rape shield laws in place.

Sleeplessness, anxiety, depression, needing to change lifestyle.

Situational/victimization characteristics: appears to be committed against youth. 29% younger
than 11, 6% older than 29. Alcohol/drugs play a role. Most rape is by intimate partners.
Severe physical injury happens in only 5%, serious injury 25%, minor 39%. Psychological
damage appears to last longer.
Most common methods of coercion verbal persuasion/drugs. Weapons less common.
Rape offender characteristics
Age: tend to be young
Offending history: many rapists have been in perpetual conflict with society.
Demographics: many unemployed. Low recidivism for sexual offenses, high in general (in
particular sample)
4 main assumptions about why men rape (by the public)
1: Uncontrollable/ irresistible impulse attribution state of self-control is severely reduced.
2: Mental illness/disease attribution sexual offenders are sick
3: Drug attribution lose control in certain circumstances (eg alcohol)
4: Victim attribution victim led to the offense. nice girls dont get raped fallacy.
Empirical study does not validate these categories. Still, people continue to believe this.
Admitters and Deniers in sample, more admitters. Deniers often blame victim.
Just world hypothesis - Belief that good things happen to good people and bad things to bad
people. This view is taken by deniers something bad happened to her so she cant have been
good.
Admitters said it was morally wrong, but tried to reduce culpability they had been under the
influence or had had emotional problems, and are normally nice guys
Classification of rape patterns [Not too important for exam]
Massachusetts Treatment Center (MTC) Classification System 4 categories
Displaced Aggression rapist Aggressive rape with little sexual feeling
Compensatory rapist Wants to prove sexual prowess/adequacy. introvert, shy, fantasizes.
Sexually aggressive rapist enjoys both violent and sexual aspects of act
Impulsive rapist engages in rape when opportunity presents. Neither strong sexual nor
aggressive features.
New system (MCT:R3) with 9 categories was devised, with subdivisions of original 4.
[probably unimportant]
Groth Typology: Anger rape, Power rape, Sadistic rape.
Etiology of Rape
Sexual socialization/social learning play crucial role. From home, school, peers, media.
Immaturity hypothesis: rapists are sexually more immature. In adulthood, still derive more
sexual pleasure from media, whereas other adults derive from real-life encounters.
In formative years, had repressed sexual curiosity and fewer erotica/pornography contacts.
Attitudes toward rape: major explanatory factor. Greater hostility toward women. Males need to

be dominant, females submissive. Show arousal to both aggressive acts and sexual acts.
Increasingly important topic: fantasy and imagination in relation to rape. Masturbatory
conditioning: leads to liking the things rapists fantasize about more and more. Conclusion:
rapists learn to be rapists.
Rape myths: beliefs that serve to deny/justify male sexual aggression against women. These
beliefs are essential to sexual assault in that many perpetrators hold them.
Sexual assault and pornography
the relationship between rape and pornography is shrouded with confusion and surrounded by
debate ( -.- )
Some researchers do not find a link, others suggest stopping pornography.
Issue: different definitions of pornography exist. Leads to different conclusions. Some
differentiate erotica (depicting consensual acts) and pornography (only nonconsent).
Normally, pornography does not influence people to rape. 3 factors influence this. 1) Level of
arousal elicited by the film, 2) level of aggression in film, 3) reactions of victims in film.
Films depicting a victim enjoying rape can promote rape myth acceptance.
It might be better to eradicate all violent pornography, but similar arguments could be made
against guns and drugs, which would violate the US constitution.
Child pornography (producing, possessing, distributing) is illegal, however.
The disordered sex offender
many sexual predators used to be considered mentally disordered. Nowadays we accept that
would not normally be diagnosable with a disorder. Now, the term sexually violent predator is
used.
The public often wishes to put rapists in mental hospitals, but this is only possible if present
dangerousness is established.
Key Concepts
Admitters, Anger rape, compensatory rapist, date rape, deniers, displaced aggression, drug
attribution, expressive sexual aggression, forcible rape, impulsive rapist, instrumental sexual
aggression, just world hypothesis, marital rape, mental illness attribution, opportunity rapist,
pervasive anger rapist, power rape, rape by fraud, rape myths, sadistic rape, sexual aggressive
rapist, sexual gratification rapist, statutory rape, uncontrolled impulse attribution, victim
attribution, vindictive rapist.

Hate crimes: Craig, Kellina, Examining Hate Motivated Aggression; A Review of the social
psyschological literature on hate crimes as a distinct form of aggression, Aggression and

Violent Behavior 7 (2002) 85-101; available as pdf file on the workspace.

Abstract
Hate crime: illegal act involving intentional selection of the victim based on bias/prejudice
against the actual/perceived status of victim. Little academic literature.
Hate crime against persons or property (70% persons).
Interpersonal/intergroup aggression: vandalism, intimidation, harassment, physical and verbal
assault, murder.
Victims: ethnic and religious minority, gays, lesbians, bisexuals, mentally and physically
challenged. Ethnic/racial bias is biggest determinant.
Federal law prohibits crime based on: race, colour, religion, national origin (disability, gender,
sexual orientation).

1.1.

Hate crimes as a unique form of aggression

Symbolic and instrumental functions
Intent to harm + symbolic/instrumental function. Serving a symbolic function to the extent that a
message is communicated to community/neighbourhood or group. Victims = symbolic status.
Instrumental function: affects actions of victim and perpetrators group. Group members of
victim > tailor their behaviour to avoid similar crime. Group members of perpetrator might act in
an unusual way when encountering group members of victims.
1.2. Presence of multiple perpetrators
Hate crimes typically involve multiple perpetrators (group). 2/3 of hate crime by 2 or more
people. Greater group > more severe crime. Perpetrators cowardice (safety in numbers);
diffusion of responsibility; insensitivity to normal social restraints (personal control falls away >
deindividuation). Support and confirm each others bigotry and hate.
1.3. Victims increased psychological and emotional distress
Greater psychological distress for victim. Long term PTSD. Higher levels of depression, anxiety,
anger and PTSD (heterosexist assault). Extreme emotional distress, vulnerable,
1.4. Deteriorating social relations
Hate crimes may infect relations in larger social groups. Affects member of social category.
Relation between groups of victim and perpetrator > suspicion and fear.
Likelihood for community unrest and provoke retaliation. Norm of reciprocity: much of human
behaviour is governed in quid pro quo manner. Resembles initial response.
Research: retaliation following hate crime is dependent upon group of victim (bigger chance
between white and African American)
1.5 victims as members of negatively stereotyped groups
victims of hate crimes often targets of extreme negative stereotypes. Pervasive, resistant to
change. Strong negative stereotype > prejudice > intergroup relations poor > possible

intergroup violence. Negative stereotypes not only motivation, but also justification.
2. Causes of hate crime
Perpetrators motives, victims characteristics, cultural ideologies of victims social group differ
per incident.
2.1 deep-seated resentment of minority persons
Anti-black sentiment. Intergroup attitudes white-black have improved; still everyday occurrences
of discrimination, inequality and prejudice remain. Blacks most negatively stereotyped. Nonblack: motives can revolve around belief about immigrants of group specific prejudice.
Perpetrators might wish to symbolically differentiate themselves from victim > denigrating the
victims group.
Social identity theory: individuals are motivated to maintain positive self-image: intertwined with
social group (in-group). In-group perception good > self-perception good. Positive identity
depends as much on denigrating out-groups as lauding in-group. Promoting in-group >
denigrating out-group > hate crime can include aggression > approval from in-group + boost
self-esteem. E.g. anti-gay: denigrate gays and assert masculinity, confirm status as
heterosexual.
> Works well for perpetrators whose self-identity is compromised, and seek a way to validate
their identity
Anti-white hate crime: unclear
2.2 governmental decline in protection of civil rights
After 80s, federal commitment to equality of minority groups has waned. Some say this is
directly associated with increasing rates of hate motivated offences. Climate of relative
intolerance made bigotry acceptable. The cultural ideology of a society provides the background
of hate crimes. Current ideology regards violence increasingly as a convenient conflict
resolution, with minorities as scapegoats for social problems
2.3 Actual or imagined economic competition and frustration
Social science theory: rates of intergroup violence are directly linked to economic strife.
Contested: hate crimes had no link with rates of unemployment, rather: economic downturns +
influx ethnic diverse people into formerly homogenous neighbourhoods > hate violence.
But, maybe still valid: minority groups may be seen as competitors who take the jobs away.
Minority people prevent access from resources > prejudice (fuelled by perceived competition
and relative sense of deprivation)
3. Characteristics of perpetrators (differences)
3.1 Membership in organized hate groups
Only minority of hate crimes carried out by organized hate groups, motivations stem from ethnic
and religious prejudice. These groups promote hostility and violence toward their perceived outgroup groups. Relation to hate group gives specific crime features: more predatory. Also, history
of recidivism + severity crime > dangerous offenders within this group

3.2 Religious values

People that are more religious are more bigoted. The way religious orientation influences
prejudice depends on the out-group. If religion promotes egalitarianism and tolerance, intrinsic
religious orientation > less prejudice. Extrinsic orientation > more prejudice. When religion
doesnt promote tolerance > intrinsic / extrinsic doesnt matter.
3.3 Psychopathy and deviancy among perpetrators
Much substance abuse, 20% psychiatric treatment. 87% criminal record, of which 60%
criminally violent. More prior violent offenses > more severe hate crime. Specific hate ideology >
crimes more predatory, premeditated and based on ethnic or racial hatred. Studies support that
out-group bias is related to greater psychopathology
3.4 The authoritarian personality and right-wing authoritarianism
Acceptance of authority and projection of hostility is responsible for certain forms of aggression
> Authoritarian personality: a person who, as consequence of bad parents, develops n
unconscious hostility that is directed not at parents/authority figures, but at those that are
perceived weak/unconventional.
Right-wing authoritarianism: authoritarians value submissiveness to established authority
figures, and prejudiced towards those that are perceived to be deviant by the authority figure.
3.5 Factors associated with the decision to join a hate group
Youngsters in hate crime share same traits as other juvenile offenders (abuse, dysfunctional
families)
Adolescent development is continuous learning, so if your parents teach you to obey, hostile
towards out-groups, failure of support > seek out hate groups. Economic status has little to do
with it.
3.6 Perpetrator profiles
Profile: male, 14-24, no prior record, not poor or chronically unemployed. Useful? Maybe,
perpetrators are becoming increasingly diverse.
4. Victims of hate crimes
Data is sparse; little follow up on impact on victims.
Victims tend to be young, half under 21. Predominantly male. 90% doesnt know their attacker.
5. Conclusion
Hate crime activity is likely to continue.
Forecasts of demographic and population trends within the US suggest increasing and
heretofore unparalleled diversity. People that had relative advantage are going to want to keep
that advantage. Violence will stay a likely response when provoked.

Serran & Firestone

Intimate partner homicide: a review of the male

proprietariness and the self-defence theories
Spousal homicide can be explained through the male sexual proprietariness theory and the self
defence theory.
Male Sexual proprietariness theory
Supported by: adultery, jealousy, male control, and desertion.
Adultery: Men feel that by marrying a woman, they buy the right to her reproductive capacities,
which is a feeling supported by adultery laws
Sexual jealousy: Jealousy is the main motive for spousal homicide, caused by (suspected)
adultery or the woman ending the relationship. A woman is most likely to be killed by her
husband under 25 years of age, as she is then most attractive for other men, and more likely to
get remarried if the marriage is unsatisfactory.
Male Control: Violence in combination with homicidal threats is used to attain control. More than
50% of the victims of spousal homicide suffered domestic violence before.
Desertion: Violence increases motivation of the woman to leave the relationship, which is a
bigger motivator for the homicide. If the woman does leave her husband, the violence escalates
making the first 2 months after having left a high risk period. This can be coined with the term
estrangement. If a man suffers from suicidal tendencies, he might resort to familicide because
of feelings of ownership and control: the belief his family cannot survive without him.
Critiques:
Proprietariness is difficult to measure quantitatively and qualitatively, and is a
subjective measure.
The risk factors indicated are very common, but the act of homicide is very rare
(e.g. divorce rates versus the amount of homicides following a divorce)
Male proprietariness & Female resistance is a continuum
3 types of batterers
o Antisocial/sociopathic abusers the homicide reflects an increase in intensity of the
violence that was already used
o Normally non abusive people might use (emotional) dependency to control
spouse, and kill as reaction to separation
o Mixed: Control and depression. Possessiveness is visible in these cases, but
jealousy is absent. Primary goal of husband is self-destruction, in sexual jealousy
cases the main goal is destruction of the woman.
Female Self-defence theory

Usually the killing of a male spouse is the womans reaction to an abusive treatment. It is
explained with the Battered Woman Syndrome, and states that women experience learned
helplessness as a result of feeling trapped in a relationship where physical and emotional
violence is directed towards them. Since the feeling of being unable to leave is so strong, the
killing is a response to an attack on themselves, or a threat to hurt another (e.g. child). Many
women report to have felt that their own death was inevitable if they had not killed their spouse.
The homicide is often preceded by unsuccessful attempts to find help.
The main difference between women that kill their spouse and those who dont, but who are
subject to intimate partner violence, lies in their partner. These are more likely to abuse
substances, and attacked and threatened the women more frequently. Substance abuse can
also be found in the woman.
Critiques
Small, unrepresentative samples
Might be interference from other factors preceding the abusive relationship (e.g.
sexual abuse during childhood, high school drop outs, attempted suicide)
Implications
Prevention and intervention
Increase problem solving skills and coping mechanisms for both
Men need to be challenged with regards to their attitudes (feelings of
possessiveness and need to control)
Intervention should be at individual level (anger management, alcohol abuse,
etc.) and societal level (laws, attitudes)
Legal system should provide help for woman who leave the abusive relationship,
especially guarding during the first few months due to increased risk. Moreover, there
should be increased help for women that want to leave an abusive relationship, as this
will give them alternatives to reacting violent themselves.
Conclusions
Differences in gender
o Men are more often offender, women more often victim
o Motivation is different per gender
Men: jealousy and (threat of) separation, especially when woman is young.
Posessiveness is the dominant theme
Women: often a history of violence started by the victim, suggesting the
women killed in self-defence. The women often feel that the legal system
wont protect them, due to the patriarchal hierarchy society follows.

Bartol & Bartol Notes Part II - Sanne

Chapter 9 Homicide and Assault

The more bizarre, senseless, or heinous the murder, the more attention it receives
On a national level criminal homicide consistently accounts for only about 1 or 2% of all violent
crimes reported in the FBIs UCR
o Total of 16,137 homicides in 2004, 1.7 million violent offenses
o Rate for violent crime = 465.5 offenses per 100,000 inhabitants
o Murder represents only 1.2% of the total
o Relationship between victims and perpetrators was known in 44.15 of all
homicides reminder that homicidal attacks of strangers are not common
Disproportionate amount of attention paid to criminal homicides may be explained by
o Our fascination with mysterious and macabre
o Need for excitement and novelty to prevent our lives from becoming too mundane
and boring greater in extraverts
o Curiosity/exploratory behaviour an individual explores a new situation to satisfy
this curiosity and in the process of discovering information, adapts to the new
situation.
Curiosity about murder might help us prepare for the possibility that a
similar event might happen to us. Helps us identify danger signals
But extensive exposure to violence may immunize us from the horror of violence
o Many social commentators have advanced cogent arguments that Western
civilization has become conditioned or jaded to cruelty and inhumane behaviour
and that people are desensitized to human suffering
o Constant attention also makes it seem more widespread and frequent than it really
is = Availability heuristic
Heuristic = mental shortcut used by people to make quick inferences about
their world
Details of frequent reports of violent crime are likely to be incorporated into
cognitive shorthand and have them readily available for future reference
When they think of violence at a later time they remember the most
frequently seen and horrific accounts, increasing their fear of violent crime
and exaggerating its incidence in their minds
Speculation about why we are attracted to accounts of murder may seem irrelevant when
studying the perpetrator but is actually very relevant when an individual part of this society is
insensitive to suffering and begins to create his or her own excitement by torturing and
murdering = social problem

DEFINITIONS
Criminologists generally study aggravated assault and homicide together, primarily because they
view many aggravated assaults as failed homicide attempts
o It may be unwarranted to consider aggravated assault as being in same league as
homicide because of disparity in rates
In psychology the distinctions between murder and aggravated assault are not crucial, realistic or

desirable
o Much of the relevant research on offender characteristics collapses the categories
into one people who kill usually have a history of assaultive behaviour
o From a psychological point of view, two types of behaviour are comparable often
the type of weapon determines the final outcome.
o The individual is displaying highly aggressive behaviour in either situation.

Criminal Homicide
Criminal homicide = causing the death of another person without legal justification or excuse
Legally it is divided into 2 categories
o Murder = unlawful killing of one human being by another with malice aforethought,
either expressed or implied
Malice aforethought = premeditation, thinking ahead and planning and
voluntarily causing the death of others. Can occur in very short amount of
time.
o Non-negligent manslaughter = refers to an action that is more than negligent or
reckless, but less than premeditated
Typically occurs in highly aroused emotional state
Crimes of Passion
Person becomes so agitated that and emotionally upset that he loses
partial control of his self-regulatory system
o The essential difference is that malice aforethought must be present for murder,
whereas it must be absent for non-negligent manslaughter
Negligent manslaughter = killing another as a result of recklessness or culpable negligence
o Although there is no intent to kill, the law says you should have known that your
actions could result in the death of another person
A man who waves around his gun in jest and accidentally kills someone
Degree system was once useful for distinguishing between murder that was punishable by death
and that which was not. Now the distinctions are more blurred.
o Murder First Degree = homicide that was committed with particularly vicious, wilful,
deliberate, and premeditated intent
o Murder Second Degree = characterized by intentional and unlawful killing of
another but without the type of malice and premeditation required for first degree
Crimes of passion some states would call this nonngeligent manslaughter
We combine both murder and non-negligent manslaughter under the general term homicide in
this chapter
o Not concerned with suicides, accidental deaths, negligent manslaughter or
justifiable homicide

Aggravated Assault
Assault = the intentional inflicting of bodily injury on another person, or the attempt to inflict such
injury
Aggravated assault = when the intention is to inflict serious bodily injury
o Often accompanied by use of deadly or dangerous weapon

 Simple assault = unlawful, intentional inflicting of less than serious bodily injury without a deadly
or dangerous weapon.
DEMOGRAPHICS OF HOMICIDE
Variety of demographic factors that are strongly associated or correlated with criminal homicide
o Demographic characteristics of offenders or victims
Factors in literature often refer to arrests for murder or non-negligent manslaughter but arrests
do not necessarily result in conviction or a finding of guilt

Race/Ethnic Origin
Consistent finding reported in criminology literature is that African Americans in the United States
are involved in criminal homicide both as offenders and victims at a rate that significantly
exceeds their numbers in the general population
o 13% of population but 37% of all arrests for violent crimes
o Represented 47% of those arrested for murder and one third of persons arrested
for aggravated assault
o Of persons under death sentence in 2001 44% were black and 54% were white
o Both female and male incarceration rates also reflect this disproportion but does
not necessarily relate to violent offenses
o In 94% of all reported cases, blacks killed blacks or whites killed whites
indicating most homicides are intraracial
o Black males have 1 in 40 chance of becoming a homicide victims
Black females 1 in 199 chance
o White males have a 1 in 280 chance
White females 1 in 794 chance
Disproportionate representation of African Americans in arrest and conviction data for violence
probably reflect social inequities
o No evidence to suggest that a racial biological or neuropsychological
predisposition plays a role in the consistently reported differences in violence
rates over the years.
Latinos/Hispanics make up 12.5% US population and 12% of arrests for violent crimes. Only 1%
of those arrested for homicide are Latinos
o 27% and 17% of federal and state prisons
o Latino/Hispanic violence victimization rate falls below the rates found for black and
white populations, including the economically disadvantaged segments of US
population
o Low rates because of high rates of participation in the labour force and also have
close and highly supportive connections to the local community and extended
family.
American/Indians and Alaska Natives account for 1.55 of US population and represent 1.3% of
total arrests for murder and 1.1% of total violent crime
o Rate of victimization of American Indians is well above that of other US racial or
ethnic groups and is more than twice as high as the national average

o AIs experience aggravated assault and simple assault at the highest rates of any
racial or ethnic group in US
o AIs are more likely than other races to experience violence at the hands of
someone of a different race
Asians = 4.2% of US population and Pacific Islanders 0.35. Stats are not clear but show that they
are arrested in numbers that fall sig below their representation in the general population
o Experience the lowest victimization rates of violence of any racial or ethnic group
in the US
More research needs to be done but using rigid categories represents an oversimplification of
the multi-ethnic and multicultural mixtures across the nation
o Meaningful research on ethnic/minority differences in violence requires a
knowledgeable awareness of and sensitivity to this complexity

Gender Differences
Relationship between homicide and gender is also robust
Most perpetrators and victims of murder were male (82+76%)
Homicide offender rate highest for African American males (41.7 per 100,000 inhabitants, 9.3 for
African American females, 3.4 or white males, and only 0.4 for white females)
UCR data consistently show that annual arrest rates for murder run about 90% male and 10%
female
o 82% of all arrests for violent crime offenses were male in 2004
o Males accounted for about 77% of murder victims in 2002
But substantial situational and victim differences between murders attributed to males and
females

Age
Stable stats showing that half of those arrest for violent crime are 20-29
Highest rate of offending occurs among young black males, aged 18-22
The young are also the victims
o 2002 persons aged 12-24 sustained violent victimization at rates higher than
individuals of all other ages combined
o Of all murder victims, 50% were under 30yrs old
Socio-economic Class
Tittle in 197 supposed link between lower socio-economic class and a higher prevalence of
crime myth
In 1980 research noted that lower-class youth are proportionately more involved in serious
crimes than other youth
Today, criminologists acknowledged a relationship between crime and low socioeconomic class,
but they caution against misinterpretation this information
o Violence perpetration amongst higher classes does not always come to the
attention of police official stats can be misleading
o Relationship between crime and poverty is complex involving a myriad of factors
including limits of educational and employment opportunities

o Persons of high socio-economic class commit varieties of crime whose

enforcement and prosecution are often not considered a top priority in our society

Victim-Offender Relationship
Offenders and victims of homicides often know each other
o At least 2/3rds of all homicides the offender and victim knew one another well
Recent data shows that nearly half the murder victims in 2004 were either related to the offender
(13%) or acquainted with the offender (30%)
o Strangers were murder offenders in 13% of cases
o Relationships unknown for 44%
o 33% female victims killed by husbands or boyfriends, and 2.7% of the male victims
killed by wives or girlfriends
Men are victimized by violent strangers at an annual rate more than double that of women
Chance of becoming the victim of a violent crime perpetrated by a stranger increases with age
for women but remains about the same across all ages for men
Family and acquaintance homicides the offender and victim have similar demographic
characteristics
But for stranger homicide the offender is younger and of a different race than the victim.
WEAPONS USED IN VIOLENCE
Guns and knives (or other cutting instruments) are the two preferred instruments for inflicting
death but preference is influenced by gender, race and geography and other parameters
(historical time period)
Firearms were used in over 70% of all homicides committed between 1993 and 2004, while
knives and other cutting instruments used in less than 13% of homicides
80% of firearm homicides are committed with handguns, 6% with shotguns, 5% with rifles and
7% with unspecified firearms
In 1994 44 million Americans owned 192 million firearms
o Only 25% of adults actually owns guns
o 74% of gun owners possess two or more
o 12% Latino households, 14% black households and 40% white households own a
firearm
Gun ownerships highest amongst middle-aged, college-educated people of rural small-town
America
14 million adults (1/3d of gun owners) carry firearms for protection
Young black males are fare more likely to carry a firearm than other groups
Juvenile Weapon Possession
24% of total arrests for carrying or possessing a firearm were juveniles 9% were
under 15
Males, compared with females were four time more likely to report carrying a weapon
o Knives/razors = 55%
o Clubs = 24%
o Firearms = 21%

 Available data suggests that more than 2/3rds of juveniles carry weapons for selfprotection
Gun ownership by gang members appears to be a standard feature of many youth
gangs
o Also related to a wide range of antisocial behaviours gun-related crimes,
gang membership and drug selling
o Amount of serious violent crime these juvenile committed during periods of
carrying a gun was more than 5 times the amount they committed while not
carrying a gun
It is a federal crime for any person to sell or transfer a handgun to a person under age
18 it is also a crime for a juvenile to possess ammunition of a handgun
But juveniles obtain guns through corrupt license dealers, unregulated dealers, gun
shows, organized gun rings, criminal firearms trafficking and theft.

Weapons and Violence

Every 14 minutes someone in American dies from a gunshot wound
Research contradicts the common view that having a gun protests people from violence
o Households with guns are three times more likely to experience the death of a
household member than gunless households
o While guns do not cause violent crime they facilitate it
o Higher levels of gun ownership = higher levels of homicide
Weapons effect = mere sight of an aggressive stimulus can influence behaviour.
o Because weapons are associated with violence, the visible presence of a
handgun, club or knife automatically brings violence-related thoughts to mind
Discovery that high number of available weapons within a neighbourhood promotes more
aggression in a vicious circle of violence may be partially due to the widespread presence of
aggressive stimuli

OTHER FACTORS
Several other factors associated with violent crime are reported consistently in the research.
They relate to temperatures and seasons, actions of victims, and the presence of alcohol and
other drugs
Temporal Factors
Homicides equally distributed across the 12 months of the year, but slight increase during some
holidays (Dec+jan) and the summer months
o Are the times of family gatherings and celebrations, and also when interpersonal
tensions and alcohol consumption can be at their highest levels
o Weekends, esp between 8pm and 2am on sat evening are when homicides occur
most often
Victim Precipitation
26% of cases were victim-precipitated the victim contributed in a sig way to his or her own
demise by taking first step toward violence

 Offender motives for killing are often based on minor altercations and domestic quarrels in which
both parties were actively aggressive
Victim-precipitated homicide may qualify as self-defence on the part of the individual who
committed the homicide
But official states do not make inferences about the victims possible role in the offense
2/3rds of cases either the victim or offender both had been drinking immediately prior the slaying

Sniper Attacks
Between 1982 and 2001 there were 327 incidents of sniper attacks with 379 deaths
Although the number seem large, sniper attacks are unique circumstances that occur
infrequently only 0.1% of all homicides that occurred in 20 yr period were caused by sniper fire
Nearly 80% of victims of sniper attacks were males
o 14% were under age of 18
o 9/10 cases the victim and sniper were strangers/relationship unknown
o 52.5% victims were white, 44.1% were black, and the remaining 3.4% were other
races
o 2/3rd of cases the handgun was weapon of choice rifle or shotgun used in the
remainder
o Nearly half of the sniper attacks took place in Western regions of the country
96.9% cases the sniper was male, usually between the ages of 18 and 24
o Female offenders cut across al age groups with no particular age group emerging
as most prevalent
o 54.5% offender was white, 43.7% the offender was black
o Psychological characteristics of criminal snipers are largely unknown

DEMOGRAPHICS OF ASSAULT
Assault has not drawn nearly the amount of research, publication or popular interest that
homicide has yet aggravated assault is most common type of part 1 violent crime, accounting
for 63% of all part 1 violent crimes reported to police
Blacks make up one-third of those arrested for assault, aggravated or simple a number
disproportionate to their representation of population
o Must be careful of interpretation of statistics though
Assaults overwhelmingly intraracial
Victim and offender know each other in at least 50% of the reported assault cases
Lethal firearm is less sig less often employed in assault than in homicide. Personal weapons
such as hands feet etc more common
12% of aggravated assaults in 2004 were committed by juveniles
o Assault most common violent crime committed by juveniles
o Males outnumber females 7 to 1 in total arrests for assault
o Aggravated assault is most common form of violent crime reported on college
campuses
But stats v, limited campus crime is underreported

JUVENILE MURDER
In 2004 89% of offenders arrested for murder were adults and 11% were juveniles
90.1% of offenders were male and 9.9% were female
The number of juveniles under age 15 who murder is relatively small
Nearly all homicides committed by children involved a single victim, mostly male (70%)
more than half of the murder victims were juveniles under age 18 and more than a third of
vitctims were under age 13. Rarely was the victim a parent
Killing of a parent by a juvenile is often precipitated by child maltreatment
More than half of the victims of child delinquents were killed with firearms
o Gun play is often a contributing factors when children kill other children
o Sexual homicides by child offenders are very uncommon
DEMOGRAPHICS AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF JUVENILE MURDERERS
Study by Myers and Scott with small sample of juvenile murders to obtain more info
o 18 juvenile murderers, between ages of 14 and 17
33% white, 67% were black, 72% homicides in relation to criminal activities
and 285 during interpersonal conflict
45% victims were males, 55% were female
50% of victims were strangers, other half were acquaintances or family
members
895 of juvenile murderers had histories of one more psychotic episodes (esp paranoid ideation)
and other forms of mental disorders
Juvenile murderers tend to have history of severe educational difficulties
o Sig language handicaps appear to be most prominent learning problems among
juvenile murderers
Many juvenile murderers have variety of neurological abnormalities similar to what has been
reported in the medical histories of LCP offenders
High incidence of conduct disorders in samples of juvenile murderers
ADHD also identified with juvenile murderers with some regularity
MULTIPLE MURDERERS

Definitions
Serial murder is usually reserved for incidents in which an individual (or individuals) kills a
number of individuals (usually a minimum of 3) over time
o The time interval (cooling-off period), may be days or weeks, but more likely
months or years
o Cooling-off period is the main difference between serial murders and other multiple
murders
o The murders are premeditated and planned, and the offender usually selects
specific victims
Spree murder normally refers to the killing of three or more individuals without any cooling-off
period, usually at two or more locations
o = bank robber who kills some individuals within the bank, flees with hostages, and

kills a number of people while in flight during a state-wide chase

Mass murder involves killing three or more persons at a single location with no cooling-off period
between murders
o Classic mass murder = when an individual barricades himself inside a public building,
randomly killing the patrons and any other individual he has contact wit

Chapter 10 Multiple Murders

INVESTIGATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Investigative psychology = the application of psychological research and principles to the
investigation of criminal behaviour
IP tries to answer 3 questions
o What are the important behavioural features of the crime that may help identify
and successfully prosecute the perpetrator
o What inferences can be made about the characteristics of the offender that may
help identify him or her?
o Are there are any other crimes that are likely to have been committed by the same
person?
Crime Scene Investigative Methods
3 important features of offender behaviour may be evident at the scene of a crime
o Modus operandi
The actions and procedures an offender engages in to commit a crime
successfully
Behavioural pattern that the offender learns as he or she gains experience
in committing the offense
But may make error if focus too much on MO because it changes until most
effective method is found
o The personation or signature
Anything that goes beyond what is necessary to commit the crime is called
the personation or signature
Often though to be related to the unique cognitive processes of the offender
and, in this sense, may be more important to an investigator than the MO
o Staging
The intentional altercation of a crime scene prior to the arrival of police, and
it is sometimes done by someone other than the perpetrator
Done to redirect investigation away from most logical suspect or to protect
victim or victims family
Staging can be done by the family to protect the victim in cases of
autoeroticism
Sometimes an offender may engage in undoing, a behaviour pattern found at the scene in which
the offender tries to psychologically undo the murder
o May wash and dress the victim, or place the body on a bed
o Typically occurs in offenders who become especially distraught about the death of
a victim
In other cases offender may try to dehumanize the victim by engaging in actions that obscure the
identity of the victim
Difference between undoing and staging is the reason behind the action
o In staging the offender or someone lese is trying to alter the crime scene in order

to divert suspicion
o In undoing their try to psychologically undo the murder
Crime scenes and offenders also classified as organized, disorganized or mixed.
Organized

Disorganized

Average to above average intelligence

Below av intelligence

Socially competent

Socially incompetent

Skilled work preferred

Unskilled work

High birth order status

Low birth order status

Fathers work stable

Fathers work unstable

Sexually competent

Sexually incompetent

Inconsistent childhood discipline

Harsh discipline as child

Controlled mood during crime

Anxious mood during crime

Use of alcohol with crime

Minimal use of alcohol

Precipitating situational stress

Minimal situational stress

Living with partner

Living alone

Mobility (car in good condition)

Lives/works near crime scene

Follows crime in news media

Minimal interest in news media

May change job or leave town

Sig behaviour change

Organized crime scene indicates planning and premeditation on the part of the offender
o Shows signs that the offender maintained control of himself and the victim
o Body of victim moved from abduction area to another secluded area
o Offender usually selects his victims according to some personal criteria
Disorganized crime scene demonstrates that offender prob committed the crime without
premeditation or planning
o Indicators suggest the individual acted on impulse or in rage
o Obtains victim by chance, often without specific criteria in mind
Mixed crime scene has ingredients of both organized and disorganized crime aspects.
o May have begun as carefully planned by deteriorated into a disorganized crime
when things did not go as planned
Organized-disorganized classification system seems intuitively logical it has limited usefulness. It
is probably more realistic to assume that crime scenes fall along a continuum, with the

organized description at one pole and the disorganized description at another pole
PROFILING
Term profiling is sued to describe the gathering of various kinds of information about a person or
persons
5 overlapping categories
o Psychological profiling
o Criminal profiling
o Geographical profiling
o Equivocal death analysis
o Racial profiling
Psychological profiling will be reserved for the psychological description of a person or persons
in general, criminal or non-criminal
o Includes their preferred strategies and ways of thinking
o Not necessarily designed to describe criminal tendencies but refers to a broad
behavioural realm of tendencies
Likes, dislikes, strengths, weaknesses
o Other methods are directly related to crime

Criminal Profiling
Criminal profiling = process of identifying personality traits, behavioural patterns, geographic
habits, and demographic features of an offender based on characteristics of the crime
o Focuses on traits, features, and habits of the offender
o Part of investigative psychology
Much profiling is guesswork and it is full or error and misinterpretation
o 90% an art and 10% science
o Can predict some demographic variables but rarely are they accurate about
psychological variables of the offender
o Profiling does not provide the specific identity of the offender but suggests the kind
of person who might have committed the crime under investigation
A profile report normally includes the gender, age, marital status, education level and occupation
of the offender. Also prediction if will strike again, whether in possession of police record, what
type of victims are at risk. In some instances will try to identify motivations
Profiling of serial offenders is most successful when offender demonstrates some form of
psychopathology at the crime scene (sadistic torture, post-mortem slashings etc)
o Because such individuals are likely mentally disordered and they are likely to
show consistency. But not always true.
Profiling = particularly useful in serial sexual offenses such as serial rape and serial sexual
homicides
o Because more extensive research base on sexual offending than we do on
homicide
o Profiling largely ineffective in cases of fraud, burglary, robbery, political crimes,

theft and drug-induced crime because of limited research base, but sig gains
made over last few years
Computer-based models of offender profiles developed form statistical data collected on similar
offenses hold considerable promise
o But to date still little research on utility, reliability, and validity of criminal profiling
o Basic research not strongly supportive of profile accuracy
Two basic flaws in modern-day profiling
o Assumption that human behaviour is consistent across a variety of different
situations
Psych has consistently shown that behaviour varies according to situations
or the social context, esp if social contexts are sig different
o Assumption that offense style or evidence gathered at crime scene is directly
related to specific personality characteristics
Little empirical data that link crime scene characteristics to personality or
other psychological features of the offender
Much serious research needs to be done on profiling accuracy, usefulness and processing
before any tentative conclusions can be advanced in the area
Geographical Profiling
Geographical profiling = method of identifying the area of probable residence of the probably
area of the next crime of an unknown offender based on the location of and the spatial
relationships among various crime sites
o Can help to locate the offender or stakeout places where next crime is likely to
take place
o Focuses on the location of the crime and how it related to the residence and/or
base of operations of the offender
o Used in search for serial violent offenders but also in search for property
offenders, such as serial burglars.
Dr Rossmos Criminal Geographic Targeting (CGT) which is designed to analyse the
geographical or spatial characteristics of an offenders crimes
o Generates a 3D map that assigns statistical probabilities to various areas that
seem to fall into the offenders territory. 3D map is then placed over a street or
topographical where crimes have occurred
o Objective = pinpoint the location of the offenders residence and/or base of
operations
Rossmo identifies four hunting patterns serial offenders use in their search for victims
o Hunters criminals who set out from their residence to look for victims, searching
through the areas in their awareness space that they believe contain suitable
targets. Geographically stable because crimes occur near offenders residence or
neighbourhood
o Poachers more transient, traveling some distance from their neighbourhood in
their search for suitable victims
o Trollers do not specifically search for victims but depends on random encounters
during course of other activities

o Trappers create situations to entice the victims to come to him

Now used for a variety of crimes not just murder, rape and arson
Still has a way to go before it establishes predictive validity across a variety of serial offenses
Rossmo warns that it does not solve crimes but should help in identifying appropriate areas for
surveillance, patrol saturation, stakeouts, and monitoring

Equivocal Death Analysis - The Psychological Autopsy

Equivocal death analysis (reconstructive psychological evaluation) is the reconstruction of the
emotional life, behavioural patterns and cognitive features of a deceased person
It is a post-mortem psychological analysis and sometimes referred to as a psychological autopsy
Done to determine whether the death was a suicide, and if it was a suicide, the reasons why the
person did it.
Psychological autopsy differs from criminal profiling in two important ways
o Profile is constructed on a dead person
o Identity of the person is already known
LaFon notes that there are two basic types of psychological autopsy used in modern practice
o Suicide psychological autopsy (SPA)
Objective is to identify and understand the psychosocial factors that
contributed to the suicide
o Equivocal death psychological autopsy (EDPA)
Purpose is to determine the reasons (i.e suicide or otherwise) for the death
Done for insurance claim purposes
Reliability and validity of psychological autopsy has yet to be demonstrated and remains open to
debate
o Investigators still have a long way to go before standardized methods for
conducting the psychological autopsy are established

Racial Profiling
Racial profiling is defined as police-initiated action that relies on race, ethnicity or national origin
rather than the behaviour of an individual or information that leads the police to a particular
individual who has been identified as being, or having been, engaged in criminal activity
A poll in 1999 revealed that 72% of black men between ages of 18 and 34 who has been
stopped by police believed police stopped them because of their race
A large segment of racial profiling is based on beliefs by law enforcement that many minorities
are involved in drug trafficking or carrying contraband, such as illegal weapons
o However, the available data suggest that this assumption is unjustified
Catastrophic events of Sept 11 have led to new forms of racial profiling, as well as ethnic and
religious profiling
Racial profiling not just in United States but also UK
Empirical research, anecdotal evidence, and survey data confirm the existence of racial and
ethnic profiling as a social problem
o It occur despite the fact that there is no evidence to support a valid profile based
strictly on race or ethnicity
o Such a model would also violate basic civil rights

h
o Family mass murder = when at least three family members are killed (usually by
another family member). Very often, the perpetrator kills himself or herself, an
incident that is classified as a mass murder/suicide
SERIAL MURDERERS
Serial murders seem to be on the increase in the United States and England
o But realistically, there are no accurate data on the prevalence and number of serial
murderers active at any one time in the US or internationally
o Also remains debatable whether serial murders are on the increase or whether the
dramatic improvement in communication and computer networks may account
for the statistical increments in the crime
o Prior to 1970, info exchange between agencies was difficult and primitive by
todays standards and serial murderers who moved from one geographic location
to another probably went undetected
Jenkins noted that victims of serial murders tend to be young women, especially active
prostitutes
Today the primary victims tend to be children of both sexes (Ages 8 to 16)
o In response to increase in child victims, FBI director created a specialized unit to
focus on investigation of child abduction and murder Child Abduction and Serial
Killer Unit
In his study of serial killers in England, Jenkins found that- unlike the typical violent individual
who demonstrates a propensity for violence at an early age serial murderers generally begin
their careers between the ages of 24 and 40
o Media age of arrested serial murderers = 36
o Arrest occurred four years after they began killing
While serial murderers had extensive police records, the records reflected a series of petty theft,
embezzlement, and forgery, rather than a history of violence
o Did not have extensive juvenile records
J concluded that the English cases did not provide any early indicators or predictors of eventual
murderous behaviour
o When British serial murderers committed their first murder, about half were
married, had stable family life, and had usually lived in the same house for many
years
o A maj had stable jobs and a good number had been former police officers or
security guards
Holmes and DeBurger analysed the characteristics of serial killers in the United States
In general, the patterns and characteristics of GB sample correspond closely to the American
o But whilst GB murderers stayed in the same neighbourhood US counterparts
preferred to move around the country, committing murders in a number of states
and jurisdictions

 Also noted that serial murder predominantly involves white males killing females
o But are quite a few exceptions
Victims, in GB and US sample, tended to be strangers or individuals whom the killer met only
briefly before, a pattern that makes it particularly difficult for the law enforcement agencies to
identify the assailant.
Motive for killing is usually aberrant and extremely difficult for those who seek the murderers
arrest to understand
Serial murderers kill about 4 people per year but evidence does not support any notion that
they kill on the basis of some compulsion or irresistible urge rather, the murder appears to be
more a result of opportunity and the random availability of a suitable victim.
It is a mistake, therefore, to assume that serial murderers are seriously mentally disordered
according to the traditional clinical standards
o Some are, but most are not
Although cognitive processing and values may be considered extremely aberrant when it comes
to sensitivity and concern for other human beings, a vast majority of serial killers fail to qualify
as seriously mentally disordered in traditional diagnostic categories
SK have developed versions of the world that facilitate repetitive murder
Esp drawn to murder that attract a media interest, send spine-chilling fear into the community,
and are incomprehensible to the public
Motives of many KSs appear to be based on psychological rewards of control, domination, media
attention, and personal excitement rather than identifiable material gain. Their actions are
predictably planned, organized, and purposeful
Female Serial Killers
Rare but in 1991 there were 34 documented serial murderers, with 82% acting after 1900
Some discernible differences between female and male serial murderers
o Only 1/3 female offenders killed strangers (in contrast to males who almost
exclusively killed strangers)
o Most victims of female SK are husbands, former husbands, or suitors
o Female SK kill primarily for material or monetary gain
o Method of killing is through poisons or overdoses of pills
o Approx half of female SK had male accomplice
o Some women murdered because of involvements in cults or with male serial
murderer
Over past 2 decades, several female health care workers who have killed patients have been
identified, although also males have been identified
o Motivations of female healthcare workers serial killings are variable:
Recognition, revenge, power and control
Some also maintained that they put the patients out of their misery and
these were essentially mercy killings
Victimological Perspective in Understanding Serial Killers
Jenkins argues that current popular image of the serial murderer w white male who kills for

sexual motives may be inaccurate

Argues that lack of victimological perspective encourages confusion and distorted information
Suggests current knowledge about serial murderers is influenced y
o Availability of victims and attitudes of law enforcement agencies towards these
victims
Argues that instead of focusing on individual and personality attributes of the offender, he
believes we should also examine the social opportunity to kill
o What we know about serial murderer may be strongly influenced by the nature and
type of the potential victims
An examination of victim selection of known serial murderers reveals that killers prefer the group
of people offering easy access, transience, and a tendency to disappear without seeming to
cause much alarm or concern
o Prostitutes, streetwalkers, street runaways, young male drifters, and farm workers
Stronger determining factor in victim selection for both groups seems to be easy availability of
potential victims
But although they being their murderous campaigns by selecting highly vulnerable victims, they
may gain more confidence as their killings continue, leading them to abduct more challenging
victims.
o But very few SKs become this successful before they are arrested.
Jenkins also suggests that dramatic increases in serial murder are directly related to dramatic
increases in potential victims, such as severe downturns in the economy or deinstitutionalization
of mental patients that result in putting more vulnerable people on the streets
Geographical Location of Serial Killing
Most serial murderers that have occurred in the US have occurred in the Western states,
esp California reason for this remains a mystery but answer lies in some combination
of lifestyles, economic conditions and the availability of potential victims.
Most SKs have specific preferences for the location of their killings tend to select
victims near their current residence or place of work
o 14% use their homes or workspaces as preferred location
o 52% commit their murders in the same general location or region
o Tendency suggests that geographical profiling may be an invaluable aid in the
identification of serial killers
Perhaps an effective method for reducing serial murder is to identify and protect specific
high-risk groups and regions to take whatever social measures are needed to reduce
their vulnerability
o Focusing on the offender through criminal profiling and other investigative
measures is usually or limited usefulness because most serial killers are
apprehended by a mixture of fortuitous events and careless by the offender
o In meantime, community leaders and authorities should concentrate on reducing
the availability of potential victims
Ethnic and Racial Characteristics
Widespread belief that only whites are serial killers and blacks and other minorities never

commit this type of crime is basically a myth

o 21.8% of serial killers in the United States have been black and 90 black SKs
post-World War II
o Research on Latino and other minority serial killers is virtually non-existent
Number of victims black killers admitted killing does not differ significantly from white
serial killers either
May have assumed that serial killings are perpetrated almost exclusively by whites
because of how serial murder is identified and investigated
o Law enforcement agencies may be less prone to investigate African-American
victims as casualties of serial murderers if they are found in rundown apartment
complex located in a poverty-stricken, crime-infested neighbourhood
o More likely to conclude that the victim is simply another fatality in the long stream
of never-ending violence found in inner cities
Media also tend to cover the sensational serial killings by whites but fail to cover in any
detail those offenses committed by blacks and other minorities
o Also not unusual to see extensive coverage of the disappearance or murder of a
white child and very little attention given to a similar tragedy involving a black
victim.
Juvenile Serial Murderers
Serial murder by children and adolescents is an exceedingly rare phenomenon and scientific
information is extremely sparse
Most serial murders by juveniles are prompted by sexual desires
o Sexual element of the crime may be overt or symbolic
Myers studied 16 juveniles who committed a sexual homicide and noted some common
characteristics
o History of serious school problems
o Maj came from families who were considered dysfunctional and abusive
o Most of the families were evaluated as violent
o Most of the offenders exhibited a history of serious interpersonal violence and
criminal offenses, and displayed the behaviours typical of juvenile psychopaths
Typologies of Serial Murderers
Efforts to classify any offenders into categories, or typologies, must be made with caution
because many individuals do not fit neatly into these divisions
o Typologies based on behaviour are problematic because behaviour is not always
consistent from situation to situation
o But typologies can be useful in organizing an array of behavioural patters that
would otherwise be confusing
Holmes and DeBurger make a gallant attempt to classify serial murderers into a typology based
on motive and have accumulated some research evidence in support. They identify four major
types
o Visionary

 Driven by voices or visions that demand that a particular group be

destroyed
Operates on the basis of a directive from God
This type usually qualifies as psychotic or crazy, which is atypical because
serial killers are not usually mentally disordered
Probably the most difficult to understand for investigators and the public
alike
Crime scene is usually chaotic and has an abundance of physical evidence,
often including fingerprints and the murder weapon
o Mission-orientated
Determines that there is a particular group of people who are undesirable
and who must be destroyed or eliminated
Demonstrates no discernible mental disorder
Sees no visions, hears no voices, and functions on a day-to-day basis
without exhibiting notable psychologically aberrant behaviour
o Hedonistic
Strives for pleasure and thrill seeking and feels that people are objects to
use for ones own enjoyment
Gains considerable pleasure from the event itself
May be divided into three sub-types based on the primary motive for the
murder: thrill, lust or comfort
Lust sexual gratification
Thrill to induce pain or a terrified reaction from the victim. Highly
stimulating and exciting for the killer
Comfort to acquire activities (business or financial interests) or
objects (money or assets) that provide a comfortable and
luxurious lifestyle
o Power/control oriented
Strives to get satisfaction by having complete life-or-death control over the
victim
Sexual components may or may not be present, but the primary motive is
the extreme power and control over the helpless victim
Tend to seek specific victims who appear especially vulnerable and easy to
victimize
Despite extensive media coverage and several books on subject in recent years, very few welldesigned, empirically based studies on serial murderers during the past 10-15 years
o Much of available info is gathered through anecdotal, interview, or case-study
methods, which, while informative and interesting, fail to provide a systematic
and functionally useful data base for predicting and identifying these offenders.
MASS MURDERERS
Surprisingly little research done on MM, esp in comparison to SM
o Maybe because not as intriguing or mysterious as serial murder
MM happens quickly and unpredictably without warning then the killing is usually over

 Often clear who the offender is, and his or her life is usually ended on the spot
Serial murderers, on the other hand, occur over a period of weeks, months, or years

Classic Mass Murder

MMs tend to be frustrated, angry people who feel helpless about their lives
o Between ages 35-45 and are convinced there is little chance that things will get
better for them
o Personal lives have been a failure by their standards, and they have often suffered
a tragic loss
Mass murders usually carefully planned, sometimes over very long periods of time
Targets selected by MMs are either symbolic of their discontent or are likely to contain individuals
they hate or blame for their misfortunes
Often take a very active interest in guns, especially semiautomatics that maximise the number of
deaths in a short period of time
o In large measure, the availability of high-powered semiautomatic or automatic
weaponry accounts for the increasingly large death toll in recent mass murders
MM usually plan to die at the scene, either by committing suicice or by being shot down by law
enforcement
MM often socially isolated and withdrawn people who are without a storng social network of
friends or supports
o Isolation due to combo of active dislike of people interacting with their inadequate
interpersonal and social skills
o Mass murder is their chance to get even, to dominate others, to take control
Remainder of chapter addresses specific offenses that have been or possess the strong
possibility of becoming mass murder
o Product tampering, school violence and workplace do not necessarily result in
death, but when they do the deaths may be multiple
Product Tampering
Is the sabotaging of a commercial product, usually for commercial gain
Becomes product tampering homicide when the sabotaging is so serious that it results in the
death of one or more individuals
Because product is usually used by many persons before the tampering is discovered, crime has
potential of resulting in multiple such deaths
1982+1986 only 12 cases = very rare form of homicide
Offender usually expects financial gain either through litigation on behalf of the victim through
extortion, or through business operations
o Business operation strategy refers to attempts to damage a competing business
by tampering with its products
Most common method = placing cyanide within the product
Fortunately, although there are numerous threats to tamper, very few are actually carried out
News of product tampering sometimes prompts a contagion effect in which many people either
copy or falsely report the offense
o For example, when a baby food company was accused by an individual of having

glass in its baby food, more than 600 complaints of glass particle were
immediately received across the country
Vast maj of complaints were false complaints by consumers seeking
monetary reward by claiming that glass in the products had caused them
some injury
School Violence
Shooting at Columbine High School 1999 2 teenage boys killed 12 students and 1 teacher and
killed themselves after the attack. 20 more students were injured
Although there had been a number of school shootings prior to Columbine, the Columbine
shooting prompted a great deal of alarm and concern nationwide
o In addition, the media and some experts were quick to make gross generalizations
about the school violence program
In 1974 US congress funded a 3yr study to evaluate the nature and extent of crime, violence and
disruption in the nations schools
o Released its findings in 1977 and Safe School Study remains the most
comprehensive study available
2005 National Center for Education Statistics report indicated the following
o Percentage of students who reported being victims of crime at school decreased
from 10% to 6%
Also decrease in victims of theft, and victims of violence
Report also indicates that there was no detectable increase or decrease over time in
o Percentage of students threatened or injured with a weapon
o Percentage of teachers physically threatened or injured with a weapon
o Marijuana use, alcohol use, and drug distribution at school
Students were more likely to be murdered away form school than at school yet stats indicated
that 1/10 students in secondary schools fear that they will be attacked or harmed while at school
School Shootings
Although frightening, statistically they are rare
Between 1992 and 2002 number of homicides of school-aged youth at school declined from 33
to 14
OToole lists the usualy wrong or unverified impressions of school shooters often promoted by
news media. Among these myths are the following
o School violence is an epidemic
o All school shooter are alike
o The school shooter is always a loner
o School shootings are exclusively motivated by revenge
o Easy access to weapons is the most significant factor
o Unusual or aberrant behaviours, interests, or hobbies are hallmarks of the student
destined to become violent
Investigations of school shooters have consistently found that 2 characteristics that emerge are

peer rejection and social rejection

Vast maj of shooters have poor social and coping skills and felt picked on or persecuted
Expressed anger about being teased or ridiculed and vowed revenge against particular
individuals or groups
Lacked social support and prosocial relationships that might have served as protective factors
Cruelty to animals was prominent in backgrounds of at least half of the shooters
Backgrounds also revealed a keen interest in guns and other weaponry, and often had easy
access to firearms
Most expected to be killed or planned suicide during or immediately after the attacks. All the
attacks seemed to be carefully planned and thought out before hand
In virtually all school shootings, investigators discovered that intentions of assailants were
repeatedly made clear to others, particularly peers, often including time and place
o Peers rarely report threats to authorities maybe because of fear
Risk for school violence is high when there are multiple warning signs and risk factors
Schools in which the students find the rules fair and in which discipline is managed consistently
experience less violence and disorder regardless of school and community
o Schools characterized by high teacher morale, focus, strong leadership and high
teacher involvement are protected form school crime and violence
Conclusions: school climate makes a sig diff in reducing overall crime, disorder and violence that
occur within the school building
WORKPLACE VIOLENCE

What is workplace violence?

Workplace aggression = general term encompassing all forms of behaviour by which individuals
attempt to harm others at work or their organizations
o May range from subtle and hidden actions to active confrontation or direct
destruction of property
Workplace violence = refers to incidents in which the offender intends to cause serious physical
or bodily harm to an individual or individuals within an organization or to the organization itself
2004 900 people murdered at work each year = thierd cause of occupational death in the
United States
Although it seems workplace violence is expanding, it must be emphasized that a large maj of
workplace homicides do not involve murder between co-workers or supervisors within an
organization but occur in robberies and related crimes by people outside the organization
o Young convenience store clerks are often the victims of robbery and other forms of
violence while working

Examples of Workplace Violence

Gregorie further outlines four types of offenders who commit violence at the workplace. The four
types of offenders are
o Type I: this offender has no legitimated relationship to the workplace or the victim

and usually enters the workplace to commit a criminal action such as a robbery
or theft.
Common victims of Type I offenders are small, late-night retail
establishments retail establishments, including convenience stores and
restaurants, and taxi drivers
This type of workplace violence also includes terrorist and hate crimes such
as the World Trade Center and Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building
bombings, as well as abortion clinic attacks
Accounts for vast maj of violence and homicides
Offenders are carrying a gun or other weapon
Workers who exchange cash with customers as part of the job, work late
night hours and work alone are at greatest risk
o Type II: This offender is the recipient of some service provided by the victim or
workplace and may be either a current or former client, patient or customer
Usually involves healthcare workers, police officers, counsellors,
schoolteachers, college professors, social workers, and mental health
workers
o Type III: This offender has an employment-related involvement with the
workspace.
The act of violence is usually committed by a current or former employee,
supervisor, or manager who has a dispute with another employee of the
workplace.
This type of workspace offender is usually referred to as the disgruntled
employee and is often someone who has been fired, demoted, or lost
benefits. When death result from the violence, if the victim or victims were
of higher authority homicide
Most sensational and receives a bulk of its coverage
o Type IV: This offender has an indirect involvement with the workplace because of
a relationship with an employee.
Offender may be a current or former spouse or partner, someone who was
in a dating relationship with the employee, or a relative or friend
This type of violence follows the employee into the workplace from outside
Represents a spillover of domestic violence or intimate partner violence into
the workplace, and usually women are the victims
Who Commits Workplace Violence?
According to the FBI, workplace homicide offender whose motivation is not robbery is often a
disgruntled employee who believes the job is (or was) his life, is a loner, has few friends and
lacks a support system
Target of attack may be a person or persons (usually innocent) working within a building or
structure or for an organization that symbolizes authority
Should be emphasized that there is no precise profile or litmus test that will provide clear signs
that an employee will become violent
o It is instead important for employees and employers to remain alert to unstable or

problematic behaviour, that in combo with threatening behaviour could result in

violence
Vast maj of type III victims are killed by disgruntled employees who were fired or felt mistreated
by the company or agency
o Seems that a particular autocratic work environment, such as found in large,
impersonal bureaucratic organizations, can be a problem
o But no workplace is immune
Similar to mass murderers in general, offenders who commit authority homicide where a figure
in authority is killed, such as a supervisor tend to be white males who have few social
supports, are socially isolated and who blame others for their problems and misfortunes
o Often seriously depressed
o Often offender expects to die at the scene at own hands or by police
o Tend to be preoccupied with weapons of maximum lethality
o Most of the time the offender is middle-aged (over 30 + under 60)
o Also evidence that workplace offenders tend to have a history of violent behaviour,
alcohol or drug abuse, and will vocalize, or otherwise act out, their violent
intentions prior to authority homicide

Trafficking: Aronowitz, A.A., Smuggling and Trafficking in Human Beings: The Phenomenon,
The Markets That Drive It and the Organizations That Promote It, European Journal on
Criminal Policy and Research , Volume 9, No.2, Summer 2001; 163-195; available as a pdf file
on the workspace.
SMUGGLING AND TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS: THE
PHENOMENON, THE MARKETS THAT DRIVE IT AND THE
ORGANISATIONS THAT PROMOTE IT *

Smuggled and trafficked leave country willingly. Destination: alien. Risk exploited.
Organized: structured group 3 or more, aiming to commit serious crimes/offences > obtain
financial/material benefit
Smuggling of migrants: financial benefit with the illegal entry into country where the person is
not resident
Trafficking: recruitment transportation etc. of persons, by means of threat/force/coercing,
abduction, fraud, deception abuse of power or bribing to achieve consent to have control over
another person, purpose of exploitation
Exploitation: prostitution of others/sexual exploitation, forced labour, slavery, removal of organs
Difference smuggling and trafficking:
Smuggle: voluntarily. Trafficked: exploited. Interdependence between trafficked and organised
crime. Trafficked: eligible for further recruitment.
Definition of deception and coercion difficult.
Degrees of victimisation:
1, complete coercion: abduction.
2. Deception: promised jobs, forced sexual slavery.
3. Half-truths
4. Aware of their work, but not extent to which they would be controlled

Destination and transit countries

Link sending and receiving countries: knowledge of weakness of borers. Tolerance of sex
industry, historical links, existence of large immigrant population
Smuggled: pay beforehand, trafficking: pay part and create debt bondage. Smuggled to
trafficked

Background: most disadvantaged. Women and children. Fleeing warzones > after choosing
smuggling, illicit channels use > dependence
Sexual / forced labour: influenced by stigma of trade, the visibility of victim, and length of time
before discovered
Sexual: more stigma, illegal status of work, difficult to reintegrate. Interaction clients> more likely
to seek help. Often rotated because of this.
Labour: more isolated, survive longer periods.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Magnitude: 700000-2 million trafficked. (Not internal) more smuggling (60-70%).

5 factors that point toward increase and expansion:
Number of willing targets (poverty, lack of opportunities_
Border controls
Internationalisation of world economy
Advanced communication
Growing involvement of organised crimes > specialised branch

Causes:
Push and pull. Pull of promises of better future. Push: economic crises. Regional conflicts;
political and religious persecution.
Government corruption
Countrys infant mortality rate (population pressure)
Proportion of population below 14
Food production index
Population index
Social unrest
Conflict
Pull:
Permeability of borders
Male population over 60
Governmental corruption
Food production
Energy consumption
Infant mortality
Market:
Higher demand for migrant labour + stricter control borders > diminishing legal channels. >
Potential for profit: documents, transportation, crossings, accommodation and job brokering.
Smuggling: Short-term monetary profit, trafficking long term. Illicit market, supply and demand.
Markets profiting:
Who profit:

 Legal market economies (restaurants, farms etc.)

Legal domestic service economy
Criminal economies of sex industry
Forced labour shit conditions. Europe: building/textile. Legal profits from cheap labour, illegal
exploitation. Employers domestic profit (mistreated) sex industry:
Small scale activities (individual entrepreneurs)
Second level: controlled by operations which imported them
Third: large-scale international criminal organisations that are linked with domestic criminal
organisations (no documentation, tight control). Traffickers as well as owners profit.

Organisation
Degree can vary (individual to networks) process, depending on the complexity of the operation.

Most are horizontal (no knowledge of each other) but management is vertical. Different
functions:
Investors: funding operation, overseeing
Recruiters: seek out potential migrants, secure their financial commitment. May be members of
community
Transporters: assist leaving
Corrupt people: obtaining travel documents, accept bribes
Informers: how does the border work etc.
Guides/crew members: moving illegal migrants from one point to the other/help to enter
destination country
Enforcers: policing staff/migrants, maintaining order
Debt-collects: destination country to collect fees
Money-launderers: launder the profit of crime
Supporting personnel/specialists: local people
How do we know organized? Different nationalities in the same transport, large numbers, large
money, legal assistance always available.
Organised crime more decentralized and flexible: can be quickly reorganised according to
threats law enforcement, demands or competitors. Sub units: rapidly adjust. Instead of vertical,
more horizontal sub units > agree on how to work together.
Sex workers used to be only import, now they control the entire market.
Control: excessive violence. Seizing documents, confinement, threats with deportation.
Monitoring whereabouts, threat of violence against victim and family, actual violence (tattooing,
burning, assault and rape) not in all cases violence is used
Link: coerce into selling drugs, begging and pick pocketing. Horizontal interdependencies:
connection among different activities by the same organisation, diversification.

Different projects around the world (Asia pacific, west Africa, eastern Europe and south
America) search the modus operandi, routs and degree of organisation. Collect quantitative
data.
Three questionnaires: NGOs. Victims, government law enforcement
Projects
Philippines
Provides second largest population of overseas workers. Domestic labour and marriage. Extralegal smuggling (joining family members) trafficking does not get enough attention. Japanese
organized crime. Measures to protect citizens: mandatory pretravel counselling and background
checks on spouses. If you want to entertain: audition
West Africa. Children for labour. Internal trafficking, but also trans-border. Domestic servants
(female), farms (male). History of West Africa: lots of migration, children work from early age.
Life and education is responsibility of extended family (grow up in family of relatives/third
persons). Voluntary placement > trafficking > poverty (want better life for children)
Forms: sold for money; placed at creditor for reimbursement; promised job but exploited; child
given to other with promise for good future > receives neither. Some children are lured with
promises of bikes, but most cant make a rational decision. Nigeria as well destination (for
children) also source for sex workers. Use juju to ensure success, prevent from speaking out
and protect traffickers. (Togo and Benin to Nigeria)
Conditions facilitating smuggling and trafficking:
Lack of legislation: no definition, no sentence to punish. Most have legislation prohibiting
activities included in the trafficking process
Lack of political will and corruption
Lack of capacity
Lack of cooperation internally and internationally
Strategies to prevent and fight smuggling and trafficking. Three components
Prevention; awareness and sensitisation. Target persons at risk. Sensitisation: inform local
population of plight of victims. Economy: more opportunities in land of origin. Intervention (help
recognise)
Protection and assistance to victims: financial legal assistance, support and protection for family
back home. If they want to go home, cooperation between destination and source is necessary.
Reintegration assistance should be provided. Legislation should protect victim. Strengthen
NGOs (front line work with victims). Strengthen bond police NGOs.
Until victim can be guaranteed safe in destination country/country of origin, should have right to
remain safely in destination country
Legislation: prohibiting smuggling and trafficking + enforcement. Reduce corruption. More
research on modus operandi of criminals/organisations and the relationship the victim has to

their trafficker. Technological advances. Awareness rising among law enforcement is essential.
Work with NGOs.
Not only reactive, but also disruptive. Improvement of data collection and info sharing at national
and international level. Also awareness at consular/embassy so they cant use false documents.
Penalties for smuggling must be strengthened.
International cooperation
No cooperating: ineffective. Stringent measures only displace. International cooperation should
include, but not limited to: exchange of information, coordination and harmonisation of national
policies and law, bilateral/multilateral agreements victim protection, repatriation and
reintegration assistance, extradition of criminals.
Conclusions
Smuggling and trafficking of humans seems to be a growing phenomenon. Generates more
profit than drugs + lower penalties. Push: economy, ethnic wars, little perspective. Pull: safety
and economic security. Countries of origin begin to become countries of destination. Illegal
market. Strong link between smuggled and trafficked persons and criminal activities and illicit
markets and organised criminal activities.

Trafficking: Aronowitz, A.A., Analyzing the Business Model of Trafficking in Human Beings to

Better Prevent the Crime, Organization for Cooperation and Security in Europe (OSCE), Vienna,
2010); pp. 17-36 (Chapters 2 and 3); http://www.osce.org/cthb/69028?download=true. Mayra
ANALYZING THE BUSINESS MODEL OF TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS TO BETTER
PREVENT THE CRIME.
ARONOWITZ, A. A. (2010)
Summary by Mayra Ramdihal
CHAPTER 2 Understanding the Phenomena of Human Trafficking
Definition of Human Trafficking (3 elements)
By Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)
1) Act: recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons;
2) Means: threat of or actual use of force or other forms of coercion, abduction, fraud,
deception, abuse of power and payments;
3) Exploitative Purpose: exploitation of prostitution or other forms of sexual exploitation,
forced labour, slavery or the obtaining of illegal organs
-> different from smuggling of migrants, for smuggling does not involve exploitation
Analysis of Human Trafficking (a process!)
Criminal script of HT
Stage 1: deception/abduction/recruitment
Stage 2: transportation/entering other countries
Stage 3: exploitation/coercion into sexual or labour servitude, organ removal, begging
activities or other crimes
Stage 4: victim disposal
(Stage 5: laundering of criminal proceeds and (re)investment)
-> both the State and the individual become a victim of HT
-> very important: diagram 1!!! (see below)
Actors in Human Trafficking
Individual Traffickers
- limited data available on individual traffickers
- through using Hares Psychopathy Checklist Revised, 1/3 of individual traffickers are found to
have psychotic tendencies
- individual traffickers are perceived as rational actors, trafficking (violence) as instrumental
violence
Trafficking Organizations
- trafficking organizations know a division of labour/different roles within the organizations: m

anagement unit, specialized subunits, and individual roles (having multiple roles as an individual
is possible)
- operations are organized in and through different levels
* soloist/individual traffickers/amateurs: highly specialized level, not flexible, cover a
small region
* loose networks of organized criminals: moderately specialized level, moderately
flexible, cover a medium region
* highly structured international trafficking networks: not specialized level, very flexible,
cover a large region
Trafficking as a Market
Demand side of trafficking for sexual exploitation are:
1) Men buying sex acts
2) Exploiters that are the sex industry
3) Destination countries, with certain laws and policies allowing for HT
4) Condoning or promoting cultures
-> a steady supply can (also) generate demand
Markets for exploitation:
1) High developed/high GDP states or areas: prostitution, domestic servitude, tourism and
travel business, food processing, organized begging, building constructions.
2) Less developed/low GDP states or areas: agriculture, factory labour, sweathouse work,
brick making, local markets.

-> determining and influential factors: degree of globalization, rate of youth and female
unemployment, presence of organized crime
Trafficking as a Business
- HT is a rational crime: Rational Choice Theory, for purpose is to increase profits
- HT is to be perceived as an illegal economic activity with normal rational people
- HT = interaction of opportunities x profits x risks
- HTs profit is provided by underground economy
Overlap between Upper- and Underworld Activities
Overlap spans from the completely illegal sphere to the practically legal sphere.
1) diffuse distinction between legal and illegal actors
2) symbiotic relationship between legal & illegal economies and networks
a. grey and illicit economies, clandestine networks
b. industries contribute to HT knowingly, but also unknowingly
i.
distinction between individuals/businesses
providing for trafficking industry (illegal activities) and individuals within
government organizations providing for trafficking industry (official
corruption)
3) relationship between upper- and underworld individual
a. is the individual working for or working with someone?
Trafficking and Other Crimes
HT industry known for horizontal dependencies
Crimes involved with HT:
- migrant smuggling
- document fraud and forgery
- vehicle theft
- drug trafficking
- arms trafficking
- trafficking for terrorist acts
- child soldiers
- stealing
- begging
- pickpocketing
- physical violence

CHAPTER 3 Theoretical Framework of Human Trafficking

Individual Level
- Rational Choice Theory
- Neutralization Theory
Organizational Level: Business Models & Market Selection

- Routine Activities Theory

- Market Variables (demand, supply, regulators, competition)
- Process Analysis
* supply chain: supplier -> assembly/manufacturing -> retailer/service provider ->
customer (diagram 2)
- Business Components (wholesaler=trafficker, retailer=exploiter, product=victim,
customer=consumer)
- Strategy Analysis: Feasibility & Sensitivity (knowledge, organizational design, finances, fixed
assets)

Sorry guys, I didnt go too much into the theoretical framework, mostly because the
criminological framework is pretty familiar and because the economic framework has been
explained in chapter 2.
GOOD LUCK!

Psychological and environmental factors associates with partner violence - Foa,

Cascardi, Zoellner & Feeny (Liselotte)
Purpose of the article: to review the available theoretical and empirical knowledge of
psychological and environmental factors that are associated with womens ability to influence
partners violence. The authors generated two conceptual models, psychological and
environmental, in order to provide a conceptual framework that will help guide future empirical
investigations and guide the development of multimodal, context-sensitive interventions to
promote womens personal safety.
Scope of the problem:
As much as 30% of marriages = aggressive
Men and women are victims, but women more likely to suffer medically, physically and
psychologically.
Battered women as active change agents:
Many legal sanctions and social interventions to assist battered women portray them as active
agents in curbing and stopping the violence
However, womens first attempts at freeing themselves of partner violence are often
unsuccessful (stalking, threats, physical assault after trying leave).
Theories in understanding the psychological and environmental factors that play a role in the
continuation of abusive relationships:
o Attachment theory
o Learned helplessness
o Survivor theory
o Social exchange theories
o Stockholm Hostage Syndrome
o Investment models

Literature Review
Cessation of Partner Violence
Types of studies retrospective and longitudinal
Some suggest linear increases of severity over time, others increases in severity during the initial
years of marriage followed by stabilization
Prospective studies more complex pattern of violence
Cessation of violence least likely to occur in severely aggressive men
Even when physical violence decreases, emotional abuse may persist
Psychological correlations of partner violence: difficulties and resilience

Relatively new approach

Longitudinal studies have carefully initiated the exploration of the psychological difficulties
Effects are complex: PTSD, substance abuse, anxiety & depression
Not all battered women suffer from psychological difficulties
Factors thought to mitigate the bad effects of partner violence:
o Self-esteem, self efficacy and general quality of lifeww
o Resilience and strength
Psychological and environmental models of partner violence: a summary of viewpoints
Resources available (employment away from the home, advocacy services) to the battered
woman directly decrease general distress and/or bolster the ability to cope with partner abuse
situational factors
Psychological factors serve to maintain the abusive relationship.
Integration of different perspectives want an ecological approach that accounts for the direct
and indirect influence of social and psychological factors on partner violence a battered
womans response to abuse must be considered in a broad social, political, economic and
cultural context.
Dutton model that focuses on the complex interaction of economic and tangible resources,
personal history, personal networks, linkages between personal networks, the larger community
and the societal and cultural ethos
Model in this article based on thee integrative models, as well as empirical research to
construct two complementary models that will examine the separate effects of psychological
and environmental factors.
Previous research often very hard to compare or find substantial patterns due to small sample
sizes, different factors being investigated etc. etc.
Toward predictive models of womens influence on partner violence
Unique contribution of the proposed models
Further our understanding of factors influencing partner violence
Complex constructs, encompassing several variables psychological difficulties, resilience and
partner violence
Integration of available theoretical concepts and empirical data to examine the relationship of
selected psychological and environmental factors to partner violence, psychological difficulties
and resilience
Separation of the psychological and environmental factors will help identify the contributions of
each and discern the strongest elements.
Suppositions guiding the proposed models and limitations
Presumption that partner violence result in a variety of psychological difficulties & that resilience
is a stable characteristic
Hypotheses:
o A variety of relationships among psychological and environmental correlates of the
key factors (psychological difficulties, resilience and partner violence)
o In the long run some factors will be helpful to women in their attempts to curtail
violence, whereas others will be harmful

The relationship between psychological difficulties and resilience

Hypothesis: partner violence and psychological difficulties interact in a vicious cycle, wherby
partner violence produces psychological difficulties that impede the victims ability to curtail
future violence
Proposal: intra-personal resources temper the negative psychological impact of partner violence
and indirectly enhance the victims ability to curtail future violence
Construct of partner violence:
o Adding information about the context and impact of partner violence will result in a
more complete and gender-sensitive representation
o Partner violence = an attempt to achieve control via acts of aggression
o Construct of partner violence that includes physical assault, emotional abuse,
perceived threat and psychological reactions to the abuse
o Emotional and physical abuse related most batterers abuse their partners
emotionally, severity of battering is highly correlated with severity of emotional
abuse, and verbal aggression predicts future physical aggression
o Even when physical aggression decreases, emotional abuse often continues
Perceived threat:
o Battering relationships fear provoking and unpredictable
o Perception of threat in the relationship is likely to be a reflection of fear of her
partner.
o Includes fear for her own, her childrens and familys safety.
o Often related to bodily harm
o May influence decision of staying in the relationship as leaving is perceived to
increase the risk of harm
Psychological reactions
o The perceptions of battered women should be measured separately from the
actual abuse
o Focus on womens continuous perception of susceptibility to physical and
psychological danger, loss of power and loss of control
Psychological difficulties
o Battered womens syndrome complex pattern of ptsd-like symptoms
o This article looks at PTSD, general anxiety, depression and substance abuse. All
of which are recurrent in the literature and have a strong empirical background
Resilience
o Battered women as active help seekers
o Wide range of strategies to escape, avoid and protect themselves acts as a
buffer against the effects of repeated abuse resilience
o No clear guidance on how to operationalize resilience but optimism, self-esteem,
flexibility and physical health may indicate
o Cognitive flexibility
o All related to physical health
Hypothesized Psychological Model

 In addition to degree of victimization, psychological difficulties will be exacerbated by two factors:

prior trauma history (such as childhood abuse) and negative cognitive schemas (anger, guilt,
maladaptive coping and dissociative symptoms).
Resilience will be increased by one factor positive cognitive schemas (balanced perception of
the world, positive coping/problem solving and perceived control)
Perception of relationship with partner (dependency, expectancy to change, traditional
relationship beliefs, investment, and attributions about violence) will be positively relate to
partner violence
Variables that represent these constructs influence partner violence both directly and via their
effects on psychological difficulties and resilience factors.

Hypothesised environmental model

Model based on the commonly held hypotheses that environmental factors facilitate reduction in
partner violence.
Tangible (income, childcare, housing), interpersonal (network size, frequency and quality of
contact with family, friends and neighbours), legal (barriers to legal support, frequency of use,
perceived effectiveness and advocacy of legal interventions) and institutional resources
(barriers, frequency of use, perceived effectiveness and satisfaction with institutional
interventions) have direct negative relationships to partner violence,
Contact with abusive partner (relationship status, frequency of partner contact by choice,
frequency of imposed partner contact and stalking) has a direct positive relationship to partner
violence
Interpersonal and institutional resources will have direct effects on psychological difficulties and
that legal resources will influence resilience
Basically: environmental model that includes five constructs: contact with partner, tangible
resources, interpersonal resources, legal resources and institutional resources.
Conclusions
Conceptual framework proposed includes complementary psychological and environmental
predictive models that together embed partner violence in a broad psychosocial context
Identification of factors involved in the cessation of partner violence is critical for the success of
our society in curtailing such violence
Useful on several levels of intervention:
o Inform policy makers on what changes should be instituted
o Assist in the development of psychological interventions that will increase
womens ability to become an effective agent in their attempts to lead violence
free lives
The examination of both psychological and environmental factors within comprehensive models
affords a more thorough understanding of how battered women can influence the course of
partner violence

Spousal Homicide Syndrome: A Summary

Spousal homicide
o
Represents 15% of all homicides in the U.S per year.
o
occurs as an end point in an intense yet ambivalent relationship relationship
is cyclical with periods of conflict which lead to short separations which lead to
reconciliation or new conflicts
o
Is a classic illustration of victim precipitated homicide.
The Study Population: {all evaluated by the Forensic Psychiatry Clinic}
o
persons involved in judicial proceedings
o
defendants referred for evaluation
o
since 1972, clinic has evaluated 17 people charged with killing or wounding a
spouse
13 were referred by attorneys
11 of the cases were not as a result of a serious psychiatric
disorder/pathology. They can only be understood in the dynamics of the
victim-offender relationship.
Offender Demographic:
o
Offenders were male. (of the 17, only 2 were female)
o
Mean age was 38; 3 clients were younger than 35
o
Ethnic makeup was half white, half black
o
Offenders were less educated and less financially well-off than their
counterparts 2 attended college; 6 did not graduate high school.
o
6 offenders actually killed their spouses; 3 critically wounded but did not kill
Case Histories
o
Jerry Thompson
Mother died at 5 traumatic for him
6 siblings
Sent to live with relatives after death of mother
Physically abusive father; remarried after death of wife. Insisted the
children be returned to him
Step mother was mean and uncaring
Both step mother and father drank regularly on the weekends; either
ignored the children or beat them
Children gave father an ultimatum, us or her, he chose her
One of his brothers attempted suicide
th

Jerry quit school in 8 grade; tried to join the marines but was dismissed
due to poor eye sight; works as a warehouse clerk since
Married wife(Nancy) after he found out she was pregnant
After birth of daughter, Nancy always made plans to leave; she left 3 times
she talked a lot about past relationships
she assaulted him physically and jerry claimed he only defended himself
and never hit her

Nancys family always interfered with the marriage; this was worsened
after Nancys father had a heart attack and Jerry along with wife and child
moved into Nancys family home to help. Jerry felt excluded from them.
Nancys verbal and physical assaults escalated after this and the family
condoned it
Jerry suffered headaches and nausea brought on by emotional distress; he
contemplated suicide and loaded a rifle for the purpose.
Following a minor accident where Jerry blew up the stove and his daughter
was superficially wounded, Nancy threatened to take the child away from
him. The threat made him very upset.
An hour after the accident, the sheriff arrived to serve him with divorce
papers and insist that he leave the premises.
The sheriff left and Jerry went down to the basement to collect his clothing;
he noticed the loaded rifle, pointed and shot his wife and claimed he was
in a daze throughout the incident.
He presented as: immature, latently angry, overly dependent and very
sensitive to the possibility of rejection by others
His homicidal behaviour: came from stress, tension and anxiety from his
unsatisfactory relationship.
Craig Simpson
59 years old and convicted of the murder of his mistress, Linda. He had
been married at the time to Marjorie, who died a few weeks after the
murder, for 35 years
His life was pleasant till he was 12 when his family of 8 children split due to
economic pressures and alcohol consumption
No contact with any of his family members for years afterward
Marjorie underwent heart surgery and couldnt engage in any strenuous
physical activity.
3 weeks after surgery, Craig met Linda who had just been separated from
her husband.
The 5 daughters from Craigs marriage did not approve of his relationship
with Linda
Craig was involved in an altercation with 2 of his sons-in-law and suffered
a concussion which he claimed made him frequently dizzy.
He had 2 interviews with the clinic; the first claiming that he was innocent
of the murder and the second finally admitting to probably shooting Linda.
He claimed that he saw a man leaving her building and confronted her
about it however, since she said she wasnt going to get mixed up with
the man the discussion was over
The next day when they met in a church parking lot, he got into her car to
talk with her but he did not remember arguing with her.
He remembered her asking if anything was wrong and he told her he
hadnt felt this way before.
He remembered leaning over and kissing her and his hand making a click

motion but not shooting her.

He presented as: having dependency needs, fearing separation from
important figures in his life.
The clinic claimed that he would commit suicide if his dependence was left
untreated.
Spousal Homicide Syndrome
o
The offender: History and Personality
9 of 11 cases had a history of parental rejection (ranging from emotional to
physical rejection)

7 cases had actual physical rejection

3 of the 7 were able to reflect on their childhoods with insight.

They all had a serious conflict with their parents.

The clients viewed themselves as unhappy and unfulfilled

children. With bleak and uncomfortable childhoods.
2 of the 11 cases had direct physical abuse; in most cases, abuse was
psychological
There was a strong evidence of passivity in each of the cases along with
infantile or childish emotionality
There was no history of assaultive or socially disturbing behaviour
In only 2 cases, there was contact with a mental health institution and the
intervention was brought about by spousal conflict in both
Men had poor self-image
In the cases, the men identified the relationships as being the first or only
close relationship they ever had (or were able to develop)
o
The Offender-Victim Relationship
Strong emotional bond between offender and victim; offender was mostly
dependent on victim and passive through the relationship
It was an important relationship for the 11 men because it was their first
successful one with a woman
9 of the cases, the offender was disturbed by the close relationship
between the victim and her family
In all 11 cases, the victim was engaged in an affair with another man or led
the offender to believe she was unfaithful
In 8 of the 11 cases, the victim separated from her husband
In 10 of the 11 cases, the man had threatened the wife with assault before
the homicide
Threats between husband and wife escalated just prior to the homicidal
act.
o
The Offense
In 10 of the clinic cases, the threat of withdrawal was serious enough to be
seen as a final separation
In 10 of the 11 cases, there was no conscious planning or premeditation
before the act
10 of 11 cases involved a gunshot wound; the last case was multiple stab

wounds
3 of the 11 cases involved chemically altered states of consciousness
9 of the 11 cases, there was a claim of loss of memory
In 4 of the 11 cases, the offender attempted suicide after the homicide
In 4 of the cases, the offender tried to elude the authorities
o
Offenders Reaction to Offense
In all 11 cases, there was clear guilt and remorse
There was loneliness and abandonment
All of the offenders were seriously depressed following the occurrence
significant weight loss, insomnia and social withdrawal.
Discussion: A Clinical Interpretation of the Spousal Homicide Syndrome
o
The clinical discussions suggest a form of pathological mental functioning.
Each of the men suffered a defect in ego development
o
o
Dissociation: An unlikely Explanation
Dissociation is a psychophysiological process whereby information is
actively deflected from integration with its usual expected association
The dissociative state is a type of hysterical neurosis
Dissociation occurs to protect the ego against material that is dangerous
on a conscious or unconscious level.
Diagnosis of dissociative state was excluded by the authors from the cases
of spousal homicide because:

There was no history of underlying hysterical neurosis in any of

the cases

The disturbance of consciousness at the time of the act did not

indicate a true, complete amnesia extending over a discrete
period

The mental mechanisms in all cases functioned to release

aggression rather than to control or inhibit aggressive impulse
discharge

I dont think that the stuff after the discussion section and stuff below is important because we
didnt discuss it in class however if you want it send me an email.
-Ata

Stalking: Knowns and Unknowns

A study by L.P. Sheridan, E. Blaauw and G.M. Davies
-

Study that reviews the most important literature on the nature of stalking
Sufficient research now exists to provide a basis for understanding the nature of
stalking

The nature of stalking

Stalking first outlawed in 1990 so a relatively new crime. A chronic rather than acute
issue.
Victims are targeted for a period of months or years and subject to a variety of
intrusive, distressing and sometimes life-threatening experiences
Much debate on definition. In US = an intentional pattern of repeated or unwanted
pursuit that a reasonable person would consider threatening or fear inducing.
Examples of stalking behaviour: loitering outside the persons place of residence or
another place frequented by the person, entering or interfering with their property, giving
offensive material to the person, keeping the person under surveillance, acting in such a
way that arouses fear in victim.
Anti-stalking laws differ with what behaviors comprise stalking and with regard to the
minimum number of occasions required before a persons conduct is considered to
constitute stalking. Laws also differ on the issue of stalker intent (eg. No intent required
vs the intent to place the target in reasonable fear for his or her safety).
Some argue it is best to exclude specific behaviours and adhere to the requirement
that is stated in the England and Wales Protection from Harassment Act 1997 and label
a case as stalking where a reasonable person in possession of the same information
would think the course of conduct amounted to stalking of the other.
Different definitions of criminal stalking clearly also lead to differing perceptions of
what it constitutes
Other terms are obsessional following, obsessional harassment, obsessive
relational intrusion
Stalking is an extraordinary crime because it may often consist of no more than the
targeted repetition of an ostensibly ordinary or routine behavior. It does not apply to a
distinct single action but rather it embraces a multitude of activities
Stalkers can harass victims using illegal actions, such as breaking and entering or
committing acts of violence, but many stalkers do not overtly threaten, instead they use
behavior that is routine and harmless (eg. Standing near somebody in a public place or
frequently walking past his/her house)
Stalkers on the whole all engage in very similar patterns of activities.
Stalking is a long-term problem. Stalkers all employ multiple stalking tactics (calling,
loitering, personal appearances)

Prevalence of stalking
-

Findings demonstrate that women are victimized significantly more frequently than
are men and that certain community groups have a higher likelihood of victimization than
other groups.
Many people in their lives become the victim of stalking behaviours but an actual
prevalence rate remains unknown because of the differences in what constitutes
stalking.
False reports of stalking appear to occur reasonably often.

Impact on victims
-

Economic impact: stalking victims have reported suffering financial losses due to a
decrease of work hours or cessation of work or school attendance, spending money on
increasing security at home and at work, replacing broken/stolen property.
Social consequences: acquiring unlisted telephone numbers, avoiding social
activities, relocating residence.
Psychological impact: increased distrust, paranoia, confusion, fear (more common
among female victims than males), nervousness, anger and aggression, depression,
chronic sleep disturbance, excessive tiredness or weakness, appetite disturbance,
headaches, nausea. Victims can suffer from symptoms associated with PTSD, traumata
and symptoms that indicate the presence of a diagnosable psychiatric disorder.
Stalking has varying levels of severity and also suggests that some symptoms in
victims may be the result of stalking compounding on already existing vulnerability.

Characteristics of victims
-

Stalking affects a large variety of people most victims are female, as young as two
and as old as 82 years. Largest group of victims usually between 18 and 30 years.
Victims are found across the socioeconomic continuum, but are more often highly
educated and in high-level professions (highly visible jobs). High-risk for those who are
single and live alone. Other high-risk groups are: homosexual men, those with a history
of childhood sex abuse or sexual assault by a relative, students and people working in
public services, politics or mass media
Many victims have children with their stalker and the ending of their prior relationship
with the stalker causes the onset of stalking in many cases.
Anyone may become a victim of stalking.

Characteristics of stalkers
-

Most recorded stalkers are male, older than other criminals (mean ages of 35 and
40).
Failed relationships are a common. Many stalkers are former partners of their
victims.
Some stalkers have a DSM-IV Axis I diagnosis (delusional disorder, personality
disorder), others are psychotic or have a comorbid substance-related disorder.
Study showed 50% of stalkers had a criminal record.
Unemployed, single or divorced, high school or college education, no significant
ethnic or racial group
Stalkers do not necessarily operate in isolation
The majority of stalkers share certain characteristics but many outliers exist meaning

its not possible to readily identify a stalking offender.

Stalker classification
-

The majority of classification systems distinguish between subtypes on the basis of

particular characteristics of stalkers and their victims.
Distinction between those who target celebrities and other public figures and normal
persons.
Distinctions based solely on their mental states
Distinction of stalkers based on the nature of the victim (celebrity, lust, hit, love
scorned, political and domestic).
Current overview of stalker and victim typologies is non-exhaustive
Important role of ex-partner stalkers largest category of stalkers (up to 50%). They
are more likely to act our violently, to be diagnosed with substance abuse and antisocial
and narcissistic personality disorder.
Non-intimate more like to be diagnosed with schizoid personality disorder

Preventing and ending stalking

-

Very little is know about how stalking can be prevented. Stalking typically ends
because the victim moved away, the stalker entered a new relationship, or because the
police warned or arrested the stalker.
Victim safety planning should focus on victims resilience, encourage victims to take
appropriate measures and to inform their social network
In terms of stalker treatment, the high prevalence of personality disorders does not
offer much hope to victims; as such disorders tend to be resistant to treatment. Further
research is needed to clarify which treatments are most appropriate for different stalker
subtypes.

KEY POINTS
Sufficient research now exists to provide a basis for understanding the nature of
stalking.
Although no satisfactory definition of stalking exists, researchers and practitioners are
referring to the same phenomenon and there exists a shared literature.
Stalking is a chronic problem in which multiple stalking tactics are employed by the
stalker, but certain types of conduct tend to occur uniformly.
Lifetime prevalence rates of stalking appear to be 12%-16% among women and 4%7% among men, but these rates are dependent on the population of interest and the
definition employed and are also obscured by false victimization reports.
Stalking victims have severe economical, psycho- logical, and social problems, some
of which may be the result of stalking compounding on existing vulnerability.

 Anyone may become the victim of a stalker, but people in highly visible jobs,
vulnerable people, and people who have a high likelihood of engag- ing in contacts with
single people appear to be at higher risk.
Many different stalker categorizations exist. Ex- partner stalkers represent a large
subcategory of stalkers. Because their tactics, mental health, and risk of violence appear
to differ from those of other stalker subtypes, further research is indi- cated on the
evolution of stalking behaviors and tailored intervention strategies for different stalker
categories.
Relatively little is known about how to stop stalkers, but strategies may be victim
directed, stalker directed, and stalking directed.