Professional Documents
Culture Documents
NAOMIT ABEND
2014
This work was carried out under the supervision of Dr. Sophie Walsh
Department of Criminology, Bar-Ilan University
Acknowledgments
Firstly I would like to thank Dr. Sophie Walsh, whose constant support, encouragement and
wisdom has kept me going through the entire journey that writing this thesis has involved.
Her patience, and persistence was continuous and her guidance and direction unfailing. In
particular, I want to thank her for believing in me and not letting me give up.
Id like to thank all the participants for taking the time out of their busy schedules to fill out
the questionnaires.
And finally to Rany, for his never ending patience, encouragement, knowledge and love.
Contents Page:
Content
Page
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Background
2.4 The Relationship between Self Esteem, Depression and Cognitive Functioning 9
2.5 The Relationship Between Self Esteem, Depression and Social Relationships
12
2.6 The Relationship between Acculturation Stress and Cognitive and Social
Functioning
2.7 Immigration from English Speaking Countries
14
16
3. Research Aims
17
3.1 Hypotheses
18
4. Method
19
4.1 Participants
19
4.2 Measures
20
4.3 Procedure
26
5. Results
27
27
27
29
30
31
31
5.7 Acculturation
32
33
34
5.10
35
5.11
36
6. Discussion
38
7. References
52
8. Appendix
62
63
66
68
71
77
81
Hebrew Abstract
Models
Page
19
Model 2: Relationship between self esteem (x-axis) and scores on the Wechsler Symbol
Search test (y-axis).
28
Tables
Table 1: Average Age of Participants
20
20
Table 3: Correlation between Self Esteem, Depression and Wechsler Symbol Search
Test for all Three Groups Together
28
Table 4: Correlation between Self Esteem and Wechsler Maths for Group 2 Participants
29
Table 5: Correlation between Self Esteem and Depression and Social Functioning for all
Three Groups
29
Table 6: Correlation between Damage to Self and Intelligence Tests for Groups 1 and 2
31
Table 7: Correlation between Damage to Self and Social Functioning for Groups 1 and 2 32
Table 8: Correlation between Acculturation and Self Esteem and Depression for Groups 1
and 2
33
Table 9: Correlation between Acculturation and Social Functioning for Groups 1 and 2
34
Table 10: Correlation between Acculturation and Intelligence Tests for Groups 1 and 2
35
Table 11: Linear regressions using acculturation, damage to self and self esteem to predict
results on Raven 20 test.
37
Table 12: Linear regressions using acculturation, damage to self and self esteem to predict
results on Wechsler Symbol Search test
38
Abstract
Thousands of new immigrants migrate to Israel from all over the world, including
from a variety of English speaking countries. As a result of a sudden change of environment,
immigrants undergo a culture shock which can result in a variety of psychological
manifestations. Indeed, in the initial phase following migration, an immigrant may be
considered to be emotionally vulnerable. The predominant feelings can include intense pain
and longing for all that one has left behind or lost, fear of the unknown, deep-rooted
loneliness, need, and helplessness.
Additionally, migration can pose threats to the immigrants sense of identity.
Differences in the new environment can be felt in many aspects of life, for example language,
as well as how to find his or her place, in the new community and acquire anew the social
position and professional status s/he enjoyed in the homeland. This can lead to a shake-up in
a sense of self and a decrease in an individuals self esteem. Similarly, these changes can
result in a risk of mental health, in particular depression. Feelings of self esteem and
depression can add to a persons mental workload, and this in turn can affect their cognitive
and social functioning.
Based on these understandings and previous research, this study examines whether the
immigration process influences a persons levels of self esteem and depression, comparing
immigrants from English speaking countries who have been in Israel for two years or less, to
those who have been there for eight to twelve years, with Israeli born and raised. It then
examines to what extent these hypothesized changes affect levels of cognitive and social
functioning. Ninety five participants who fitted the criteria for each of the above groups, aged
from 23-47, took part in the study which involved carrying out a series of questionnaires
which examined their levels of self esteem (Rosenberg, 1965), depression (Beck's Depression
Inventory (BDI), 1996), damage to self (Walshs Damage to Self Questionnaire, 2008), and
acculturation (based on a larger study by Berry et al, 2006 adapted by Ben Shalom &
Horencyzk (2004)), as well as their levels of social functioning (Buhrmester et als (1988)
and Ryff's Scales of Psychological Well-being (1995)). They also took a series of tests which
examined various elements of cognitive functioning (Ravens Advanced Progressive
Matrices (originally developed in 1936), and Wechsler Digit Span, Symbol Search, Maths,
Similarities (1997)).
The study found that levels of self esteem and depression did not differ across the
three groups. However differences in levels of acculturation and damage to self were found
between the two immigrant groups. Levels of acculturation and damage to self were also
found to be significantly related to self esteem and depression. Self esteem and depression
levels were significantly related to scores on the Wechsler Symbol Search test. Acculturation
and damage to self levels were significantly related to scores on the Wechsler Symbol Search
and Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices tests. Self esteem and depression, as well as
damage to self and acculturation levels, were all found to be significantly related to social
functioning.
The study highlights some interesting finds with regards to the immigration process
for English speaking immigrants in Israel. Findings suggest that self esteem and depression
levels are not significantly affected by the process. However sense of belonging and identity,
as part of the acculturation process, in particular with regards to their relationship with Israel
(as determined by levels of acculturation and damage to self) do appear to be affected. This in
turn seems to influence levels of self esteem and depression. Levels of acculturation, in
particular control of the Hebrew language, appear to predict the immigrants cognitive
functioning on the Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices test as well as influencing their
levels of social functioning.
II
III
1. Introduction
The Law of Return (1950) states that every Jew, his/her spouse, his children and
grandchildren and their spouses are entitled to immigrate to Israel. As a result, every year
thousands of new immigrants migrate to Israel from all over the world. In the year 2013,
19,558 immigrants moved to Israel, 7,732 from Eastern Europe, 4,689 from Western
Europe, 3,751 from North America & Oceania, 899 Latin America, 1,612 from Africa,
431 from Asia and 444 of whose origin is unknown (From the Israel Ministry of
Immigration website, www.moia.gov.il). The problems of adaptation are enormous and
range from cultural and religious to financial (Thranhardt, 2000).
In this study the effects of immigration on immigrants from English speaking
countries are examined. The study looks at how immigration may affect a person's sense
of self and feelings of self esteem. The effects this may have on an immigrant's cognitive
and social functioning are also examined. The study also examines how far effects are
temporary or lessen as time passes and the immigrant acculturates into the host society.
To the best of our knowledge, no previous research has been carried out on the
cognitive functioning of immigrants. Previous research has considered the relationship
between immigrants and low self esteem (Perkins, Wiley & Deaux, 2014) and between
self esteem and cognitive functioning (Baumeister et al., 2003, Makar, 2013), however
research has yet to be carried out which examines the cognitive functioning of
immigrants as a function of low self esteem. Such research can help us to understand the
experiences of immigrants when first moving to a new country. The research also has
social implications. It may enable relevant bodies, be it work places, universities and
colleges or schools to understand and to make appropriate allowances for immigrants. In
addition, little research has been carried out that considers the effect of self esteem on
social performance. Some research has shown a link between low social performance and
self esteem (Erol & Orth, 2014, Lakey et al., 1994) but there appears to be little research
considering how self esteem among immigrants may affect social performance. Social
performance is a critical issue for new immigrants who have left behind family and
friends and need to start creating new social and support frameworks (Valentine, 2001).
Again results may enable those working with immigrants to help them in the
development of social networks.
2. Theoretical Background
2.1 The Experience of Immigration
Immigration occurs when an individual moves from one country to another or
from one region to another where the second is sufficiently distant and different from the
first, for a sufficiently prolonged period of time such that one would consider the person
as living in another country, there taking up the activities of daily life. This idea forms
the basis for the definitions found in most studies of migration: the action and effect of
moving from one country to another for the purpose of settling there (Grinberg &
Grinberg, 1984). Regardless of whether it is from one country to another or from one
region to another region of the same country, immigration can lead to what has been
termed "culture shock" (Oberg, 1960). Ticho (1971) has described culture shock as a
result of sudden change from an "average expectable environment" to a strange and
unpredictable one.
The intricate process that follows such a confrontation or a cultural encounter can
be rich in psychological manifestations, whose intensity, form and content may depend
upon a diversity of functional variables (Garza-Guerrero, 1974). Many models of
acculturation have been suggested but the large majority of them conceptualize the
acculturation process as potentially stressful because of difficulties which can include
esteem refers to a highly favourable global evaluation of the self (Baumeister et al.,
2003). Self reported self-esteem does not carry any definitional requirement of accuracy
whatsoever and is thus perception rather than an objective measure (Baumeister et al.,
2003).
Kernberg (1967) suggests that mental health involves the feeling of continuity,
consistency and confirmation in ones self image or identity. Establishing a sense of
identity means maintaining stability in the face of changing circumstances and life cycles.
Events such as migration, which cause drastic change in a person's life, can pose threats
to the sense of identity (Grinberg & Grinberg, 1984). Victor Tausk (1919) who
introduced the term identity in psychoanalytic literature, maintained that just as a child
discovers objects and his own self, so an adult in his struggle for self-preservation
frequently repeats the experience of "finding himself" and "feeling like himself." The
immigrant in his struggle for self-preservation needs to hold onto various elements of his
native environment (familiar objects, music, memories, and dreams representing different
aspects of his native land) in order to be able to feel like himself (Akhtar, 1999).
However, the immigrant may need to re-negotiate elements of his identity, at least
temporarily, in order to become integrated in the new environment (Grinberg & Grinberg,
1984). These differences can be felt by the immigrant in many aspects of life, for
example language as well as how to find his place, his spot, in the new community and
acquire anew the social position and professional status he enjoyed in his homeland. No
one knows him, and feeling anonymous increases his inner insecurity (Grinberg &
Grinberg, 1984). Problems also arise when, owing to the more demanding requirements
in the host country, or to the inherent nature of his skills themselves, an immigrant
cannot resume the vocation he has practiced hitherto. Low self esteem and cynicism may
be frequent in such situations (Akhtar, 1999).
The need to give up a part of his or her individuality can result in the immigrant
feeling a sense of loss. In all object losses a simultaneous loss of parts of the self
accompanies the person's sorrow for the lost object (Grinberg & Grinberg, 1984). Any
sense of loss is accompanied by a state of mourning. Freud (1917, p.243) stated that
"Mourning is regularly the reaction to the loss of a loved person, or to the loss of some
abstraction which has taken the place of one, such as one's country, liberty, an ideal and
so on." Freud regarded such melancholic patients as having low self-esteem, which arises
out of the ambivalence felt for the lost object, and assumed that in an ideal model of
mourning the absence of hostility to the lost object accounted for the lack of low selfesteem. Similarly, Bibring (1953) considered depression, just like anxiety, a "state of the
ego" and felt that low self-esteem was the common denominator of depression (GarzaGuerrero, 1974). This therefore suggests that any immigrant who is forced to give up a
part of his sense of self will experience low self-esteem and depressive feelings as a
result.
Indeed research that has examined the impact of immigration on sense of self
confirms this. Ben David (1996) found that immigrants showed fewer feelings of
confidence in the predictability and explicability of one's environment, together with
feelings of confidence in one's inner resources. Walsh and Horencyzk (2001) examining
English speaking immigrants in Israel, describe the loss of feelings of competence and a
sense of belonging. In Walsh et al.'s (2007) research on the impact of immigration on
young adults the subjects described feelings such as shame, failure and a lack of
competence; injury to their pride, feelings of being unwanted, different and not
understood; and feelings of instability and a lack of sense of belonging, many of which
are feelings which are a part of or result in low self esteem.
How people think that others evaluate them has long been believed to influence
how they evaluate themselves, an insight that has been extended to peoples group
memberships (Deaux, 1993). How people think that others evaluate the groups that they
belong to (public regard) can influence how they themselves evaluate their groups
(private regard). Evidence supports an indirect link between how first- and secondgeneration immigrants think that people in the heritage culture evaluate their ethnic
group (i.e., public regard) and self-esteem, via how immigrants themselves evaluate their
ethnic group (i.e., private regard) (Perkins, Wiley & Deaux, 2014).
Though the above suggests that the immigration process affects a persons sense
of self, its direct relation to self esteem has yet to be examined. Noticeably most research
which concentrates on acculturation and self esteem has been carried out on adolescents
and students. In addition, most research looked at the effect of acculturation on self
esteem and not the other way around other. Any research that did test the effect of self
esteem on acculturation was not causal. The following study will therefore examine how
far the immigration process directly affects a persons self esteem, in comparison to
Israeli-born counterparts.
Depression is often used as a common descriptor for feeling emotionally low, but
it may manifest as a severe chronic clinical condition (McTernan et al., 2013). The
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition, provides diagnostic
criteria for Major Depressive Disorder and Depressive Episodes as depressed mood or a
loss of interest or pleasure in daily activities for more than two weeks, impaired social,
occupational, and educational function with at least 5 different symptoms (e.g. depressed
mood, decreased pleasure in activities, weight change, insomnia, diminished ability to
concentrate). Sub clinical depression is when symptoms are not strong enough to warrant
a clinical diagnosis (McTernan et al., 2013).
The relationship between migration and mental health has been the subject of
studies for several decades and is considered a public health challenge in many countries.
In most studies, immigrants and their descendents have been found to be at greater risk
for developing mental illness than mainstream populations (Abebe, Lien & Hjelde, 2013).
Depression during the acculturation process has been reported as one of the most
prevalent health problems for immigrant women (Chae, Park & Sun Kang, 2014). Mental
health outcomes associated with migration may vary depending on factors such as sociocultural and economic contexts, gender, generation, acculturation or social integration,
and the conditions and reasons under which migration takes place (Abebe, Lien & Hjelde,
2013). Depressive symptoms have also been attributed to face demands for adaptation to
an unfamiliar system, as well as to discrimination and rejection from the host population
(Yu, Stewart, Liu & Lam, 2012).
Immigrants may encounter many stresses during the process of acculturating to a
new country. This acculturative stress may result in significant levels of depression.
Indeed acculturative stress has been positively associated with depression and suicidal
ideation and acculturative stress, perceived family dysfunction and nonhopeful
expectations for the future are significant predictors of depression and suicidal ideation
(Hovey, 2000).
Once again depression appears to be a result of the immigration process but there
appears to be a lack of research examining its direct link, and levels of depression in
comparison to Israeli born counterparts.
situation can, to some degree, predict the success or failure of their migration (Grinberg
& Grinberg, 1984). If, because of his character predisposition or the conditions of his
migration, the emigrant's ego is too severely damaged by the traumatic experience of the
past or present crisis, it will be difficult for him to recover from the state of
disorganization into which he has fallen, and he may suffer any one of many forms of
mental or physical illness. If, however, he has sufficient capacity for working through,
not only will he overcome the crisis but there will be a quality of rebirth to his recovery
and a development of his creative potential (Grinberg & Grinberg, 1984).
Stability in the emigrant's family life is one of the factors that will assist in a
successful migration experience, as are professional skill and job satisfaction (Grinberg
& Grinberg, 1984). Kim & Grant (1997) state that success in reestablishing social
networks in their new society reduces the psychological distress and the detrimental
effect of uprooting experienced by immigrants. Past research suggests that factors such
as age at immigration, language preference, place of birth, generation level,
socioeconomic status, preferred ethnic identity and ethnic group social contacts may
influence the transition process (Jamil et al, 2007).
The phase of acculturation needs to be taken into account if stress and adaptation
are to be understood. That is, how long a person has been experiencing acculturation
strongly affects the kind and extent of problems (Berry, 1997). The classical description
of positive adaptation in relation to time has been in terms of a U-curve: Only a few
problems are present early, followed by more serious problems later, and finally a more
positive long-term adaptation is achieved (Berry, 1997). Alternatively, but with the same
end effect, Jamil et al (2007) found that acculturation stress amongst Iraqi immigrants in
the US decreased over time. Although many studies have demonstrated higher distress
among recent immigrants, there is little empirical evidence for such a standard course,
nor for fixed times (in terms of months or years) when such variations will occur (Berry,
1997). Many researchers support an initial euphoric phase and suggest that the distress
may last three months to seven years following immigration (Ritsner & Ponizovsky,
1999).
An alternative to a fixed, stage-like conceptualization of the relationship between
length of acculturation and problems experienced is to consider the specific nature of the
experiences and problems encountered as they change over time (e.g. initially learning a
language, obtaining employment and housing, followed by establishing social
relationships and recreational opportunities) and the relationship of such problems to the
personal resources of the migrant and to opportunities in the society of settlement (Ho,
1995). This approach emphasizes the high degree of variability to be expected over the
time course from initial contact to eventual long-term adaptation (Berry, 1997).
The current study examines two groups of immigrants: one group of immigrants
who immigrated within the previous two years and a second group of immigrants who
immigrated 8-10 years ago (together with a group of Israeli-born individuals) in order to
explore how time in Israel and levels of acculturation may impact on inner feelings (self
esteem/ depression) and functioning.
possessing secure feelings of self-worth may provide the basis for functioning effectively
in various realms, fragile self-feelings may undermine effective functioning (Paradise &
Kernis, 2002). Baumeister (1984) suggests that attention to oneself decreases one's
attention to the task so that performance decrements are due to overlooking information
necessary to perform the task.
Cognitive psychology has extensively studied the processes underlying mental
workload and their consequence on human information processing (Croizet et al., 2004).
People are continually confronted with tasks that demand more or less cognitive capacity.
Some tasks are more difficult than others in that they require more attention and more
elaborated cognitive processing (Cowan, 1995). There is also ample evidence showing
that, under certain circumstances, the mental workload experienced by a person will
result in lower performance (Croizet et al., 2004). Such a performance decrement is
usually attributed to the limited capacity of working memory, either the limited pool of
attentional resources has been exhausted by task requirements (e.g. the task is too
difficult) or a finite workspace had to be shared between several tasks. In other words,
some extra peripheral activity (e.g. self related worries) can interfere with the processing
of a focus task (e.g. the resolution of logical problem) because it competes for the limited
resources. In such a situation, increased mental workload will reflect cognitive
interference and result in lower performance (Croizet et al., 2004). Indeed Croizet et al.
(2004) found that test scores in intelligence can be substantially influenced by situational
factors in addition to any actual differences in cognitive ability.
If Baumeister's (1984) suggestions are correct than the mental burden caused by
low self esteem would result in lower performance on intellectual tasks. Indeed, many
studies have found that high self-esteem is positively correlated with academic
performance. In an early review, Wylie (1979) concluded that the correlation between
11
self-esteem and students' grade point averages was about .30. She added that similar or
slightly stronger relationships had been reported between self-esteem and scores on
various other achievement tests. Similarly, Davies and Brember (1999) found a
significant positive relationship between self-esteem and academic performance, in a
large British sample. Most recent studies have yielded similar conclusions (Baumeister et
al., 2003). Applied to the world of work, the self-esteem hypothesis suggests that higher
self esteem is strongly associated with better functioning at work and greater work
satisfaction (Michon et al., 2008). Indeed, the results regarding the link between selfesteem and job performance seem to echo what has been found with school performance;
high self-esteem is related to better performance (Makar, 2014).
Since it would appear that self esteem is related to cognitive functioning and that
immigration can often impact on self esteem (Perkins, Wiley & Deaux, 2014), the
following study will examine basic cognitive functions of immigrants as compared to
their Israeli born counterparts and will determine how far self esteem is indeed an
influencing factor in various cognitive functions.
Similarly, it can be expected that depression would in turn effect cognitive
functioning. Indeed research suggests that the majority of adults with major depressive
disorder suffer from significant cognitive deficits (Wagner et al., 2014), and that
improved mood state is often associated with improved cognitive performance and that
degraded mood is associated with impaired cognitive performance (Lieberman et al.,
2014). Similar to self esteem, the impact of depression is evident in lost productivity at
work (McTernan et al., 2013). Work capacity is reduced in persons with anxiety and
depression and this has greater influence on work performance than many other medical
conditions. Individuals with mental disorders report more frequent extra effort days
than those with physical disorders. Work capacity is affected also in individuals with
11
subthreshold symptoms and in those who are in clinical remission (Bertilsson et al.,
2013). Depression has also been shown to have detrimental effects on students' studies
(Othieno et al., 2014). Indeed pediatric major depressive disorder seems to be associated
with an increased risk for poor academic functioning (Wagner et al., 2014). In adults
with major depressive disorder empirical evidence supports the existence of moderate but
significant cognitive deficits, specifically in executive functions, psycho-motor speed,
attention and memory. These deficits affect patients ability to analyze, plan, prioritize,
schedule, initiate and complete an activity in a timely manner. As a result the cognitive
dysfunctions lead to poor classroom performance. In addition, studies have revealed that
the performance in cognitive test procedures is related to the ability to regulate emotions.
Emotional dysregulation on the other hand is one of the central features of depression
(Wagner et al., 2014).
No research appears to exist examining the direct relationship between depression
and basic cognitive functions (as opposed to performance at work, in certain tasks etc)
among immigrants. The following study attempts to examine this relationship, as well as
to determine to what extent immigration has a role in functioning.
2.5 The Relationship Between Self Esteem, Depression and Social Relationships
Self esteem has also been linked to interpersonal relationships. It is certainly
plausible that high self-esteem would improve interpersonal relations (Baumeister et al.,
2003). With regards to social relationships self esteem has been found to be related to
relationship satisfaction (Erol & Orth, 2014), likeability, (Baumeister et al., 2003), higher
quality friendships, (Keefe & Berndt, 1996), positive social interactions, less stressful life
events (Lakey et al, 1994), and more social support (Marigold et al., 2014) better
workplace relationships (Frone, 2000), better, richer, and more satisfying social lives
12
(Baumeister et al., 2003), more reciprocal friendships (Bishop & Inderbitzen, 1995),
increased presence of conventional and peer-oriented groups (Glendinning & Inglis,
1999), longer lasting romantic relationships, (Hendrick et al., 1988), higher motivation
for a romantic relationship (Kindelberger & Tsao, 2014), less instances of unrequited
love (Baumeister et al., 2003), public self consciousness (Cho, Matsumoto & Kimura,
2009), and positive contribution to group work and group performance (Baumeister et
al., 2003).
Similarly, depression has been linked to interpersonal relationships. Depressive
symptoms often negatively affect individuals social network and cause interpersonal
conflicts. They are associated with negative feedback and excessive reassurance seeking,
negative attributions, ruminations and poor social skills (Joiner Jr., 2001). Depression
has also been connected to less instrumental social support (Bonanno et al., 2002) to
abusive relationships (Follingstad, 2009), interpersonal instability and dysfunction and
social withdrawal (Hammen, 2012), romantic relationship stress and lower relationship
quality (Whitton & Kuryluk, 2014) including withdrawal of support and an increase in
conflicts (Whisman & Baucom, 2012), low social support at work (Netterstrom et al.,
2008), decreased acceptance and support from peers (Dolphin & Hennessy, 2014), and
rejection (Stice, Ragan & Randall, 2004).
Self esteem is also important when looking at the social behaviour of immigrants
since it is thought to indicate comprehensive values of the self that are made largely by
comparing the self with others (Schnittker, 2002). Indeed, according to Negy and Woods
(1992) "Self-esteem or self confidence may interact with acculturation as it intuitively
makes sense that a healthy level of self confidence would assist individuals in taking
risks, such as initiating contact with members outside their ethnic groups" (p.243)
(Valentine, 2001). Several studies have shown that self esteem is a significant predictor
13
2.6 The Relationship between Acculturation Stress and Cognitive and Social
Functioning
Selye (1936) defined stress as the nonspecific result of any demand upon the
body, be the effect mental or somatic (p.3). McGrath (1976) argued that stress involves
interaction between a person and his/her environment. Lazarus and Folkman (1984)
defined stress as a relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised
by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well
being (p.21). While quite broad, these definitions clearly point to stress as an outcome
for individuals who face taxing situational demands. In this way, stress is perceptual, and,
for any given situation, is likely to vary from person to person (OConnor et al., 2010).
Acculturative stress is often defined as stress that occurs in the process of
adaptation to the host culture from a persons own culture (Mori, 2000). It is noted that a
higher level of acculturative stress is associated with many factors: socio demographic
characteristics (e.g., older age, female, longer years of education), a deeper level of
psychological distress, mode of acculturation, loss of social support, increased family and
cultural conflicts, personality, and different social values and norms (Jin, 2014).
14
Particularly, studies on international students in the United States identified that the more
discrepancy there is between the host culture and the culture of origin, the higher the
level of acculturative stress (Lee, Koeske, & Sales, 2004).
Similarly to self esteem and depression, stress has also been found to be related to
cognitive and social functioning. Those found under stress were found to experience
cognitive impairments (Robinson et al., 2003). Negative affects such as stress have been
shown to interfere with cognitive control and tasks, in particular verbal and spatial
working memory (Koric et al., 2012), and controlled task focused thinking (Kivimaki &
Lusa, 1994). High stress proneness is associated with the risk of a serotonin deficiency in
the brain. Serotonergic activity seems to be involved in the maintaining of control over
information processing and thus may result in reduced cognitive performance (Markus et
al., 1998).
With regards to social functioning, research seems to indicate that social support
can moderate levels of acculturation stress (Hovey & King, 1997). Previous studies have
shown that social support is a positive indicator of acculturative stress (Lee, Lee, Kim, &
Kim, 2009) and psychological distress (Gellis, 2003). Furthermore, research has shown
that there is an indirect impact of acculturative stress on intimate relationships of
individuals (Neff & Hoppe, 1992). Psychological problems caused by acculturative stress
affect an individuals intimate relationships adversely (Karapanagiotis, 2008).
Little research seems to be available regarding the relationship between stress,
and in particular acculturation stress, on social functioning and most research that does
exists seems to examine the effect of support on stress levels and not vice versa. This
research will therefore examine levels of acculturation of immigrants and how far this
effects levels of self esteem and depression and in turn will examine the relationship
between acculturation and cognitive and social functioning.
15
16
total Jewish Israeli population. Most salient is their greater tendency to settle in rural
localities as compared to their Israeli counterparts (Rebhun & Waxman, 2000).
3. Research Aims
This study takes as its starting point that immigrants need to renegotiate their
identity, at least temporarily, in order to become integrated into the new environment.
This along with other factors involved in the immigration process, in particular the
acculturation process, can lead to feelings of low self esteem and depression. This study
aims to examine how far this theoretical knowledge regarding changes to a persons
sense of self and well being during the immigration process, actually occurs in reality.
Using Israeli born counterparts as a control group, the study measures the levels of self
esteem and depression of new immigrants (up to two years) from English speaking
countries in Israel as well as of more veteran immigrants who have been in Israel
between eight to twelve years.
Self esteem and depression have been found to be linked to levels of cognitive
and social functioning. This study will therefore examine how far new immigrants, who
are predicted to be suffering from lower levels of self esteem and higher levels of
depression, have impaired overall cognitive and social functioning, with an emphasis on
the predictive role of the self esteem and depression. The study also involved immigrants
who had been in Israel a substantially longer period of time (8-10 years) According to the
literature, these young people should have acclimated and returned to their original levels
of self esteem and depression with no effect on their cognitive and social functioning.
Furthermore the study examines the role of acculturation and its influence on self esteem
and depression and how and if, in turn, this effects social and cognitive functioning.
17
3.1 Hypotheses
1). The study hypothesized that immigrants would have lower levels of self esteem and
higher levels of depression than their Israeli born counterparts. In addition, newer
immigrants will have lower self esteem and higher levels of depression than those that
have been in the country for some time.
2). The study also hypothesized that those with low self esteem and suffering from
depression will perform less well on tasks testing cognitive functioning.
3). As a result of the above, the study hypothesized that immigrants would perform worse
on tasks of cognitive functioning than their Israeli born counterparts (with newer
immigrants performing worse than those that have been in the country for some time)
and that this would be mediated by levels of self esteem and depression.
4). The study also hypothesized that those with lower self esteem and higher levels of
depression will have lower quality social relationships. New immigrants will have lower
quality social relationships than their Israeli born counterparts, which will be mediated
by levels of self esteem and depression.
5). The study supposes that after a significant period of time immigrants self esteem and
levels of depression will return to the levels they were at before immigration and as such
immigrants who have been in the country for a longer period of time will perform to the
same standards on tasks testing cognitive functioning and will have the same quality of
social relationships as their Israeli counterparts. As such, the study hypothesized that
measurements of older immigrants on cognitive functioning, social relationships, self
esteem and depression will not differ from those of their Israeli counterparts.
18
4. Method
4.1 Participants
The research was carried out on immigrants in Israel from English speaking
countries. The participants were divided into three groups: 1. Immigrants from English
speaking countries who had moved to Israel within the last two years (n =33), 2.
Immigrants from English speaking countries who had been in Israel between eight to
twelve years (n=31), and 3. A control group of Israeli born and raised participants (n=31).
Participants age was from 23 to 47 (see table 1). New immigrant participants were
gathered from Absorption centres and Hebrew learning centers (Ulpanim). Older
immigrants were contacted through immigrant networks. Each group consisted of
approximately 30 participants. Participants stemmed from various educational and
marital status backgrounds (see table 2).
19
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Std Deviation
New
Immigrants
33
23
39
28.88
3.967
Veteran
Immigrants
31
26
47
32.1
4.308
Israelis
31
26
35
30.03
2.121
New Immigrants
57.6
42.4
Veteran Immigrants
61.3
38.7
Israelis
38.7
61.3
6.1
3
54.5
36.4
3.2
16.1
54.8
25.8
3.2
9.7
41.9
45.2
Single
Married
Divorced
69.7
27.3
3
48.4
51.6
0
80.6
19.4
0
Fulltime Employment
Part time Employment
Unemployed
51.5
27.3
21.2
74.2
12.9
12.9
74.2
12.9
12.9
Of the immigrants, 56.3% were born in the UK and 31.3% in the USA, 4.7% in
Canada, 4.7% in South Africa and 3.1% in Australia. For group 1, the mean number of
years in Israel was 1.31 (SD = 0.79) and for group 2, 9.8 (SD = 1.45).
4.2 Measures
Participants completed an anonymous questionnaire containing the following
elements (each part was provided in English for the immigrant participants and Hebrew
for the Israeli born participants):
1.
provide basic demographic information such as age, education, marital status and level of
religiousness.
21
2.
3.
self scale explores the degree to which the emerging adult described a feeling of having
negatively internalized elements of the immigration experience. A total of 42 questions
are answered on a 5 point scale from 1= I dont feel like this at all to 5 = I feel this almost
all the time. Some questions are inverted to allow a total score which reflects the level of
damage to self. Questions examine negative feelings regarding oneself in general (e.g. I
feel helpless, sad, unstable, calm, lonely), with regards to moving country (e.g. I miss
places, scenery and weather, I miss home cooked food and food from my homeland)
and with regards to living in Israel in particular (e.g. I think that Israeli culture is rude,
I feel that Israelis accept me). New immigrants were asked to fill this out regarding the
period since they moved to Israel and veteran immigrants were asked to fill it out both
regarding how they felt in the first two years after moving to Israel and again with
regards to how they currently feel. This questionnaire was only filled in by the immigrant
groups
21
4.
Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI) (Appendix 4). Developed by Beck, Steer, &
Ben Shalom & Horencyzk (2004) (Appendix 5). The questionnaire is divided into several
sections which examine various aspects of acculturation. The first section considers how
a person regards themselves, in terms of identity with a country. The first question in this
section asks for a general overview regarding identifying with a country (e.g. I think of
myself as English/Israeli/English and Israeli) and is on a 5 point scale from 1= not at all
to 5= very much. The second part of this section is made up of 15 questions regarding
feelings towards both the participants homeland and Israel (e.g. Being past of English
culture is embarrassing to me, I feel that moving to Israeli was one of the most
important things I've ever done.). Questions are on a 5 point scale from 1=strongly
22
disagree to 5=strongly agree. The second section of the scale examines how important
people consider different aspects of themselves to be (e.g. that I am English/Israeli,
that I am a male/female, that I am Jewish). Five questions are answered on a 5 point
scale from 1=not at all, to 5= very well. The third section considers attitudes towards
various aspects of acculturation such as language (e.g. It is more important to be to be
fluent in English than in Hebrew, it is more important to me to be fluent in Hebrew
than in English), cultural traditions (e.g. I feel that it is not important for the English
either to maintain their own cultural transients or to adapt to those of Israel, I feel that
the English should maintain their own cultural traditions but also adapt to those of Israel)
and friendships (e.g. I prefer social activities that involve Israelis only, I prefer to
have only Israeli friends). 20 questions are answered on a 5 point scale where
1=strongly disagree and 5=strongly agree. The final sections concerns knowledge of
Hebrew and English with participants being asked to rate their levels of English and
Hebrew understanding, speaking, reading and writing on a 5 point scale from 1=not at all
to 5=very well.
Since the questionnaire considers various aspects of acculturation scores were calculated
for each section of the scale and participants were provided acculturation scores for
Identity of home country, Israel identity, no identity with Israel or home country, strong
Israeli and home country identity, control of Hebrew language, control of English
language, acculturated into Israeli society. This questionnaire was only given to the two
immigrant groups.
6. Cognitive Functioning. Cognitive functioning was assessed using five tests. 1) Raven
Advanced Progressive Matrices Test widely used to measure problem solving ability
(Raven et al., 1993), fluid intelligence (Cattell, 1963) and analytic intelligence (Carpenter,
Just & Shell, 1990). Participants are provided with a set of matrices to solve. Each
23
matrix contains a pattern and participants need to identify the missing matrix from a
choice of 8. Items are presented as one set of 12 (set I), and another of 36 (set II). Items
are again presented in black ink on a white background, and become increasingly
difficult as progress is made through each set. Participants received two scores for
carrying out the test, a score based on how many correct answers after twenty minutes
(proven to be an adequate predictor of the untimed score (Hamel & Schmittmann, 2006)
and another score for correct answers for the full test with no time restrictions. 2) The
remaining tests were selected from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (Wechsler, D.
(1997a). WAIS-III: Technical manual. Orlando, FL: Psychological Corporation). Tests
were chosen according to the various aspects of cognitive functioning they examine, with
the assumption (based on previous research) that these were the cognitive functions that
the mental burden of self esteem and depression would influence.
i) Wechsler Digit Span. This test involves presenting a series of digits orally at the rate of
one per second and the subjects task is to repeat them sequentially, or for digits
backwards in the reverse order. The participant is required to repeat 3-9 digits forward
and 2-9 digits backwards with the length of each sequence of numbers increasing as the
participant correctly responds. Participants receive a score of one for each series of
digits they correctly repeat.
ii) The Wechsler Symbol Search test comprises of a series of items which contain various
symbols. Within a period of two minutes the participant must mark either yes or no in a
checkbox as to whether the symbols shown are present in the series of symbols provided.
The Symbol Search subtest is designed to assess information processing speed and visual
perception. It is one of three subtests that contribute to the Processing Speed Indices
derived from the Wechsler intelligence scales.
24
iii) The Wechsler Arithmetic Test is comprised of Maths, 20 arithmetic problems similar
to those encountered in elementary math courses. Problems are administered orally and
must be solved without paper and pencil. In addition to math knowledge, test measures
concentration and systematic problem-solving ability.
iv) The Wechsler Similarities Test is made up of 19 items which require the participant
to describe how two given things are alike, for example what do ice and steam have in
common? Scores on each item vary according to the degree to which the response
describes a general property primarily pertinent to both items in the pair. The test
measures concrete, functional, and abstract concept formation.
7. Social Functioning Test (Appendix 6) The questionnaire is based on two sources. 1)
Buhrmester et als (1988) 40 item questionnaire which is designed to assess five domains
of interpersonal competence: a) initiating relationships (e.g. Asking or suggesting to
someone new that you get together and do something, e.g. go out together), b)
disclosing personal information (e.g. Revealing something intimate about yourself while
talking with someone youre just getting to know.), c) asserting displeasure with others
(e.g. Saying no when a date/acquaintance asks you to do something you dont want to do),
d) providing emotional support and advice (e.g. Helping a close companion get to the heart
of a problem s/he is experiencing), and e) managing interpersonal conflict (e.g. When angry
with a companion, being able to accept that s/he has a valid point of view even if you dont agree
with that view). Participants are instructed to use a 5-point rating scale to indicate their
level of competence and comfort in handling each type of situation (1- Im poor at this;
Id feel so uncomfortable and unable to handle this situation to 5- Im EXTREMELY
good at this; Id feel very comfortable and could handle this situation very well. The
questionnaire has been found to be reliable and valid (Buhrmester et al., 1988). This
questionnaire was translated to Hebrew by Ergov (1999).
25
4.3 Procedure
The study received ethics approval from the Bar Ilan ethics committee. Before
carrying out the research a pre test was carried out with 10 students, after which any
elements of the questionnaire that were felt to be unclear were improved.
Participants were met with on a one-on-one basis to fill out the questionnaire.
After signing an informed consent form, the questionnaires were filled out independently
whereas the cognitive tests required elements to be read aloud to the participants. Once
participants had agreed to take part in the research they were asked to fill out the
questionnaire. The participants were told that the purpose of the research is to study
functioning of immigrants. They were assured that all information obtained will be
strictly confidential and used for the purposes of this research only.
Once participants had completed the questionnaire they were informed of the
aims of the study and the reason for each part of the questionnaire. Participants were
given the option to be told their scores once calculated should they so desire. There was
no remuneration for taking part in the study.
26
5. Results
5.1 Self Esteem, Depression and Cognitive Functioning across Groups
The study hypothesized that immigrants would have lower levels of self esteem
than their Israeli born counterparts and that more recent immigrants would have lower
self esteem than those that had been in the country for a longer period. Analysis was
carried out using ANOVA with the group type as the independent variable and self
esteem as the dependent variable. No significant differences were detected
(F(2,94)=0.90, NS). Similarly, with levels of depression as the dependent variable, no
significant differences were found, (F(2,94)=0.53, NS).
In terms of cognitive functioning, ANOVA with the group type as the
independent variable and the Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices Test Full Score1 as
the dependent variable, yielded a near-significant effect of group, F(2,92)=2.52, p=0.086,
with the Israelis achieving higher scores (M=41.7) than both veteran (M=40.1) and new
immigrants (M=38.7). Post hoc l analysis revealed that the difference between the
Israelis and new immigrants was significant, p<.05.
5.2 Effect of Self Esteem and Depression on Cognitive Functioning
The study hypothesized that those with low self-esteem would have a larger
mental workload than those with higher self esteem, since more attention is concentrated
inwardly, and as a result would perform less well on tasks testing intellectual
performance. Using Pearsons correlations, significant correlations were found between
levels of self esteem and depression and results of one of the intelligence tests. When
examining the data of all three groups together a negative correlation was found between
1
Participants received two scores for this test; the score received after 20 minutes of carrying out the test
(Raven 20), and a full score after completing the test with no time restrictions (Raven Full)
27
the scores on the Wechsler Symbol Search test and levels of depression. In other words,
the higher the level of depression, the lower the test scores. Additionally, the higher the
self esteem of the participant, the better they performed on the same test (see table 3).
Table 3
Correlation between Self Esteem, Depression and Wechsler Symbol Search Test for all Three Groups Together
(n=95)
Wechsler
Symbol Search
Self Esteem
0.444**
Depression
-0.224*
Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).
As with the total population, when members of group 1 (New Immigrants) were
examined individually, a significant correlation between the scores on the Wechsler
Symbol Search test and self esteem was identified (r=0.42, p<0.05). The same was found
for members of group 2 (Veteran immigrants) (r=0.6, p<0.01) but not group 3 (see Model
2).
Model 2. Relationship between self esteem (x-axis) and scores on the Wechsler Symbol
Search test (y-axis).
Self esteem scores also correlated with results on the Wechsler Maths and
Similarities tests for members of group 2 (veteran immigrants) only. The higher the self
28
esteem of the participant, the higher the score they achieved on the tests (see table 4). No
such correlation was found with the other group members.
Table 4
Correlation between Self Esteem and Wechsler Maths for Group 2 Participants (n=31)
Wechsler
Wechsler
Maths
Similarities
Self
Group 2
Esteem
0.523**
0.376*
Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).
For the majority of the intelligence tests, no significant differences were detected
in the scores of the three groups.
5.3 Self Esteem, Depression and Social Relationships
The study also hypothesized that those with lower self esteem would have lower
quality social relationships. Pearson correlations were carried out among the sample as a
whole, and a significant correlation was found (p < 0.01). In other words, those who
demonstrated lower levels of self esteem expressed lower levels of social functioning
(see table 5).
Similarly, when carrying out Pearson Correlations, a significant correlation was
also found between levels of depression and social functioning on both of the tests used
to examine social functioning (Buhmester el als (1988) Social Functioning Test and
Ryffs Scales of Psychological Well-being (1995) (see table 5). The tests showed that the
more depressed the participant felt, the less successful they were at creating social
relationships. In addition, those who scored high on the depression scale, were found to
have low levels of self esteem (r=-0.49, p<0.01).
Table 5
Correlation between Self Esteem and Depression and Social Functioning for all Three Groups (n=95)
Buhrmester et als Social
Ryffs Scales of Psychological
Functioning Test
Well-being
Self Esteem
0.375**
0.435**
Depression
-0.329**
Note: ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).
-0.436**
29
31
experienced during their first two years in Israel is significantly higher than the damage
to self that they currently reported (t(28)=8.86, p<0.001).
The damage to self questionnaire contains questions regarding the immigrants
relationship with Israel (e.g. feeling Israeli culture is rude) and regarding the immigrants
relationship with oneself (e.g. feeling sad). On comparison of the scores of the two types
of questions using a dependent sample T-test with a within subject factor of type of
damage to self, participants show significantly higher feelings of damage to self with
regards to their relationship with Israel as opposed to with themselves (t(62)=5.43,
p<0.001). The same is found on considering the two immigrant groups separately (Group
1 t(32)=6.06, p<0.001, Group 2 t(29)=2.08, p<0.05).
5.5 Damage to Self and Cognitive Functioning
Similarly to depression, damage to self was also found to have a negative
influence on intelligence test scores. When carrying out Pearson Correlation tests, those
who expressed a current high level of damage to self, performed worse on the Raven 20
test and the Wechsler Symbol Search test (see table 6).
Table 6
Correlation between Damage to Self and Intelligence Tests for Groups 1 and 2 (n=63)
Wechsler Symbol
Search
Raven 20 test
Damage to
Self
-0.349**
-0.257*
Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).
When the data was divided between the two groups, no significant relationships
between damage to self and intelligence were identified.
5.6 Damage to Self and Social Relationships
Pearson Correlations were carried out to examine the relationship between
damage to self and social relationships. In the total sample, damage to self was
31
negatively correlated with social relationships, with both of the social functioning tests
that were carried out (r=-0.26, r=-0.35, p<0.05). On examining the groups individually,
the same negative effect on social relationships was found with group 1. No relationship
was found between group 2 participants current damage to self levels and social
functioning however a negative effect on the social functioning (according to Buhrmester
et als (1988) questionnaire) of those who experienced high levels of damage to self
reported within their first two years of living in Israel (in group 2) was noted (see table 7).
Table 7
Correlation between Damage to Self and Social Functioning for Groups 1 and 2 (n=33, n=30)
Buhrmester et als
Social Functioning
Ryffs Scales of Psychological
Test
Well-being
New
Immigrants
Damage to Self
-0.426*
-0.445**
Veteran
Damage to Self,
Immigrants
(current)
0.079
-0.255
Damage to self
(first two years
in Israel)
-0.186
-0.556**
Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).
5.7 Acculturation
The study also examined the levels of acculturation reached by each of the two
immigrant groups (groups 1 and 2) using a T-test for independent samples with the group
type as the independent variable and acculturation levels as the dependent variable. As
expected, members of group 2, immigrants that had been in Israel for between 8-12
years, felt significantly more acculturated than those who had been in Israel for less than
two years, (t (55)=3.31, p<0.01). This was demonstrated through several areas including
feeling a connection with Israel (t(58)=4.6, p<0.001), having a strong Israeli identity
(t(62)=2.52, p<0.5), feeling a part of Israeli culture (t(57)=2.2, p<0.1) and demonstrating
high levels of Hebrew (t(48)=5.43, p<0.0001).
32
Acculturation
into Israeli
Society
Control of
English
Language
No
Identity
with
Israel or
home
country
0.500**
0.374*
0.386*
-0.293
-0.175
-0.212
-0.18
-0.359*
0.474**
-0.081
0.237
0.304
0.184
-0.146
Depression
-0.013
Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).
-0.063
-0.322
-0.064
0.309
New
Immigrants
Self
Esteem
Veteran
Immigrants
Depression
Self
Esteem
Identity with
home country
Israeli Identity
0.395*
Control of the English language also correlated negatively with depression, i.e.
those who felt they have high levels of English had lower levels of depression (r=-0.36,
p<0.05). Members of group 1 with low levels of acculturation and low association with
their home country, scored higher on the depression scale (r=0.48, p<0.01). For members
of group 2, no correlations were demonstrated between levels of acculturation and levels
of self esteem. A negative correlation was noted between those who felt they had
33
integrated well into Israeli culture and scores on the depression scale (r=-0.43, p<0.05),
i.e. those who felt more culturally integrated felt less depressed.
5.9 Acculturation and Social Relationships
Pearson Correlations were carried out to examine the relationship between
acculturation and social relationships for groups 1 and 2. A significant correlation was
found for members of group 1 between strong Israeli identities and higher scores on both
social functioning tests (r=0.35, r=0.36, p<0.05). Similarly those who felt they had a
strong control of the Hebrew language also demonstrated better social relationships.
Those who felt overall more acculturated scored higher on the Buhrmester et als (1988)
social functioning test, as did those who felt they had maintained both an Israeli and
English identity. For group 2 members, only those who felt a stronger control of the
Hebrew language, scored higher on the Buhrmester et als (1988) social functioning test
(see table 9).
Table 9
Correlation between Acculturation and Social Functioning for Groups 1 and 2 (n=33, n=31)
Buhrmester et als
Ryffs Scales of
Social Functioning
Psychological
Test
Well-being
New Immigrants
Control of Hebrew
0.468**
0.418*
Language
Strong Israeli and
0.445**
0.181
home country Identity
Acculturated into
0.446**
0.344
Israeli Society
Veteran Immigrants
Control of Hebrew
0.449*
-0.097
Language
Strong Israeli and
0.058
0.013
home country Identity
Acculturated into
0.15
-0.065
Israeli Society
Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).2
Due to the large number of variables measuring acculturation, only those that were seen to be significant
for one of the groups were included in the table.
34
5.10
35
English
Identity
0.105
0.074
0.3
0.042
-0.077
-0.209
-0.374*
0.162
0.163
-0.358*
36
model, results on the test are no longer significantly predicted by the model (3) though a
clear trend can still be noted (see table 11).
Table 11
Linear regressions using acculturation, damage to self and self esteem to predict results on Raven 20 test.
Model 1
R
0.336
R
Square
0.113*
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Std.
B
Error
29.180
5.647
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
Acculturation
0.032
0.118
0.048
Hebrew
0.522
0.306
0.299
36.022
9.625
Acculturation
-0.021
0.133
-0.031
Hebrew
Damage to
Self
Model 3
0.506
0.307
0.290
-0.033
0.037
-0.137
31.788
11.503
Acculturation
-0.033
0.134
-0.049
Hebrew
0.527
0.310
0.302
Damage to
Self
-0.024
0.039
-0.100
Self Esteem
0.121
0.178
0.094
Model 2
0.352
0.362
0.124*
0.131
When examining the ability to predict results on the Wechsler Symbol Search test
it was seen that overall acculturation would appear to predict success on the test. On
further examination it appears that, in contrast to the Ravel 20 test, acculturation into
Israeli society appears to more significantly predict results on the test than control of the
Hebrew language. When adding damage to self to the predictors, the model (2) continues
to predict results on the test, even more significantly, with damage to self have being the
most significant predictor of results, followed by acculturation as the next predictor.
When self esteem is added to the model, results on the test are even more significantly
37
predicted by the model (3) however here self esteem is the only predictor of results on
the test, with the other factors having no influence on the results (table 12).
Table 12
Linear regressions using acculturation, damage to self and self esteem to predict results on Wechsler
Symbol Search test.
Unstandardized
Standardized
Coefficients
Coefficients
R
Std.
R
Square
B
Error
Beta
0.311
0.097*
16.257
8.765
Model 1
Acculturation
.0339
Hebrew
0.183
0.328
-0.025
-0.066
0.474
35.922
14.700
Acculturation
0.187
0.203
0.181
Hebrew
Damage to
Self
Model 3
-0.111
0.468
-0.041
-0.094
0.057
-0.256
5.918
16.070
0.099
0.188
0.096
Hebrew
0.033
Damage to
-0.031
Self
Self Esteem
0.855
Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).
0.432
0.012
0.055
-0.084
0.248
0.435**
Model 2
Acculturation
0.370
0.532
0.137*
0.283**
6. Discussion
The study examined 95 adults between the ages of 23 and 47, in three different
groups (immigrants to Israel from English speaking countries who have lived in Israel for
two years or less, immigrants to Israel from English speaking countries who have lived in
Israel between 8-12 years and Israeli born and raised) and considered the extent to which
immigration influenced their self-esteem, depression and feelings about themselves and
how far this, and their level of acculturation, effected their cognitive and social
functioning.
As a result of a sudden change of environment, immigrants often undergo a
culture shock (Ticho, 1971) which can result in a variety of psychological
manifestations (Garza-Guerrero, 1974). Indeed, in the initial phase following migration,
an immigrant may be considered to be emotionally vulnerable (Oppedal, Roysamb &
38
Sam, 2004). Additionally, migration can pose threats to the immigrants sense of identity.
Differences in the new environment can be felt in many aspects of life, for example
language, as well as how to find his or her place, in the new community and acquire
anew the social position and professional status s/he enjoyed in the homeland (Grinberg
& Grinberg, 1984). This can lead to a shake-up in a sense of self and a decrease in an
individuals self esteem (Akhtar, 1999). Similarly, these changes can result in a risk of
mental health (Abebe, Lien & Hjelde, 2013), in particular depression (Chae, Park & Sun
Kang, 2014). Feelings of self esteem and depression can add to a persons mental
workload (Croizet et al., 2004, Bertilsson et al., 2013), and this in turn can affect their
cognitive and social functioning (Wylie, 1979, Baumeister et al., 2003).
The study hypothesized that, as a result of the immigration process, newer
immigrants would have lower self esteem and higher levels of depression than veteran
immigrants and those Israeli born. In practice no differences in self esteem or depression
were noted between the groups. Differences in levels of damage to self between the two
groups were noted, as were levels of acculturation, with newer immigrants experiencing
more damage to self and less acculturation than veteran immigrants. In addition, both
damage to self and acculturation were connected to levels of self esteem and depression
with higher damage to self and lower acculturation correlating with lower self esteem
and higher depression levels.
The damage to self questionnaire contains questions regarding the immigrants
relationship with Israel (e.g. feeling Israeli culture is rude, feeling excited to be in Israel,
feeling Israelis accept me, feeling I cant relate to Israeli culture) and regarding the
immigrants relationship with oneself (e.g. feeling sad, confused, humiliated). On
comparison of the scores of the two types of questions, participants showed significantly
higher feelings of damage to self with regards to their relationship with Israel as opposed
39
to with themselves. This would suggest that the significant effects of immigration relate
more to a sense of belonging and connecting to the new country rather than affecting a
persons relationship with himself. Similarly, immigrants that had been in Israel for
longer felt significantly more acculturated than those who had been in Israel for less than
two years. This was demonstrated through several areas including feeling a connection
with Israel, having a strong Israeli identity, feeling a part of Israeli culture and
demonstrating high levels of Hebrew.
As Grinberg & Grinberg (1989) point out, immigration is a stress-inducing
situation, often involving mourning over the loss of family, friends, language, music,
food, and so forth, which can involve a threat to the newcomers identity. The results
suggest that while the process of immigration does have a negative effect on the sense of
self, such as a loss of feelings of competence and a sense of belonging (Walsh and
Horencyzk, 2001) this is mainly related to adjusting to the new country rather than
changes with regards to a persons relationship with themselves.
Indeed recent research seems to support these findings. Marcus (2011)
examination of immigrants notes that getting out and learning about a new country, job
security, and integration into society, were all critical in finding a place in a new country.
Additionally, the themes that emerged in the re-construction of identity were the sense of
language, the sense of home, the fluidity of identity, personal ties and the future. In his
research, Goldman (2014) found that belonging indicated a process by which immigrants
gained a sense of identification with and inclusion in the new society. Immigrants'
perception of belonging was affected by two themes, forming attachments and feeling
acceptance (a reciprocal process of acceptance that revealed a struggle to accept cultural
changes as well as the significance of feeling accepted as an equal member of society).
As such, the results of the study emphasized the centrality of feelings of belonging and
41
attachment in the immigrant experience. It seems that it is these feelings which are
threatened as opposed to the immigrants feelings toward him/herself per se.
With regards to depression, it is possible that although, as studies suggest,
immigration has an impact on psychological distress (Mirsky, 1997, Abebe, Lien &
Hjelde, 2013) this distress shows itself through other symptoms rather than depression
thus explaining the lack of significant differences in levels of depression between the
three groups in the study. Indeed immigration has been related to anxiety disorders
(Aglipay, Colman & Chen, 2013), emotional and behavioural problems (Derluyn,
Broekaert & Schuyten, 2008) and PTSD (Foster, 2001).
The findings suggest that neither the act of immigration itself, nor the amount of
time since immigration occurred, affect self esteem, rather it was a persons sense of
identity and belonging with regards to the new country, in other words their levels of
acculturation, which was related to levels of self-esteem. The relationship between
acculturation, and in particular identity, and self-esteem has been found to vary in a
myriad of ways (Perez, 2011). In Sams (2000) study of immigrant adolescents in
Norway, immigrant ethnic identity and Norwegian (host culture) identity were found to
be positively correlated with self esteem. Benet-Martinez and Karakitapoglu-Ayguen
(2003) found that self-esteem among Asian-American college students was positively
related to American identity. Phinney et al. (1992) found that maintaining a positive
identification with both ones own culture and the mainstream culture predicted higher
levels of self esteem. A long standing position in ethnic studies is that English
proficiency has a strong impact on self esteem among individuals in the US with
immigrant backgrounds (Jackson & Lassiter, 2001). Indeed the regular use of English is
thought to increase self esteem by promoting a sense of competence (Schnittker, 2002).
These studies help us to understand the relationship found between acculturation and self
41
esteem in this study and once again suggest that the significant factor in immigration and
its effects on individuals relates to their sense of identity and the changes the immigration
process causes to it.
Acculturation levels were also found to correlate with depression levels. Sense of
belonging is a concept which has been explicated and associated with mental health
(Hagerty & Williams, 1999). Hagerty, Williams, Coyne, and Early (1996) posited that a
lower sense of belonging is related to depression. It therefore stands to reason that those
who feel they no longer belong to their home country but also are not acculturated within
Israel would be more depressed. However research in this area appears to be sparse and
further research is necessary to consider how far a sense of belonging is a determining
factor in the depression levels of new immigrants. In summary, the research suggests that
immigrants, when they first move to a new country, go through a process of acculturation,
which relates to their ability to create a relationship with, and a sense of belonging within,
the new country, and that those who have trouble acculturating will experience lower self
esteem and higher levels of depression.
The study is one of the first to examine the effect of self esteem on cognitive
functioning. The study hypothesized that low self esteem would result in lower
performance on intellectual tasks as a result of added mental burden (Baumeister, 1984).
From the various cognitive tests the participants were asked to perform, a correlation was
found between scores on the Wechsler Symbol Search test and levels of self esteem, with
those with higher levels of self esteem scoring higher on the test. With all other tests, no
correlation was found. On further examination it was found that levels of self esteem
significantly predicted scores on the Symbol Search test. The Symbol Search subtest is
designed to assess information processing speed and visual perception. Cognitive
psychology has extensively studied the processes underlying mental workload and their
42
43
and Israel. He finds that in Canada the impact of high achievement value preferences on
mathematical self-esteem is substantially larger than in the other two countries, thereby
leading to a stronger indirect impact of values on grades. The role of parental
achievement expectations in Israel, however, differs from the other two countries. While
in Germany and Canada, high perceived parental achievement expectations are a hotbed
of manifest anxiety; this may not be the case in Israel.
This goes some way in assisting in understanding why self esteem for immigrants
would affect cognitive performance, whilst it doesnt for Israelis, but further
investigation needs to occur to fully understand. Similarly, research has shown that
educational achievement increases as acculturation increases (Won, 1989), therefore it is
possible that in the period after immigration when acculturation is lower, and is
burdening the individual, self esteem is much lower and therefore has much more of an
effect on cognitive functioning. Alternatively the differences between the groups may be
due to the small number of participants.
A negative correlation was also found between the scores on the Wechsler
Symbol Search test and levels of depression for all three groups. In other words, the
higher the level of depression, the lower the test scores. This would suggest that, as with
self esteem, depression influences the cognitive functions of information processing
speed and/or visual perception. In adults with major depressive disorder empirical
evidence supports the existence of moderate but significant cognitive deficits (Wagner et
al., 2014). However recent research has expressed that, due to divergent findings, a
picture consolidating which cognitive domains and functions are affected has yet to be
elucidated (Hammar et al., 2010). Some studies have shown that depression interferes
with automatic information processing (Suslaw et at., 2004). Further studies are clearly
44
needed to determine why this particular test was affected by levels of depression whilst
others were not.
Since no differences were found in self esteem between the three groups, the
hypothesis that immigration effects self esteem which in turn affects cognitive function
was not proven. However differences in cognitive functioning between the three groups
were found, suggesting that other factors may affect the mental burden and in turn the
cognitive functioning of immigrants. Firstly, a difference was identified between results
of the Israelis versus the immigrants with Israelis scoring higher on the Raven Full Test
than their immigrant counterparts. The Raven test measures problem solving ability
(Raven et al., 1993), fluid intelligence (Cattell, 1963) and analytic intelligence (Carpenter,
Just & Shell, 1990).
Since this difference does not appear to be related to self esteem, the cause of this
difference needs to be examined. According to Kaniel and Fisherman (1991) there is a
consensus amongst psychologists that minority and immigrant groups score lower than
dominant groups in IQ tests. They explain this in two ways. One approach suggests that
ethnic differences and genetic makeup are a source of variation in the timing of cognitive
development. The other approach suggests that differences are due to differences in
culturally-induced psychological, cognitive and behavioral strategies.
Additionally, it may be that stress, in particular acculturation stress, is causing the
differences between the groups. Indeed stress has been found to be cause cognitive
impairments (Robinson et al., 2003), and interfere with cognitive control and tasks, in
particular verbal and spatial working memory (Koric et al., 2012), and controlled task
focused thinking (Kivimaki & Lusa, 1994). Alternatively, differences in education
systems and methods, of the various countries could also be of influence here. For
example the Israeli education system involves psychometric testing for entrance into
45
university which tests, verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning and English. It is possible
that the training and preparation for these tests assisted the Israelis in performing better in
the Raven test. This area remains unstudied and requires further research.
Cognitive functioning was found to be effected both by damage to self and
acculturation. The results suggest that those will higher levels of damage to self perform
less well on the Wechsler Symbol Search test and the Raven 20 tests with those more
acculturated scoring better on these tests. On further examination it was found that levels
of acculturation are the most significant predictor of results on the Raven 20 test. In
particular the control over Hebrew language is the largest predictor of higher results on
the test. With regards to the Wechsler Symbol Search test, although levels of
acculturation and damage to self do seem to predict results on this test, it would appear
that self esteem is the most significant predictor here.
There are several possible explanations for the finding regarding acculturation
levels and results on the Raven 20 test. It may be that, as previously suggested, the
immigration process effects mental burden, which is turn has an effect of the areas of
cognitive functioning that the Ravens test measures. Indeed Herrera (1998) found that
acculturation is an important moderator variable in relation to the Raven's Standard
Progressive Matrices even after controlling for education and age. As stated, further
examination of this area needs to be carried out in order to understand this relationship
better.
An alternative explanation may be related to language. The Ravens Standard
Progressive Matrices is a widely used test of non-verbal reasoning ability (Stone, Wong
& Lo, 2000). Indeed the Ravens Progressive Matrices epitomize one of the first and
most successful attempts to present inductive reasoning and analogical tasks in nonverbal format (Cockcroft & Israel, 2011). However, some studies have shown that the
46
47
The differences between the groups, with regards to the effect of self esteem and
depression, on social functioning, are difficult to interpret. It is unclear as to why the
veteran immigrant participants would function differently to the other two groups. Some
studies have shown that peoples own evaluations of their ethnic group are likely linked
to their personal self-esteem (Perkins, Wiley & Deaux, 2014). Another study has shown
that this is true of first-generation immigrants (i.e., for those born outside the United
States), but not of second generation (i.e., those born in the United States to at least one
immigrant parent), (Wiley, Perkins, & Deaux, 2008). Perhaps veteran immigrants are
closer in status to second generation immigrants, and their evaluation of their immigrant
group drastically changes over time, and therefore their levels of self esteem are
significantly different from newer immigrants in regards to how they evaluate those
around them, which in turn effects their social functioning.
It is possible that the small number of participants in each group accounts for the
differences. Or perhaps, having lived in Israel for a longer period of time, the veteran
immigrants have juggled enough trials and tribulations that their self esteem has
strengthened and is not in any way related to outside factors. Little if no research appears
to have been carried out examining this area and therefore further consideration of these
factors needs to occur.
With regards to damage to self, it is possible that levels of damage to self only
effect social functioning when damage to self levels are particularly low, as would be
expected in the first two years of immigration, and that once levels reach a certain point
there is no longer a link to social functioning. Since we found that self esteem is
connected to social functioning and that acculturation levels effect self esteem it is not
surprising to find that acculturation levels also effect social functioning. Indeed one
48
would expect that those who felt a strong identity with Israel and a better control of
Hebrew to find it easier to form relationships.
Migration scholars have paid little attention to the relationship between language
skills and feelings of belonging or exclusion for immigrants and refugees (Nawyn et al.,
2012). Some exceptions include Warriner (2007) who found that ESL instruction
neglected language learning that would help Sudanese refugee women engage with their
new surroundings, and Allen (2007) who found that in communities without sufficient
language support, refugees can experience significant social isolation. It is therefore
unsurprising that control of Hebrew language has an effect on social relationships,
however this area requires further examination.
The findings of this research have several implications. With regards to the effect
of self esteem and depression on certain cognitive functions, it would be beneficial to
utilize this information within educational systems (such as schools and universities) in
order to examine how far these elements are effecting students abilities. If educational
systems would take this into account and provide students with help dealing with their
self esteem and depression issues, not only would this positively affect their well being
but it would also enable them to advance rather than creating experiences of failure.
The research also has implications for countries that deal with a large influx of
immigrants, in particular Israel. Since the study suggests that an immigrants sense of
identity and belonging with regards to their new country, will affect their self esteem and
depression levels, efforts should be made to assist the immigrants in adjusting to the new
country in order to help increase their state of well being and decrease the possibility of
psychological distress. This in turn will assist in both their cognitive and social
functioning which will have wider implications in terms of finding work and becoming
active and contributing members of society.
49
51
However it is possible that this is linked to a persons language skills and their ability to
acquire a new language. Once again research that looks at immigrants before as well as
during the immigration process, in particular their scores on the Raven 20 test and their
knowledge and acquisition of the Hebrew language, would better assist in determining
the influential factors. It would also be beneficial to carry out similar studies with
immigrants from other countries and also to other countries in order to determine how far
these factors are characteristic of all immigrants and for all languages or specific to Israel
and to the Hebrew language.
In conclusion, this study has found that immigrants moving to Israel from
English speaking countries seem to be tackling the issue of creating a sense of belonging
with the new culture and environment, noted through their levels of acculturation. This
process appears to be affecting their levels of self esteem and depression, with those
struggling to acculturate experiencing lower self esteem and higher levels of depression.
In addition their levels of acculturation have an influence on their levels of cognitive
functioning in certain areas, as well as their social functioning. In particular, within the
acculturation process, success at learning Hebrew appears to have the most influence on
cognitive functioning levels. Additionally self esteem and depression were also found to
have a direct link with cognitive and social functioning, although this appears to be
unrelated to the immigration process.
51
References
, , .)9111( . ,
.
. ",
Abebe, D.S., Lien, L., & Hjelde, K.H. (2014). What we know and dont know about
mental health problems among immigrants in Norway. Journal of Immigrant and
Minority Health, 16(1), 60-67
Aglipay, M., Colman, I., & Chen, Y. (2013). Does the healthy immigrant effect extend
to anxiety disorders? Evidence from a nationally representative study. Journal of
Immigrant and Minority Health, 15(5), 851-857.
Akhtar, S. (1999). Immigration and Identity: Turmoil, Treatment and Transformation.
Northvale, New Jersey, London: Jason Aronson Inc, pp. 5-165.
Allen, R. (2007). Sometimes its hard here to call someone to ask for help: Social
capital in a refugee community in Portland, Maine. Urban and Regional Studies,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA
Amit, K., & Riss, I. (2007). The role of social networks in the immigration decisionmaking process: The case of North American immigration to Israel. Immigrants
and Minorities, 25(3), 290313.
Amit, K., & Semyonov, M. (2006). Israel as a returning Diaspora. Metropolis World
Bulletin, 6, 1114
Baumeister, R.F. (1984). Choking Under Pressure: Self-Consciousness and Paradoxical
Effects of Incentives on Skillful Performance. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology. 46(3), 610-620.
Baumeister, R.F., Campbell, J.D., Krueger, J.I., & Vohs, K.D. (2003). Does High Selfesteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, Or
Healthier Lifestyles? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(1), 1-44.
Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A., & Brown, G.K. (1996). Manual for Beck Depression InventorySecond Edition. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
Bedi, R.P., Koopman, R.F., & Thompson, J.M. (2002). The dimensionality of the Beck
Depression Inventory-II and its relevance for tailoring the psychological
treatment of women with depression. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and
Practice, 38, 306318.
Ben-David, A. (1996). Cross-cultural differences between Russian Immigrants and
Israeli college students: the effect of the family on the sense of coherence. Israel
Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences, 33, 13-20.
Benet-Martinez, V., & Karakitapoglu-Ayguen, Z. (2003). The interplay of cultural
syndromes and personality in predicting life satisfaction: Comparing Asian
Americans and European Americans. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34,
3860.
52
Ben Shalom, U., & Horenczyk, G. (2004). Cultural identity and adaptation in an
assimilative setting: Immigrant soldiers from the former Soviet Union in Israel. .
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 28, 461-479.
Berry, J.W. (1992). Acculturation and adaptation in a new society. International
Migration, 30, 69-85.
Berry, J.W. (1997). Immigration, Acculturation, and Adaptation. Applied Psychology: An
International Review, 46(1), 4-68.
Berry, J.W., Phinney, J.S., Sam, D.L., & Vedder, P. (2006). Immigrant Youth in Cultural
Transition: Acculturation, Identity, and Adaptation Across National Contexts.
Mahwah, New Jersey, London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, pp 71254
Bertilsson, M., Petersson, E., stlund, G., Waern, M., & Hensing, G. (2013).
Capacity to work while depressed and anxious A phenomenological study.
Disability and Rehabilitation: An International, Multidisciplinary Journal,
35(20), 1705-1711.
Bibring, E. (1953). The mechanism of depression. In: Affective Disorders, New York:
International Universities Press, pp. 13-48.
Bishop, J.A., & Inderbitzen, H.M. (1995). Peer acceptance and friendship: An
investigation of their relation to self-esteem. Journal of Early Adolescence, 15,
476-489
Boehnke, K. (2005). Value orientations in relation to mathematical self-esteem: An
exploratory study of their role in mathematical achievement among
German, Israeli, and Canadian 14-year-olds. European Journal of Psychology of
Education, 20(3), 227-241.
Bonanno, G.A., Wortman, C.B., Lehman, D.R., Tweed, R.G., Haring, M., Sonnega, J.,
Carr, D., & Nesse, R.M. (2002). Resilience to loss and chronic grief: A
prospective study from preloss to 18-months postloss. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 83(5), 1150-1164.
Brown, J.D., & Mankowski, T.A. (1993). Self-Esteem, Mood, and Self-Evaluation:
Changes in Mood and the Way You See You. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 64(3), 421-430.
Buhrmester, D., Furman, W., Wittenberg, M.T., & Reis, H.T. (1988). Five Domains of
Interpersonal Competence in Peer Relationships. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 55(6), 991-1008.
Campbell, J.D., & Fairey, P.J. (1985). Effects of Self-Esteem, Hypothetical Explanations,
and Verbalization of Expectancies on Future Performance. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 48(5), 1097-1111.
Carpenter, P.A., Just, M.A., & Shell, P. (1990). What one intelligence test measures: A
theoretical account of the processing in the Raven Progressive Matrices Test.
Psychological Review, 97, 404-431.
53
Cattell, R.B. (1963). Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A critical experiment.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 54, 1-22.
Chae, S.M.,Park, J.W., & Kang, H.S. (2014). Relationships of acculturative stress,
depression, and social support to health-related quality of life in Vietnamese
immigrant women in South Korea. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 25(2), 137144.
Cho, S., Matsumoto, Y., & Kimura, H. (2009). The moderating effect of self-esteem on
the relationship between public self-consciousness, social anxiety and
exhibitionism in Japan and South Korea. Japanese Journal of Psychology, 80(4),
313-320.
Church A. (1982). Sojourner adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 540-572
Cockcroft, K., & Israel, N. (2011). The Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices: A
comparison of relationships with verbal ability tests. South African Journal of
Psychology, 41(3), 363-372.
Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R., Blaine, B., & Broadnax, S. (1994). Collective self-esteem and
psychological well-being among White, Black, and Asian college students.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 503513.
Croizet, J.C., & Claire, T. (1998). Extending the Concept of Stereotype Threat to Social
Class: The Intellectual Underperformance of Students From Low Socioeconomic
Backgrounds. Society for Personality and Social Psychology, 24(6), 588-594.
Croizet, J.C., Despres, G., Gauzins, M.E., Huguet, P., Leyens, J.P., & Meot, A. (2004).
Stereotype Threat Undermines Intellectual Performance by Triggering A
Disruptive Mental Load. Society for Personality and Social Psychology, 30(6),
721-731.
Davies, J., & Brember, I. (1999). Reading and mathematics attainments and self-esteem
in years 2 and 6 an eight year cross-sectional study. Educational Studies, 25,
145-157.
Deaux, K. (1993). Reconstructing social identity. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 19(1), 4-12.
Derluyn, I., Broekaert, E., & Schuyten, G. (2008). Emotional and behavioural problems
in migrant adolescents in Belgium. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,
17(1), 54-62.
Dolphin, L., & Hennessy, E. (2014). Adolescents' perceptions of peers with depression:
An attributional analysis. Psychiatry Research, 218(3), 295-302.
Erol, R.Y., & Orth, U. (2014). Development of self-esteem and relationship satisfaction
in couples: Two longitudinal studies. Developmental Psychology, 50(9), 22912303.
Flynn,
54
Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Gruen, R. J., & DeLongis, A. (1986). Appraisal, coping,
health-status, and psychological symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 50, 571579.
Follingstad D.R. (2009). The impact of psychological aggression on womens mental
health and behavior: the status of the field. Trauma, Violence Abuse, 10(3), 271289.
Foster, R.M.P. (2001). When immigration is trauma: Guidelines for the individual and
family clinician. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71(2), 153-170.
Frone, M.R. (2000). Interpersonal conflict at work and psychological outcomes: Testing
a model among young workers. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5,
246-255.
Freud, S. (1917). Mourning and Melancholia, Standard Edition, London: Hogarth Press,
1957, pp. 239-258.
Garza-Guerrero, A.C. (1974). Culture Shock: Its Mourning and the Vicissitudes of
Identity. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 22, 408-429.
Gellis, Z.D. (2003). Kin and nonkin social supports in a community sample of
Vietnamese immigrants. Social Work, 48, 248-258.
Glendinning, A., & Inglis, D. (1999). Smoking behaviour in youth: The problem of low
self esteem? Journal of Adolescence, 22, 673-682.
Goldman, M. (2014). Beyond acculturation: Cultural constructions of immigrant
resilience and belonging in the Canadian context. Dissertation Abstracts
International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 74(8-B(E)).
Grinberg, L., & Grinberg, R. (1989). Psychoanalytic Perspectives on Migration and
Exile. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, pp. 4-134.
Hagerty, B.M., & Williams, A.R. (1999). Effects of Sense of Belonging, Social Support,
Conflict, and Loneliness on Depression. Nursing Research, 48(4), 215-219.
Hamel, R., & Schmittmann, V.D. (2006) The 20-Minute Version as a Predictor of
the Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices Test. Educational and Psychological
Measurement, 66(6), 1039-1046.
Hammen, C. (2012). The Social Context of Adolescent Depression: Vulnerabilities and
Consequences. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 3(5), 739-749.
Hendrick, S.S., Hendrick, C., & Adler, N.L. (1988). Romantic relationships: Love,
satisfaction, and staying together. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
54, 980-988.
Herrera, L.P. (1998). The relationship between acculturation and the Raven's
Standard Progressive Matrices in an Hispanic sample. Dissertation Abstracts
International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 59(6-B), 3059.
55
Koric, L., Volle, E., Seassau, M., Bernard, F.A., Mancini, J., Dubois, B., Pelissolo, A., &
Levy, R. (2012). How cognitive performance-induced stress can influence right
VLPFC activation: An fMRI study in healthy subjects and in patients with social
phobia. Human Brain Mapping, 33(8), 1973-1986.
Lakey, B., Tardiff, T.A., & Drew, J.B. (1994). Negative social interactions: Assessment
and relations to social support, cognitive, and psychological distress. Journal of
Social and Clinical Psychology, 13, 42-62.
Liebkind, K. (2001) Acculturation. In Brown, R. & Gaertner, Blackwell Handbook of
Social Psychology: Intergroup Processes, Blackwell Publishing, pp. 386-406
)http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1405106549/ref=sib_dp_pt#reader-link) Date
of Entry: 22nd January 2008.
Lee S.H., Lee Y.J., Kim S.Y., & Kim S. J. (2009). Social support and acculturative stress
in migrant workers. Journal of Korean Academy Nursing, 39, 899-910.
Lee, J.S., Koeske, G.F., & Sales, E. (2004). Social support buffering of acculturative
stress: A study of mental health symptoms among Korean international students.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 28, 399-414.
Lieberman, H.R., Karl, J.P., Niro, P.J., Williams, K.W., Farina, E.K., Cable, S.J., &
McClung, J.P. (2014). Positive effects of basic training on cognitive performance
and mood of adult females. Human Factors, 56(6), 1113-1123.
Lynn, R., Allik, J., & Irwing, P. (2004). Sex differences on three factors identified in
Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices. Intelligence, 32(4), 411-424.
Makar, K.K. (2014). Predictors of students' academic performance. Dissertation
Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 75(1-A(E)).
Marcu, S. (2012). Emotions on the move: Belonging, sense of place and feelings
identities among young Romanian immigrants in Spain. Journal of Youth Studies,
15(2), 207-223.
Marigold, D.C., Cavallo, J.V., Holmes, J.G., & Wood, J.V. You cant always give what
you want: The challenge of providing social support to low self-esteem
individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107(1), 56-80.
Markus, C.R., Panhuysen, G., Tuiten, A., Koppeschaar, H., Fekkes, D., & Peters, M. L.
(1998). Does carbohydrate-rich, protein-poor food prevent a deterioration of
mood and cognitive performance of stress-prone subjects when subjected to a
stressful task? Appetite, 31(1), 49-65.
McGrath, J. E. (1976). Stress and behavior in organizations. In M. Dunnette (Ed.),
Handbook of industrial organizational psychology, Chicago: Rand McNally Co.,
Inc., pp. 13511395.
McKay, P.F., Doverspike, D., Bowen-Hilton, D., & McKay, Q. (2003). The Effects of
Demographic Variables and Stereotype Threat on Black/White Differences in
Cognitive Ability Test Performance. Journal of Business and Psychology, 18(1),
1-14.
57
McTernan, W.P., Dollard, M.F., & LaMontagne, A.D. (2013). Depression in the
workplace: An economic cost analysis of depression-related productivity loss
attributable to job strain and bullying. Work & Stress, 27(4), 321-338.
Michon, H.W.C., Ten Have, M., Kroon, H., Van Weeghl, J., De Graaf, R., & Schene,
A.H. (2008). Mental disorders and personality traits as determinants of impaired
work functioning. Psychological Medicine, 38(11), 1627-1637.
Mirsky, J. (1997), Psychological distress among immigrant adolescents: Culture-specific
factors in the case of immigrants from the former Soviet Union. International
Journal of Psychology, 32(4), 221-230.
Mori, S. (2000). Addressing the mental health concerns of international student. Journal
of Counseling & Development, 78, 137-144.
Murray, S.L., Rose, P., Bellavia, G., Holmes, J.G., & Kusche, A. (2002). When rejection
stings: How self-esteem constrains relationship-enhancement process. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 556-573.
Nawyn, S.J., Gjokaj, L., Agbnyiga, D.L., & Grace, B. (2012). Linguistic
isolation, social capital, and immigrant belonging. Journal of Contemporary
Ethnography, 41(3), 255-282.
Neff, J. A., & Hoppe, S. K. (1992). Acculturation and drinking patterns among U.S.
Anglos, Blacks, and Mexican Americans. Alcohol & Alcoholism, 27, 293-308.
Netterstrm, B., Conrad, N., Bech, P., Fink, P., Olsen, O., Rugulies, R., & Stansfeld, S.
(2008). The Relation between Work-related Psychosocial Factors and the
Development of Depression. Epidemiologic Reviews, 30, 118-132.
Oberg, K. (1960). Culture Shock: Adjustment to new cultural environments. Practical
Anthropology, 7, 177-182.
OConnor, K.M., Arnold, J.A., & Maurizio, A.M. (2010). The prospect of negotiating:
Stress, cognitive appraisal, and performance. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 46(5), 729-735.
Olson, D.R. (1986). Intelligence and literacy: The relationship between intelligence and
the technologies of representation and communication. In R. J. Stemberg, & R.K.
Wagner (Eds.), Practical intelligence: nature and origins of competence in the
everyday world, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 338-360.
Oppedal, B.,Rysamb, E., Sam, D.L. (2004). The effect of acculturation and social
support on change in mental health among young immigrants. International
Journal of Behavioral Development, 28(6), 481-494
Othieno, C.J., Okoth, R.O., Peltzer, K., Pengpid, S., & Malla, L.O. (2014).
Depression among university students in
Kenya:
Prevalence
and
sociodemographic correlates. Journal of Affective Disorders, 65, 120-125.
Paradise, A.W., & Kernis, M.H. (2002). Self-esteem and psychological well-being:
implications of fragile self-esteem. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,
21(4), 345-361.
58
Sherer, M., & Enbal, B. (2006). In the shadow of dispute: Self-esteem of Jewish and
Arab youths in Israel. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 30(3),
287-309.
Simon, W.E., & Simon, M.G. (1975), Self-esteem, intelligence, and standardized
academic achievement. Psychology in the Schools, 12, 97-100.
Sinclair, S.J., Blais, M.A., Gansler, D.A., Sandberg. E., Bistis, K., & LoCicero, A.
(2010). Psychometric properties of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: overall and
across demographic groups living within the United States. Evaluation & the
Health Professions, 33, 5680.
Spencer-Rodgers, J., & Collins, N. L. (2006). Risk and resilience: Dual effects of
perceptions of group disadvantage among Latinos. Journal of Experimental
Social Psychology, 42, 729737.
Stice, E., Ragan, J., & Randall, P. (2004). Prospective Relations Between Social Support
and Depression: Differential Direction of Effects for Parent and Peer Support?
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113(1), 155-159.
Stone, R.R., Wong, G., & Lo, S. (2000). English in Hong Kong: A preliminary study of
the ACER Word Knowledge TestForm F and the Raven's Standard Progressive
Matrices as indicators of verbal reasoning ability and abstract reasoning ability
among Hong Kong university students. Educational Research, 42(3), 330-336.
Suslow, T., Dannlowski, U., Lalee-Mentzel, J., Donges, U., Arolt, V. & Kersting, A.
(2004). Spatial processing of facial emotion in patients with unipolar depression:
a longitudinal study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 83, 5963.
Ticho, G. (1971). Cultural Aspects of Transference and Countertransference. Bull
Menninger Clinic, 35, 313-334.
Thrandhart, D. (2000). Tainted Blood: The Ambivalence of Ethnic Migration in Israel,
Japan,
Korea,
Germany
and
the
United
States.
(http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=H3rLyyG4y4HQg09QDp
YYkCTh2hJ0765HNgyp6Bqs2FHK3Y2dvKQB!1454875190?docId=500238017
4). Date of Entry: 15th December 2007.
Wagner, S., Mller, C., Helmreich, I., Huss, M., & Tadi, A. (2014). A meta-analysis of
cognitive functions in children and adolescents with major depressive disorder.
European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, (Epub ahead of print).
Walsh, S., & Shulman, S. (2007). Splits in the self following immigration: An adaptive
defense or a pathological reaction. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 4(2), 355-372.
Walsh, S.D. (2008). The damage to self questionnaire. Unpublished Manuscript.
Walsh S., Shulman, S., & Maurer, O. (2008). Immigration distress, mental health statues
and coping amount your immigrants: A one year follow-up study. International
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32(5), 371384.
Walsh, S. & Horenczyk, G. (2001). Gendered patterns of experience in social and
cultural transition: The case of English speaking immigrants in Israel. Sex Roles,
45, 501-528.
61
Walsh, S., Shulman, S., & Maurer, O. (2005). The impact to the self on adjustment
among immigrant emerging adults. A one year follow-up study. Journal of Youth
and Adolescence, 34(5), 413-426.
Warriner, D.S. (2007). Language learning and the politics of belonging: Sudanese
women refugees becoming and being American. Anthropology & Education
Quarterly, 38(4), 343-59.
Wechsler, D. (1997b). WAIS-III: Administration and scoring manual. Orlando, FL:
Psychological Corporation.
Wechsler, D. (1997a). WAIS-III: Technical manual. Orlando, FL: Psychological
Corporation.
Whisman, M.A., & Baucom, D.H. (2012). Intimate relationships and psychopathology.
Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 15(1), 4-13.
Whitton, S.W., & Kuryluk, A.D. (2014). Associations between relationship quality and
depressive symptoms in same-sex couples. Journal of Family Psychology, 28(4),
571-576.
Won, C.J. (1989). The relationships among immigrant parental expectation, scholastic
achievement, and self-esteem of foreign born and second-generation ChineseAmerican high school students. Dissertation Abstracts International, 49(7-A),
1717-1718.
Wylie, R.C. (1979). The self-concept: Vol. 2. Theory and research on selected topics.
Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Yu,
X.,
Stewart,
S.M.,
Liu,
I.K.F.,
&
Lam,
T.H.
(2014).
Resilience and depressive symptoms in mainland Chinese immigrants to Hong
Kong. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 49(2), 241-249.
61
Appendix
Appendix 1: Demographic Questionnaire
Appendix 2: Rosenbergs Self-Esteem Scale (1965)
Appendix 3: Walshs Damage to Self Questionnaire (2008)
Appendix 4: Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI)
Appendix 5: Acculturation Scale
Appendix 6: Social Functioning Test
62
63
64
.1 )1( :
( )2
.2:
( )2" - :
.3 ? ( )1 ,/ 5
.4 ?
( )2
.5 )1( :
( )3
( )4
.6 :
.1
.2
.3
.4
.7 ?
.1 " .
.2 " .
.3
.4 - .
.5 .
.6 ( /)
.8 )1( :
( )2
( )4
( )3
( )5
.9 ? _______
.11 / /? ( )1
( )2 . ? _________
( )2
( )3
_________
.14 ?
.1 3,111
.2 3,111 4,511
.3 4,511 8,111
.4 8,111 11,111
.5 11,111
.15 )1( : ( )2 ( )3 ( )4
.16 ?
()1
.17 ?
( )2 ,? __________
( )1 ( )2 ,? _________
65
Agree
Disagree
On the whole I am
satisfied with myself
Strongly
disagree
4
At times I think I am
no good at all
I feel that I have a
number of good
qualities
I am able to do things
as well as most other
people
I feel that I am a
person of worth, at
least on an equal
plane with others
I wish I could have
more self-respect for
myself
All in all, I am
inclined to think that
I am a failure
I take a positive
attitude towards
myself
66
/
/
/
/
/
/
/ ,
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
67
9
9
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
37
38
39
40
41
42
9
9
9
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
9
9
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
9
9
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
69
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
71
9
9
9
9
9
9
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
9
9
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
9
9
9
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
9
9
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
0.
1.
2.
3.
2.
0.
1.
2.
3.
3.
0.
1.
2.
3.
4.
0.
1.
2.
3.
5.
0.
1.
2.
3.
6.
0.
1.
2.
3.
7.
0.
1.
2.
3.
8.
71
0.
1.
2.
3.
10.
0.
1.
2.
3.
11.
0.
1.
2.
3.
12.
0.
1.
2.
3.
13.
0.
1.
2.
3.
14.
0. I don't feel that I look any worse than I did in the past.
1. I worry that I look older than I am or that I am unattractive.
2. I feel that irreversible changes in my appearance have begun and
they are causing me to look less attractive.
3. I feel that I am ugly.
15.
0.
1.
2.
3.
16.
72
0.
1.
2.
3.
18.
0.
1.
2.
3.
19.
21.
0.
1.
2.
3.
73
. / .
/ ,
.
/ .
,/ .
/ / / .
.0 .9 / /.
.9 /.
.2 / / .
.3 / / / .
.0 .2 / .
.9 / .
.2 / .
.3 / .
.0 .3 / .
.9 / .
.2 .
.3 / .
.0 .4 / .
.9 / .
.2 / .
.3 / , .
.5
.0 / / .
.9 / / .
.2 / / .
.3 / / .
.6
.0 / .
.9 / / .
.2 .
.3 / /.
.7
.0 / .
.9 / .
.2 / .
.3 / .
.8
.0 / / .
74
.9 /
.
.2 / .
.3 / .
.1
.0 .
.9 , .
.2 .
.3 .
.90
.0 .
.9 .
.2 .
.3 , /
.
.99
.0 / .
.9 / .
.2 / .
.3 / .
.92
.0 .
.9 / .
.2 .
.3 .
.93
.0 / .
.9 / .
.2 .
.3 / .
.94
.0 / / .
.9 / / / /.
.2 /
/.
.3 / /.
.95
.0 / .
.9 .
.2 .
.3 / .
75
.96
.0 / .
.9 / .
.2 / .
.3 / /
.
.97
.0 / .
.9 / .
.2 / .
.3 / .
.98
.0 .
.9 .
.2 .
.3 .
.0 , ,.
.91
.9 2" .
.2 5" .
.3 7" .
/:
.20
.0 / .
.9 / : ,
.
.2 / .
.3 / /
.
.29
.0 .
.9 .
.2 .
.3 .
76
a
b
c
d
Not
at
all
1
1
1
1
A
Some- Fairly Very
little what
well
well
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Strongly
disagree
1
Somewhat
disagree
2
Not
sure/neutral
3
Somewhat Strongly
agree
agree
4
5
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
77
13
14
15
16
B. People differ in how important they consider aspects of themselves to be. How
important are the following aspects of yourself to you?
17
18
19
20
21
That I am English
That I am Israeli.
That I am a person/human being.
That I am Jewish.
That I am male/female.
Not
at
all
1
1
1
A
Some- Fairly Very
little what
well
well
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
C. Here are some statements about language, cultural traditions, friends etc. Please
indicate how much you agree or disagree with each statement by checking the answer
that applies best to you.
2
3
4
5
6
Strongly
disagree
1
Somewhat
disagree
2
Not
sure/neutral
3
Somewhat
agree
4
Strongly
agree
5
78
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
a
b
c
d
Not
at
all
1
1
1
1
Understand English
Speak English
Read English
Write English
79
A
Some- Fairly Very
little what
well
well
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
a
b
c
d
Not
at
all
1
1
1
1
Understand Hebrew
Speak Hebrew
Read Hebrew
Write Hebrew
81
A
Some- Fairly Very
little what
well
well
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
82
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
Please indicate how much you agree or disagree with each of the following statements:
Strongly
Agree
1
Moderately
Agree
2
Slightly
Agree
Slightly
Disagree
Moderately
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
4 5 6
4 5 6
4 5 6
4 5 6
4 5 6
4 5 6
I know I can trust my friends, and they know they can trust
me
4 5 6
4 5 6
4 5 6
83
, .
.
:
9 , ,
.
2 , .
3 .
4 .
5 .
, .
.
:
9 ,
2 .
3
.
4 ( )
, , , .
5
.
6
.
7 "" .
8 ( ) .
1 " "
( ).
90 ( ,)
.
99 .
92 .
93 .
94 ( ) .
95 ""
( ).
96 .
97 .
98 " " .
91 .
20 /
( ).
29 .
22 ( ) .
23 " " .
24 .
25 .
26 .
27 ( ) .
28 .
21 (
) .
84
5 4
9
9
2
2
3
3
5 4
5 4
5 4
5 4
5 4
9
9
9
2
2
2
3
3
3
5 4
5 4
5 4
5 4
9
9
9
9
9
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
9
9
9
9
9
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
30
39
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
31
40
(" ").
( ) .
.
( ) (
).
.
/.
.
.
.
.
.
5 4
9
9
9
2
2
2
3
3
3
5 4
5 4
5 4
5 4
5 4
5 4
9
9
2
2
3
3
5 4
5 4
5 4
5 4
9
9
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
85
9
9
9
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
9
9
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
9
9
9
9
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
, .
, ' ' .
, , .
, , ,
.
, .
, ,
.
. ,
, .
.
,
,
.
. 95 " ( )32-74"
) ,)Rosenberg, 1965 Beck) Depression
,)6991 ,Inventory (BDI (,)3002 ,Walshs Damage to Self Questionnaire
( ) ,Berry et al (2006 " Ben Shalom & Horencyzk
) ,)(2004 (( Buhrmester et al (1988Ryff's Scales of Psychological Well--
) .)being (1995 ,
(( Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices , Wechsler Digit Span, Symbol , 6921-
.)1997, Search, Maths, Similarities
. ,
.
. -
"
-.
,
, .
"