Kullmann - Foundations of Category Theory - 226s

Categories:
Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Foundations of category theory Directed general graphs
Categories
Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Oliver Kullmann Quasi-orders
Computer Science Department Functors

Definition
University of Wales Swansea Examples
Large categories
Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
PhD Theory Seminar (Hauptseminar) Concrete categories
Two set-functors
Swansea, October 25, 2006 Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Introduction Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
1 We introduce the basic notions of category theory:
Categories
1 categories Directed general graphs
2 functors Categories
Small examples
3 natural transformations. Free categories
2 We introduce the main generic examples of Monoids

Quasi-orders
categories: Functors
1 the small categories induced by directed graphs, Definition
Examples
monoids, and quasi-orders; Large categories

2 the large category of sets (and variations); Meta-categories
Universes
3 the category of categories; Categories of sets
4 functor categories. Concrete categories
Two set-functors
3 We introduce main examples of functors. Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
4 We discuss various attempts to formulate the notion Transformations
of a category. Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Overview Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
1 Relations, maps, products
Categories
Directed general graphs
2 Categories Categories
Small examples
Free categories
3 Three constructions of “small categories” Monoids
Quasi-orders
Functors
4 Functors Definition
Examples
Large categories
5 Large categories Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
6 Two general set-valued functor constructions Concrete categories
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
7 Natural transformations The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
8 Discussion of the foundations Discussion

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Small examples
Free categories
Quasi-orders
Functors
Examples
Large categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
Transformations

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Small examples
Free categories
Quasi-orders
Functors
Examples
Large categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
Transformations

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Small examples
Free categories
Quasi-orders
Functors
Examples
Large categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
Transformations

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Small examples
Free categories
Quasi-orders
Functors
Examples
Large categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
Transformations

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Small examples
Free categories
Quasi-orders
Functors
Examples
Large categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
Transformations

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Small examples
Free categories
Quasi-orders
Functors
Examples
Large categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
Transformations

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Small examples
Free categories
Quasi-orders
Functors
Examples
Large categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
Transformations

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Set theory Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Set theory is the basis of modern mathematics and Directed general graphs
of all mathematical modelling. Categories
Small examples
It is an “infinitely powerful scripting language” with Free categories
Monoids
only one type (namely sets) and one basic (specific) Quasi-orders
relation (namely element-ship “∈”); besides that we Functors

Definition
have the language of first order logic with equality. Examples
Large categories
Set theory provides the basic implementations (while Meta-categories
category theory is a more abstract layer). Universes

Categories of sets
Concrete categories
We have axioms to build new sets from given sets
Two set-functors
(by combination or selection), and the axiom of Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
infinity guarantees the existence of an infinite set. Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Relations Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
1 In order to model relations, we need ordered pairs; Sets
for sets x, y let Categories
Categories
(x, y) := {{x}, {x, y }}.
Small examples
Free categories
We have (x, y ) = (x 0 , y 0 ) ⇔ x = x 0 ∧ y = y 0 . Monoids

Quasi-orders
2 A (binary) relation is a set of ordered pairs. Functors

Definition
3 Let the domain and range of a relation R be defined Examples
Large categories
by Meta-categories
dom(R) := {x | ∃ y : (x, y ) ∈ R} Universes

Categories of sets
Concrete categories
rg(R) := {y | ∃ x : (x, y ) ∈ R}.
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
4 Instead of “(x, y ) ∈ R” one often writes “xRy ”. The Hom-bifunctor
5 A relation R is Transformations
0 0 0
1 left-unique if ∀ x, x , y : xRy ∧ x Ry ⇒ x = x Discussion
A problem
2 right-unique if ∀ x, y , y 0 : xRy ∧ xRy 0 ⇒ y = y 0 . Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Maps Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
1 A map is a right-unique relation.
Sets
2 f : A → B if f a map with dom(f ) = A and rg(f ) ⊆ B. Categories
Remarks: Categories
Small examples
In the set-theoretical sense a “map” is just its “table” Free categories
Monoids
of argument-value relations. Quasi-orders
If we have f : A → B and f : →A0 B0,

then we have Functors
Definition
0 0
A = A , but B, B might be different. Examples
Large categories
A map f in this sense is nothing else than a “family” Meta-categories
(fx )x∈dom(f ) : Universes

Categories of sets
The argument here is written as index. Concrete categories
Two set-functors
The domain is written as outer index in the family Forgetful functors
specification. The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
In the category-theoretical context we will later
Discussion
overload the notion of a map, so that also the A problem
Alternative notions
“codomain” is specified. History and outlook
Categories:
Composition of relations and maps Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
For relations R, S we define the composition Sets
Categories
S ◦ R := {(x, z) | ∃ y : xRy ∧ ySz}. Categories
Small examples
We have dom(S ◦ R) ⊆ dom(R) and rg(S ◦ R) ⊆ rg(S). Free categories

Monoids
Quasi-orders
Basic properties are: Functors

Definition
Composition of relations is associative, that is, for Examples
arbitrary relations R, R 0 , R 00 we have Large categories

Meta-categories
Universes
00 0 00 0
R ◦ (R ◦ R) = (R ◦ R ) ◦ R. Categories of sets
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
Composition of maps yields again a map, that is, for Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
maps f , g also g ◦ f is a map. Transformations
And if f : A → B and g : B → C, then g ◦ f : A → C. Discussion

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Tuples Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
We now define (ordered) n-tuples t for n ∈ N by induction: Sets
Categories
1 Every set (“object”) x is a 1-tuple t = (x) = x. Categories
Small examples
2 For n > 1 an n-tuple is a pair Free categories
Monoids
t = (t 0 , x),
Quasi-orders
Functors
Definition
where t 0 is an (n − 1)-tuple, while x is a set (“object”). Examples
Large categories
Meta-categories
Thus the 2-tuples are exactly the (ordered) pairs. Without Universes
Categories of sets
going into further details: Concrete categories
Given an tuple t of length n, for i ∈ {1, . . . , n} we can Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
access the i-th component of t via ti . The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Given n objects x1 , . . . , xn , we can create the n-tuple
Discussion
t = (x1 , . . . , xn ) with ti = xi for i ∈ {1, . . . , n}. A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Cartesian products Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
For sets A1 , . . . , An , n ∈ N:
Categories
A1 × · · · × An := Categories
Small examples
{(a1 , . . . , an ) | ∀ i ∈ {1, . . . , n} : ai ∈ Ai }. Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
For an arbitrary family (Ai )i∈I of sets we define a choice Functors

Definition
function as a map f with dom(f ) = I such that Examples
∀ i ∈ I : f (i) ∈ Ai . Large categories

Meta-categories
Universes
Now Categories of sets
Concrete categories
Y
Ai := {f | f choice function for (Ai )i∈I }. Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
i∈I The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Note that the empty product (I = ∅) is {∅}. Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Sequences Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Tuples other than pairs are of restricted use:
Sets
1 there is no empty tuple;
Categories
2 given an arbitrary tuple, we cannot recover its length; Directed general graphs
Categories
3 we cannot mix tuples of different length. Small examples

Free categories
To remove these restrictions, we define “(standardised) Monoids

Quasi-orders
sequences”: Functors
An initial segment of the set N of natural numbers is Definition

Examples
a subset I ⊆ N such that with n ∈ I for every m ∈ N Large categories
with m ≤ n we also have m ∈ I. Meta-categories

Universes
Categories of sets
A (standardised) sequence is a family with index Concrete categories
set an initial segment of N. Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
A sequence is finite if the index set is finite, and then The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
its length is the number of elements of the index set
Discussion
(equivalently for non-empty index sets, the largest A problem
Alternative notions
element of the index set). History and outlook
Categories:
Concatenation of finite sequences Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Given two finite sequences a, b of length m, n ∈ N0
Sets
respectively, the concatenation
Categories
atb Categories
Small examples
Free categories
is a finite sequences of length m + n given by Monoids
Quasi-orders
( Functors
ai if i ≤ m Definition
(a t b)i := Examples
bi−m if i > m Large categories

Meta-categories
Universes
for i ∈ {1, . . . , m + n}. Main properties (a, b, c are finite Categories of sets
Concrete categories
sequences):
Two set-functors
1 The empty sequence is the neutral element: Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
∅ t a = a t ∅ = a. Transformations
2 Concatenation is associative: Discussion
A problem
a t(b t c) = (a t b) t c. Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
For further studies Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
In my opinion, every mathematician (this includes every Categories

theoretical computer scientist) should know the basic Categories
Small examples
axioms, definitions and theorems of set theory. Free categories
Monoids
As a thorough introduction into set theory as a foundation Quasi-orders
of mathematics I recommend: Functors

Definition
Examples
Nicolas Bourbaki, Elements of Mathematics Large categories
Theory of Sets Meta-categories

Universes
Springer, 2004 Categories of sets

Concrete categories
ISBN 3-540-22525-0 Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
softcover reprint of the English translation from 1968. The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Directed general graphs Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
A directed general graph (dgg) is a quadruple
Sets
G = (V , E, src, trg) such that Categories
1 V is a set (the set of “vertices”) Directed general graphs
Categories
2 E is a set (the set of “directed edges”) Small examples

Free categories
3 src, trg : E → V (“source” and “target” of edges). Monoids

Quasi-orders
Remarks: Functors
Definition
In other words, a dgg is a 2-sorted algebraic Examples
Large categories
structure with sorts V , E and with two unary Meta-categories
functions of type E → V . Universes

Categories of sets
Concrete categories
V (G) := V , E(G) := E, src(G) := src, trg(G) := trg.
Two set-functors
The simplest dgg is the null-dgg (∅, ∅, ∅, ∅) (the Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
unique dgg G with V (G) = ∅). Transformations
Directed general graphs according to the above definition Discussion

A problem
are sometimes called “precategories”. Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Remarks on the notion of directed graphs Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Recall: Sets
Categories
1 A directed graph is a pair (V , R), where R is an Directed general graphs
irreflexive relation on V (i.e., R ⊆ V 2 with Categories
Small examples
idV ∩R = ∅). Free categories
Monoids
2 A directed graph allowing loops is a pair (V , R), Quasi-orders
where R is a relation on V (i.e., R ⊆ V 2 ). Functors

Definition
3 A general directed graph is a triple (V , E, γ), where Examples
Large categories
V , E are sets and γ : E → V 2 . Meta-categories
Universes
Now for the notion of a “dgg” as defined above, the map γ Categories of sets
Concrete categories
is just split into its two components. Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
(Note that every map f : X → Y × Z corresponds 1-1 to The Hom-bifunctor
pairs of maps (f1 , f2 ) with f1 : X → Y and f2 : X → Z (this Transformations
is the “universal property” of products(!)).) Discussion

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Notions from graph theory: Walks Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
A (finite) walk in a dgg G is a finite sequence
Sets
W = v0 , e1 , v1 , e2 , v2 , . . . , em , vm Categories
Categories
for some m ∈ N0 , vertices v0 , . . . , vm ∈ V (G) and Small examples

edges e1 , . . . , em ∈ E(G) such that Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
∀ i ∈ {1, . . . , m} : src(ei ) = vi−1 ∧ trg(ei ) = vi . Functors

Definition
Examples
m is the length of W , src(W ) := v0 , trg(W ) := vm .
Large categories
Concatenation of walks W , W 0 is defined if Meta-categories
Universes
trg(W ) = src(W 0 ), and is obtained from the Categories of sets

Concrete categories
concatenation of the sequences by removing the Two set-functors

(repeated) start vertex from the second walk. Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
“Trails” and “paths” are more specialised notions: Transformations

For trails edges are not repeated, Discussion
while for paths edges and vertices are not repeated A problem
Alternative notions
(except possibly of source and target of the walk). History and outlook
Categories:
Stripped walks Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
A stripped walk W0is obtained from a walk W by Categories

removing the vertices if the length is not zero and Categories
converting it to a tuple. Small examples

Free categories
Monoids
That is, from the sequence Quasi-orders
W = v0 , e1 , v1 , e2 , v2 , . . . , em , vm for m ≥ 1 we obtain Functors

Definition
W 0 = (e1 , . . . , em ), while for m = 0 we obtain the Examples
1-tuple (v0 ). Large categories

Meta-categories
For k ∈ N0 let Wk0 (G) be the set of stripped walks of Universes

Categories of sets
G of length k : Concrete categories
1 W00 (G) = V (G) Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
2 W10 (G) = E(G) The Hom-bifunctor
3 W20 (G) = {(e, e0 ) ∈ E(G)2 : trg(e) = src(e0 )}. Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Subgraphs Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Consider dgg’s G and G0 : Sets
Categories
1 G0 is a sub-dgg of G if V (G0 ) ⊆ V (G), E(G0 ) ⊆ E(G) Directed general graphs
Categories
and src(G0 ) = src(G) | V (G0 ) as well as Small examples
trg(G0 ) = trg(G) | V (G0 ). Free categories
Monoids
2 G0 is a partial dgg of G if G0 is a sub-dgg of G with Quasi-orders
V (G0 ) = V (G). Functors

Definition
Examples
3 G0 is an induced sub-dgg of G if G0is a sub-dgg of Large categories
G with ∀ e ∈ E(G) : src(G)(e), trg(G)(e) ∈ V (G0 ) ⇒ Meta-categories
Universes
e ∈ E(G0 ). Categories of sets

Concrete categories
Thus induced sub-dgg’s are obtained by (only) removing Two set-functors
vertices, partial dgg’s are obtained by (only) removing Forgetful functors

The Hom-bifunctor
edges, and sub-dgg’s are obtained by a combination of Transformations
both processes. Discussion

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Definition of a category Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
A category C is a triple C = (G, ◦, id) such that Sets
G is a directed general graph Categories

◦: W20 (G) → W10 (G) Categories
Small examples
id : V (G) → E(G) Free categories
Monoids
fulfilling the following properties (using functional order for Quasi-orders
Functors
the infix-composition): Definition
Examples
1 For all f ∈ W20 (G)we have src(◦(f )) = src(f ) and Large categories
trg(◦(f )) = trg(f ). Meta-categories
Universes
2 For all f ∈ W30 (G) we have (f3 ◦ f2 ) ◦ f1 = f3 ◦ (f2 ◦ f1 ). Categories of sets

Concrete categories
3 For all X ∈ V (G) we have src(idX ) = trg(idX ) = X . Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
4 For all X ∈ V (G) and all f ∈ E(G) we have The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
src(f ) = X ⇒ f ◦ idX = f ,
Discussion
trg(f ) = X ⇒ idX ◦f = f . A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Further notations and our first category Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
For a category C = (G, ◦, id):
Categories
dgg(C) := G Directed general graphs
Categories
◦C := ◦ Small examples
Free categories
id(C) := id Monoids
Quasi-orders
and furthermore Functors

Definition
Obj(C) := V (G) (the set of objects) Examples
Large categories
Mor(C) := E(G) (the set of morphisms) Meta-categories
Universes
domC := src(G) (the domain) Categories of sets
Concrete categories
codC := trg(G) (the codomain). Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
The simplest category is the empty category The Hom-bifunctor
((∅, ∅, ∅, ∅), ∅, ∅), the unique category with empty object Transformations
set. Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Subcategories Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Consider categories C, C0 : Categories
C0 is a subcategory of C if dgg(C0 ) is a sub-dgg of

Categories
dgg(C), and the maps for composition and identities Small examples
Free categories
are obtained by restriction. Monoids
Quasi-orders
C0 is a partial category of C if C0 is a subcategory of Functors

C and dgg(C0 ) is a partial dgg of dgg(C). Definition
Examples
C0 is an induced subcategory (or a full Large categories
subcategory) of C if C0 is a subcategory of C and

Meta-categories
Universes
dgg(C0 ) is an induced sub-dgg of dgg(C).

Categories of sets
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
So partial categories have lost only morphisms, while full Forgetful functors
subcategories have lost only objects. (Subcategories in The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
general may have lost both.)
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The free category generated by a dgg Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Consider a dgg G. The free category cat(G) is the Directed general graphs
Categories
following category: Small examples

Free categories
1 the object set is V (G); Monoids
Quasi-orders
2 the morphism set is the set of all walks in G; Functors
Definition
3 domains and codomains are the sources and targets Examples
of walks; Large categories

Meta-categories
4 composition of morphisms is concatenation of walks; Universes

Categories of sets
Concrete categories
5 the identity of an object X is the walk of length 0
Two set-functors
starting at X . Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The notion of a monoid Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
A groupoid is a pair (V , ◦), where V is a set and Categories

◦ : V 2 → V an (internal) binary composition. Categories
Small examples
A semigroup is a groupoid (V , ◦) such that Free categories
composition is associative, that is Monoids

Quasi-orders
Functors
∀ x, y , z ∈ V : x ◦ (y ◦ z) = (x ◦ y ) ◦ z. Definition
Examples
Large categories
An element e ∈ V of a groupoid (V , ◦) is neutral if Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
∀ x ∈ V : e ◦ x = x ◦ e = x. Concrete categories
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
A monoid is a triple (M, ◦, e) such that (M, ◦) is a The Hom-bifunctor
semigroup with neutral element e. Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The word monoid Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
For an arbitrary set A let A∗ denote the set of finite Categories

sequences in A: Categories
A∗ together with concatenation of sequences as Small examples

Free categories
composition and the empty sequence as neutral Monoids
element is a monoid, called Quasi-orders
Functors
the word monoid over the alphabet A, or Definition
the free monoid generated by A. Examples
Large categories
Consider the dgg GA with the single vertex 0 and the Meta-categories
Universes
edge-set A (these directed edges are then all loops): Categories of sets
Concrete categories
The free category cat(GA ) is basically the same as Two set-functors

the free monoid A∗ . Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
What does “basically the same” mean here? Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The endomorphism monoid Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Consider a category C.
Sets
1 An endomorphism in C is a morphism f in C with Categories
dom(f ) = cod(f ). Directed general graphs
Categories
2 Obviously the composition of two endomorphisms is Small examples

Free categories
again an endomorphism, and the identity morphisms Monoids
Quasi-orders
are endomorphisms.
Functors
3 Consider an object X in C. The set Definition
Examples
Large categories
EndC (X ) := {f ∈ Mor(C) : dom(f ) = cod(f ) = X } Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
of endomorphisms of X is naturally equipped with a Concrete categories
monoid structure: Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
2
1 The composition of End(X ) is ◦C | End(X ) . The Hom-bifunctor
2 The neutral element of End(X ) is idX . Transformations
Discussion
(Remark: End(X ) has the automorphism group Aut(X ) A problem
has sub-group. More in Talk 2.) Alternative notions

History and outlook
Categories:
First answer Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
We said that dgg(GA ) is “essentially the same” as A∗ : Categories

Categories
Now we see, that actually the monoid A∗ is identical Small examples

Free categories
to the endomorphism monoid in dgg(GA ) of the one Monoids
Quasi-orders
(and only) object.
Functors
Definition
Since there is nothing else in dgg(GA ), “essentially the Examples
Large categories
same” seems to be justified. Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Concrete categories
Now aren’t in general one-object categories and monoids
Two set-functors
essentially the same?! Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
First answer Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
We said that dgg(GA ) is “essentially the same” as A∗ : Categories

Categories
Now we see, that actually the monoid A∗ is identical Small examples

Free categories
to the endomorphism monoid in dgg(GA ) of the one Monoids
Quasi-orders
(and only) object.
Functors
Definition
Since there is nothing else in dgg(GA ), “essentially the Examples
Large categories
same” seems to be justified. Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Concrete categories
Now aren’t in general one-object categories and monoids
Two set-functors
essentially the same?! Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Categories with one object Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Monoid M = (M, ◦, e) yields a category cat(M): Sets

the object set is the (singleton) set {∅}; Categories
the morphism set is M; Directed general graphs
Categories
since there is only one object, domains and Small examples
codomains are always this object; Free categories
Monoids
the composition is the composition of the monoid; Quasi-orders
the identity of the single object is e. Functors

Definition
Given a category C with Obj(C) = {X }, we obtain a Examples
monoid (M, ◦, e) via Large categories

Meta-categories
M := Mor(C); Universes
◦ := ◦C ; Categories of sets
Concrete categories
e := id(C)(X ). Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
The two constructions are “nearly” inverse to each other The Hom-bifunctor
(only by going from the one-object category to the monoid Transformations
and back we lose the (single) object). Thus one-object Discussion

A problem
categories and monoids are “essentially” the same. Alternative notions

History and outlook
Categories:
The notion of a quasi-order Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
A relation R is called Sets
Categories
transitive if ∀ x, y , z : xRy ∧ yRz ⇒ xRz Directed general graphs
Categories
symmetric if ∀ x, y : xRy ⇒ yRx Small examples
antisymmetric if ∀ x, y : xRy ∧ yRx ⇒ x = y . Free categories

Monoids
Quasi-orders
A relation R on a set X is a relation with
Functors
dom(R), rg(R) ⊆ X . A relation R on X is called Definition
Examples
reflexive if ∀ x ∈ X : xRx Large categories

Meta-categories
total if ∀ x, y ∈ X : xRy ∨ yRx. Universes
Categories of sets
A relation R on a set X is a Concrete categories
Two set-functors
quasi-order if R is reflexive and transitive Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
partial order if R is an antisymmetric quasi-order Transformations
linear order if R is a total partial order. Discussion

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Quasi-ordered sets Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
A pair (X , R) with R a quasi-order, partial order or linear Sets

order is respectively a quasi-ordered, partial ordered or Categories
linearly ordered set (“qoset”, “poset”, “loset”). Categories
Small examples
Quasi-orders are often denoted by “≤”. Free categories
Monoids
Using idX := {(x, x) : x ∈ X } for the identity map on the Quasi-orders
Functors
set X , we have for every partial order R on X Definition
Examples
idX ⊆ R ⊆ X 2 , Large categories

Meta-categories
Universes
where Categories of sets

Concrete categories
(X , idX ) is the discrete order for X (any two Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
(different) elements are incomparable) The Hom-bifunctor
(X , X 2 ) is the indiscrete order for X (any two Transformations
Discussion
elements are equivalent). A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Preordered categories Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
A category C is called preordered if for all X , Y ∈ Obj(C) Sets

there is at most one morphisms from X to Y . Categories
Given a quasi-ordered set X = (X , ≤), we obtain a Categories
preordered category cat(X ) via Small examples

Free categories
the object set is X ; Monoids
the morphism set is ≤; Quasi-orders
Functors
for a morphism f = (x, y ) we set dom(f ) := x and Definition
cod(f ) := y ; Examples
the composition of morphisms (x, y ) and (y , z) is Large categories

Meta-categories
(x, z); Universes
the identity of object x is (x, x). Categories of sets

Concrete categories
Given any category C, we obtain a quasi-ordered set Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
qos(C) := (Obj(C), ≤) by The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
X ≤ Y ⇔ ∃ f ∈ Mor(C) : dom(f ) = X ∧ cod(f ) = Y . Discussion

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Again “essentially” the same Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Preordered categories and quasi-ordered sets are Sets
Categories
“essentially” the same in the following sense: Directed general graphs
Categories
1 Given a quasi-ordered set X we have
Small examples
qos(cat(X )) = X . Free categories
Monoids
2 Given a preordered category C, the category Quasi-orders
Functors
cat(qos(C)) is the same as C except of that the Definition
morphism names have been lost. Examples
Large categories
Special preordered categories are discrete categories, Meta-categories
Universes
which have no morphisms except of the identity Categories of sets
Concrete categories
morphisms:
Two set-functors
1 Discrete categories correspond to discrete orders. Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
2 Discrete categories can be thought of just as (bare) Transformations
sets. Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Refinements Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
As preordered categories correspond to qosets, we have Sets
furthermore: Categories
1 Posets correspond to preordered categories, where Categories
Small examples
the existence of a morphism from X to Y for X 6= Y Free categories
excludes the existence of a morphism from Y to X Monoids

Quasi-orders
(such categories might be called “ordered Functors

categories”). Definition
Examples
2 Losets correspond to preordered categories, where Large categories

Meta-categories
for two different objects X , Y either there is a Universes
Categories of sets
morphism from X to Y or a morphism from Y to X Concrete categories
(but not both; such categories might be called Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
“linearly ordered categories”). The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Since discrete orders are posets, discrete categories are
Discussion
the extreme cases of ordered categories. A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Morphisms for directed general graphs Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Since dgg’s are (multi-sorted) algebraic structures, we Sets
inherit a natural notion of homomorphisms from Categories

(universal) algebra: Categories
Small examples
For dgg’s G = (V , E, α, β) and G0 = (V 0 , E 0 , α0 , β 0 ) a Free categories
homomorphism f : G → G0 from G to G0 is a pair

Monoids
Quasi-orders
f = (fV , fE ) of maps Functors

Definition
Examples
0 0
fV : V → V , fE : E → E , Large categories
Meta-categories
Universes
such that for all e ∈ E we have Categories of sets
Concrete categories
fV (α(e)) = α0 (fE (e))

Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
fV (β(e)) = β 0 (fE (e)).

The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
We call fV the “vertex-map” of f , and fE the “edge-map”. A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Basic properties of graph homomorphisms Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Categories
1 For a dgg G we have idG : G → G for
Small examples
idG := (idV (G) , idE(G) ). Free categories
Monoids
2 If f : G → G0 and g : G0 → G00 , then g ◦ f : G → G00 Quasi-orders
Functors
for g ◦ f := (gV ◦ fV , gE ◦ fE ). Definition
Examples
If f : G → G0 , and for some x ∈ V (G) ∪ E(G) it is clear Large categories

Meta-categories
from the context whether it is a vertex or an edge of G, Universes

Categories of sets
then we just write “f (x)” for the application of the Concrete categories
vertex-map resp. the edge-map associated with f . Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Remarks: In NP Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Graph homomorphisms (typically for finite or countable Sets
graphs) have received steadily growing attention in graph Categories

theory, constraint satisfaction theory and complexity Categories
theory, since the question whether there exists a Small examples

Free categories
homomorphisms f : G → G0 for some fixed G0 Monoids

Quasi-orders
generalises the graph colouring problem (and is itself Functors

NP-complete for “most G0 ”). Definition
Examples
Thus graph homomorphisms seem to have a distinctively Large categories

Meta-categories
different flavour than morphisms in algebra and topology, Universes

Categories of sets
where never the mere existence of a morphism is the Concrete categories
fundamental problem (but only question about the Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
existence of special morphisms like embeddings or The Hom-bifunctor
isomorphisms). Accordingly the study of the category of Transformations
Discussion
graphs has a “combinatorial flavour”. A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Definition of a functor Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
A functor F : C → D from a category C to a category D is Categories
a dgg-homomorphism F : dgg(C) → dgg(D) such that Directed general graphs

Categories
1 for all X ∈ Obj(C) we have F (id(C)X ) = id(D)F (X ) ; Small examples

Free categories
2 for all (f , g) ∈ W20 (C) we have Monoids

Quasi-orders
F (g ◦C f ) = F (g) ◦D F (f ). Functors
Definition
The vertex-map of F is now called the “object-map”, and Examples
the edge-map the “morphism-map”. Large categories

Meta-categories
Universes
The two basic properties of functors are (using categories Categories of sets
Concrete categories
C, D, E):
Two set-functors
idC is a functor from C to C, where idC := iddgg(C) . Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
If F : C → D and G : D → E, then G ◦ F : C → E. Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Graph homomorphisms yield functors Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Consider dgg’s G, G0 and a homomorphism f : G → G0 . Sets
Categories
We obtain a functor Directed general graphs
Categories
cat(f ) : cat(G) → cat(G0 ) Small examples

Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
between the associated free categories as follows:
Functors
The object-map of cat(f ) is the same as the Definition
Examples
vertex-map of f . Large categories

Meta-categories
For a morphism of cat(G), that is, a walk Universes
Categories of sets
v0 , . . . , em , vm in G, we define Concrete categories
Two set-functors
cat(f )(v0 , . . . , em , vm ) := f (v0 ), . . . , f (em ), f (vm ) Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
(yielding a walk in G0 , that is, a morphism of cat(G0 )). Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Monoid-homomorphisms Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Given monoids (M, ◦, e), (M 0 , ◦0 , e0 ), a homomorphism Directed general graphs
Categories
f : (M, ◦, e) → (M 0 , ◦0 , e0 ) is a map f : M → M 0 such that Small examples

Free categories
0 Monoids
f (e) = e Quasi-orders
0
f (x ◦ y ) = f (x) ◦ f (y ) Functors
Definition
Examples
for all x, y ∈ M. Large categories

Meta-categories
Universes
We see that homomorphisms between monoids are Categories of sets

Concrete categories
“essentially” the same as functors between Two set-functors
one-object-categories. Forgetful functors

The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Monoid-homomorphisms Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Given monoids (M, ◦, e), (M 0 , ◦0 , e0 ), a homomorphism Directed general graphs
Categories
f : (M, ◦, e) → (M 0 , ◦0 , e0 ) is a map f : M → M 0 such that Small examples

Free categories
0 Monoids
f (e) = e Quasi-orders
0
f (x ◦ y ) = f (x) ◦ f (y ) Functors
Definition
Examples
for all x, y ∈ M. Large categories

Meta-categories
Universes
We see that homomorphisms between monoids are Categories of sets

Concrete categories
“essentially” the same as functors between Two set-functors
one-object-categories. Forgetful functors

The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Monoid-homomorphisms continued Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
More precisely: Directed general graphs
Categories
Given a homomorphism f : (M, ◦, e) → (M 0 , ◦0 , e0 ), Small examples

we obtain a functor Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
cat(f ) : cat((M, ◦, e)) → cat((M 0 , ◦0 , e0 )) Functors

Definition
Examples
by using f for the morphism-map of cat(f ), while Large categories

there is only one object-map. Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Given a functor from one one-object category C to Concrete categories
another one-object category D, the morphism-map is Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
a homomorphism of the associated monoids. The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Order-homomorphisms Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Given qosets (M, ≤), (M 0 , ≤0 ), a homomorphism Categories
f : (M, ≤) → (M 0 , ≤0 ) is a map f : M → M 0 such that Small examples

Free categories
Monoids
x ≤ y ⇒ f (x) ≤0 f (y )
Quasi-orders
Functors
Definition
for all x, y ∈ M. Examples
Large categories
Meta-categories
We see that homomorphisms between qosets are Universes

Categories of sets
“essentially” the same as functors between preordered Concrete categories
categories. Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Order-homomorphisms Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Given qosets (M, ≤), (M 0 , ≤0 ), a homomorphism Categories
f : (M, ≤) → (M 0 , ≤0 ) is a map f : M → M 0 such that Small examples

Free categories
Monoids
x ≤ y ⇒ f (x) ≤0 f (y )
Quasi-orders
Functors
Definition
for all x, y ∈ M. Examples
Large categories
Meta-categories
We see that homomorphisms between qosets are Universes

Categories of sets
“essentially” the same as functors between preordered Concrete categories
categories. Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Order-homomorphisms continued Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
More precisely: Sets
Given a homomorphism f : (M, ≤) → (M 0 , ≤0 ), we Categories

obtain a functor Categories
Small examples
0 0 Free categories
cat(f ) : cat((M, ≤)) → cat((M , ≤ )) Monoids
Quasi-orders
Functors
by using f for the object-map of cat(F ), while for a Definition
morphism of cat((M, ≤)), that is, a pair (x, y ) ∈≤, we Examples
Large categories
define f ((x, y )) := (f (x), f (y )). Meta-categories
Universes
Given a functor F : C → D between (arbitrary) Categories of sets
Concrete categories
categories, we obtain a homomorphism Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
qos(F ) : qos(C) → qos(C) The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
by taking the object-map of F . A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Why is everything so small?? Foundations
Yet we have seen Oliver Kullmann
1 the empty category Sets
2 free categories (from dgg’s) Categories

3 one-object categories (aka monoids) Categories
Small examples
4 “thin categories” (preordered categories, aka Free categories
quasi-ordered sets). Monoids

Quasi-orders
Furthermore Functors
Definition
1 we lifted graph homomorphisms to functors between Examples
free categories Large categories

Meta-categories
2 interpreted functors between one-object categories Universes
Categories of sets
as monoid-homomorphisms Concrete categories
Two set-functors
3 interpreted functors between preordered categories Forgetful functors
as quasi-ordered-set-homomorphisms. The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Is that everything?!? Now we are grown up, ready to Discussion

A problem
leave our small categories, and hungry to conquer the Alternative notions
History and outlook
large categories.
Categories:

Small examples

Quasi-orders
Definition

Meta-categories
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Transformations

A problem
History and outlook
large categories.
Categories:

Small examples

Quasi-orders
Definition

Meta-categories
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Transformations

A problem
History and outlook
large categories.
Categories:

Small examples

Quasi-orders
Definition

Meta-categories
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Transformations

A problem
History and outlook
large categories.
Categories:

Small examples

Quasi-orders
Definition

Meta-categories
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Transformations

A problem
History and outlook
large categories.
Categories:

Small examples

Quasi-orders
Definition

Meta-categories
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Transformations

A problem
History and outlook
large categories.
Categories:

Small examples

Quasi-orders
Definition

Meta-categories
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Transformations

A problem
History and outlook
large categories.
Categories:

Small examples

Quasi-orders
Definition

Meta-categories
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Transformations

A problem
History and outlook
large categories.
Categories:
No universal sets Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
By Russell’s paradox we get
Categories
∀x ∃y : y ∈
/ x. Categories
Small examples
Free categories
By variation on this principle, there is Monoids
Quasi-orders
no set of all sets Functors

Definition
no set of all finite sets Examples
Large categories
no set of all monoids Meta-categories
Universes
no set of all qosets Categories of sets
Concrete categories
and so on. We solve this problem by first modelling such Two set-functors
“large categories” by “meta-categories”, and in a second Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
step we restrict meta-categories to appropriate “very Transformations

large sets”. Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Predicates and operations Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Categories
We need the following meta-concepts:
Small examples
An n-ary predicate for n ∈ N is a formula Free categories
Monoids
P(x1 , . . . , xn ) of set theory. Quasi-orders
Functors
An n-ary operation for n ∈ N is an (n + 1)-ary Definition
Examples
predicate O(x1 , . . . , xn , y ) such that
Large categories
∀ x1 , . . . , xn ∃! y : O(x1 , . . . , xn , y ) is a valid sentence Meta-categories
Universes
of set theory; O(x1 , . . . , xn ) is used as abbreviation Categories of sets
Concrete categories
for this unique y .
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The notion of meta-categories Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
A meta-category is a sixtuple (O, M, d, c, C, i) (at the Sets

meta-level), where O, M are unary predicates, C is a Categories
binary operation and d, c, i are unary operations such Directed general graphs
Categories
that Small examples

Free categories
(i) ∀ f : M(f ) → O(d(f )) ∧ O(c(f )) Monoids
Quasi-orders
(ii) ∀ f , g : M(f ) ∧ M(g) ∧ c(f ) = d(g) → Functors

M(C(f , g)) ∧ d(C(f , g)) = d(f ) ∧ c(C(f , g)) = c(g) Definition
Examples
(iii) ∀ x : M(I(x)) ∧ d(I(x)) = c(I(x)) = x Large categories

Meta-categories
(iv) ∀ f , g, h : M(f ) ∧ M(g) ∧ M(h) ∧ Universes

Categories of sets
c(f ) = d(g) ∧ c(g) = d(h) → Concrete categories
Two set-functors
C(f , C(g, h)) = C(C(f , g), h) Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
(v) ∀ x, f , g : M(f ) ∧ M(g) ∧ O(x) ∧
Transformations
d(f ) = x ∧ c(g) = x → Discussion
C(i(x), f ) = f ∧ C(g, i(x)) = g. A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Fitting into sets Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
A meta-category (O, M, d, c, C, i) fits into a set U if Sets
Categories
∀ f : M(f ) ∧ d(f ) ∈ U ∧ c(f ) ∈ U → f ∈ U Directed general graphs
Categories
Small examples
is true. Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
If now (O, M, d, c, C, i) fits into U, then the induced
Functors
category (O, M, d, c, C, i)U is given as follows: Definition
Examples
1 the object set is the set of x ∈ U with O(x); Large categories
Meta-categories
2 the morphism set is the set of f with M(f ) such that Universes
Categories of sets
d(f ) and c(f ) are in the object set; Concrete categories
3 domain, codomain, composition and identity are the Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
respective operations restricted to the resp. stripped The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
sets of walks (the replacement scheme of set theory
Discussion
guarantees that we get four maps in this way). A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Fitting into sets Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
A meta-category (O, M, d, c, C, i) fits into a set U if Sets
Categories
∀ f : M(f ) ∧ d(f ) ∈ U ∧ c(f ) ∈ U → f ∈ U Directed general graphs
Categories
Small examples
is true. Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
If now (O, M, d, c, C, i) fits into U, then the induced
Functors
category (O, M, d, c, C, i)U is given as follows: Definition
Examples
1 the object set is the set of x ∈ U with O(x); Large categories
Meta-categories
2 the morphism set is the set of f with M(f ) such that Universes
Categories of sets
d(f ) and c(f ) are in the object set; Concrete categories
3 domain, codomain, composition and identity are the Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
respective operations restricted to the resp. stripped The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
sets of walks (the replacement scheme of set theory
Discussion
guarantees that we get four maps in this way). A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
What size? Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Every meta-category fits into the empty set. This is quite
Categories
reassuring. However we already know the resulting Directed general graphs
Categories
category.
Small examples
We are looking for sets U such that Free categories

Monoids
Quasi-orders
the meta-category “naturally” fits into U Functors
and the resulting category does not “really” depend Definition

Examples
on U. Large categories
Meta-categories
In other words, U should be large enough Universes
Categories of sets
1 such that all interesting objects are in it, Concrete categories
Two set-functors
2 and by normal means we cannot get out of it. Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
The notion of a “(set theoretic) universe” offers a good Transformations

(universal(!)) solution for this problem. Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Categories
category.
Small examples

Monoids
Quasi-orders

Examples
Meta-categories
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
The Hom-bifunctor

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Categories
category.
Small examples

Monoids
Quasi-orders

Examples
Meta-categories
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
The Hom-bifunctor

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Categories
category.
Small examples

Monoids
Quasi-orders

Examples
Meta-categories
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
The Hom-bifunctor

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Categories
category.
Small examples

Monoids
Quasi-orders

Examples
Meta-categories
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
The Hom-bifunctor

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Categories
category.
Small examples

Monoids
Quasi-orders

Examples
Meta-categories
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
The Hom-bifunctor

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The notion of a set-theoretical universe Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Set theory for us (and for the moment) means ZFC Sets
(Zermelo-Fraenkel with the axiom of choice). A universe Categories
now is a set U which itself yields a model of ZFC. Categories
Small examples
More specifically, a set U is a universe iff the following Free categories
(not independent) conditions are fulfilled: Monoids

Quasi-orders
(i) ∀ x ∈ U ∀ y : (y ∈ x ∨ y ⊆ x) → y ∈ U Functors
Definition
(ii) ∀ x, y ∈ U : {x, y } ∈ U Examples
Large categories
(iii) ∀ f : A → B : A, B ∈ U → f ∈ U Meta-categories
Universes
S Q
(iv) ∀ A, B ∈ U ∀ f : A → B : a∈A f (a), a∈A f (a) ∈ U Categories of sets
Concrete categories
(v) ∀ A ∈ U : P(A) ∈ U Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
(vi) There exists an infinite set in U. The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
(Recall: P(A) = {T : T ⊆ A} and
S Discussion
a∈A f (a) = {x | ∃ a ∈ A : x ∈ f (a)}.) A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The notion of a set-theoretical universe Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Set theory for us (and for the moment) means ZFC Sets
(Zermelo-Fraenkel with the axiom of choice). A universe Categories
now is a set U which itself yields a model of ZFC. Categories
Small examples
More specifically, a set U is a universe iff the following Free categories
(not independent) conditions are fulfilled: Monoids

Quasi-orders
(i) ∀ x ∈ U ∀ y : (y ∈ x ∨ y ⊆ x) → y ∈ U Functors
Definition
(ii) ∀ x, y ∈ U : {x, y } ∈ U Examples
Large categories
(iii) ∀ f : A → B : A, B ∈ U → f ∈ U Meta-categories
Universes
S Q
(iv) ∀ A, B ∈ U ∀ f : A → B : a∈A f (a), a∈A f (a) ∈ U Categories of sets
Concrete categories
(v) ∀ A ∈ U : P(A) ∈ U Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
(vi) There exists an infinite set in U. The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
(Recall: P(A) = {T : T ⊆ A} and
S Discussion
a∈A f (a) = {x | ∃ a ∈ A : x ∈ f (a)}.) A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The universes axiom Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
We consider ZFCU as the appropriate foundations of Sets
Categories
mathematics, which adds the (strong) universes axiom to Directed general graphs
ZFC: Categories
Small examples
Free categories
For every set x there exists a universe U with x ∈ U. Monoids
Quasi-orders
(This axiom is equivalent to some axiom for inaccessible Functors

Definition
cardinals; unfortunately I don’t have a good source for Examples
this yet.) Large categories

Meta-categories
Universes
By the universes axiom for every set x there is a unique Categories of sets
Concrete categories
smallest (w.r.t. subsumption) universe U containing x,
Two set-functors
which we call the universe of x. Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
(Note that {U} ∈

/ U, though {U} just contains one Transformations
element.) Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The universes axiom Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
We consider ZFCU as the appropriate foundations of Sets
Categories
mathematics, which adds the (strong) universes axiom to Directed general graphs
ZFC: Categories
Small examples
Free categories
For every set x there exists a universe U with x ∈ U. Monoids
Quasi-orders
(This axiom is equivalent to some axiom for inaccessible Functors

Definition
cardinals; unfortunately I don’t have a good source for Examples
this yet.) Large categories

Meta-categories
Universes
By the universes axiom for every set x there is a unique Categories of sets
Concrete categories
smallest (w.r.t. subsumption) universe U containing x,
Two set-functors
which we call the universe of x. Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
(Note that {U} ∈

/ U, though {U} just contains one Transformations
element.) Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Universes-fitting Foundations
We call a meta-category universes-fitting if it fits into Oliver Kullmann
every universe: Sets
I’m not aware of any (useful) category which is not Categories

universes-fitting. Categories
I’m not aware of literature here, but it should be Small examples

Free categories
possible to prove, that for universes-fitting Monoids

Quasi-orders
meta-categories the size of the universe does not Functors
“really matter” for the induced category. Definition
Examples
A universe represents a closed world (it is the closure of Large categories

some set under “all” set-theoretic operations): Meta-categories
Universes
1 When speaking of the category of “all sets” or “all Categories of sets

Concrete categories
categories”, we are not really interested in “really all”, Two set-functors

but in a formation which is stable under all Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
reasonable operations. Transformations

2 Every external category of “really all sets” or “really Discussion
A problem
all categories” can be modelled by just choosing an Alternative notions
History and outlook
appropriate universe.
Categories:
Correspondences Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
A correspondence is a triple (R, A, B), where A, B are Directed general graphs
sets (the domain and codomain of the correspondence) Categories
Small examples
and R ⊆ A × B. Free categories
Monoids
Correspondences can be viewed as “partial set-valued Quasi-orders
Functors
maps” (from A to B). Definition
Examples
For correspondences (R, A, B) and (S, B, C) we define Large categories

the composition Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Concrete categories
(S, B, C) ◦ (R, A, B) := (S ◦ R, A, C)
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
(which again is a correspondence). The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Properties of correspondences Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
A correspondence (R, A, B) is Directed general graphs
Categories
left-unique resp. right-unique if R is;
Small examples
left-total resp. right-total if dom(R) = A Free categories
Monoids
resp. cod(R) = B. Quasi-orders
Functors
Definition
A map (as triple) is a left-total right-unique Examples
correspondence. Large categories

Meta-categories
Very often there is the “bare” notion of a morphism, which Universes

Categories of sets
does not allow to infer domain and codomain Concrete categories
Two set-functors
(structures(!)), and then the corresponding “triple version” Forgetful functors
simply includes domain and codomain structures. The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Properties of correspondences Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
A correspondence (R, A, B) is Directed general graphs
Categories
left-unique resp. right-unique if R is;
Small examples
left-total resp. right-total if dom(R) = A Free categories
Monoids
resp. cod(R) = B. Quasi-orders
Functors
Definition
A map (as triple) is a left-total right-unique Examples
correspondence. Large categories

Meta-categories
Very often there is the “bare” notion of a morphism, which Universes

Categories of sets
does not allow to infer domain and codomain Concrete categories
Two set-functors
(structures(!)), and then the corresponding “triple version” Forgetful functors
simply includes domain and codomain structures. The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The category of correspondences Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
The meta-category of correspondences is given by Directed general graphs
Categories
objects are sets; Small examples
morphisms are correspondences; Free categories

Monoids
Quasi-orders
domains and codomains are given as defined for
Functors
correspondences; Definition
Examples
composition is the composition of correspondences; Large categories

Meta-categories
the identities are the identity maps. Universes
Categories of sets
For any universe U the induced category of Concrete categories
Two set-functors
correspondences is denoted by KORU (where typically Forgetful functors
the universe is dropped). The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
24 = 16 categories of sets
Categories:
Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
If σ denotes any of the 24 combinations of the properties Sets
Categories
“lu” (left-unique), “ru” (right-unique), “lt” (left-total) or “rt” Directed general graphs
(right-total), then we obtain a partial category KORσ by Categories
Small examples
considering only σ-correspondences (the proof of this is Free categories
Monoids
one of the many exercises). Especially: Quasi-orders
1 KOR is the category of partial set-valued maps. Functors

Definition
2 SET := KORru,lt is the category of sets. Examples
Large categories
3 KORru is the category of partial maps. Meta-categories
Universes
4 KORlt is the category of multivalued maps. Categories of sets

Concrete categories
5 KORlu,ru,lt is the category of injective maps. Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
6 KORru,lt,rt is the category of surjective maps. The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
7 KORlu,ru,lt,rt is the category of bijective maps. Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Concrete categories Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Categories (or meta-categories)
Sets
whose objects consist of “structured sets”, i.e., there Categories
exists a k ∈ N such that all objects are k -tuples t with Directed general graphs
Categories
first component a set t1 , Small examples
t0
Free categories
where the morphisms from t to are (special) maps Monoids
from t1 to t10 ,
Quasi-orders
Functors
and where composition is composition of maps, Definition
Examples
and identities are the identical maps, Large categories

Meta-categories
are called concrete categories (preliminary definition). Universes

Categories of sets
Concrete categories
The first example of a concrete category is SET. Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
Given a concrete meta-category, when forming the The Hom-bifunctor
induced concrete category, and the notion of morphism Transformations
employed does not allow to infer domain and target Discussion

A problem
objects, automatically the triple construction is performed. Alternative notions

History and outlook
Categories:
Concrete categories Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Categories (or meta-categories)
Sets
whose objects consist of “structured sets”, i.e., there Categories
exists a k ∈ N such that all objects are k -tuples t with Directed general graphs
Categories
first component a set t1 , Small examples
t0
Free categories
where the morphisms from t to are (special) maps Monoids
from t1 to t10 ,
Quasi-orders
Functors
and where composition is composition of maps, Definition
Examples
and identities are the identical maps, Large categories

Meta-categories
are called concrete categories (preliminary definition). Universes

Categories of sets
Concrete categories
The first example of a concrete category is SET. Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
Given a concrete meta-category, when forming the The Hom-bifunctor
induced concrete category, and the notion of morphism Transformations
employed does not allow to infer domain and target Discussion

A problem
objects, automatically the triple construction is performed. Alternative notions

History and outlook
Categories:
Further convention Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
When defining concrete meta-categories, only the Categories

objects and the morphisms need to be mentioned. Categories
Small examples
And the construction of (universes-fitting(!)) Free categories
meta-categories as a first step is automatically Monoids

Quasi-orders
implicitly performed when defining a category by Functors

notions like “all spaces”. Definition
Examples
Large categories
The categories SETU for example are defined in this way Meta-categories
by suppressing the universe-index (which then becomes Universes

Categories of sets
free for other purposes), and just saying: Concrete categories
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
SET is the (concrete) category of all sets, where the The Hom-bifunctor
morphisms are all maps between them. Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Two concrete and one “biconcrete” categories Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
The concrete category MON of monoids has as
Categories
objects all monoids, while the morphisms are the Directed general graphs
Categories
monoid homomorphisms.
Small examples
The concrete category QORD of quasi-ordered Free categories
Monoids
sets has as objects all quasi-ordered sets, while the Quasi-orders
Functors
morphisms are the homomorphisms of Definition
quasi-ordered sets. Examples
Large categories
The category DGG of dgg’s has as objects all dgg’s, Meta-categories
Universes
morphisms are homomorphisms of dgg’s, and Categories of sets

Concrete categories
composition of dgg’s and identities are as defined. Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
DGG is not a concrete category, but it looks quite close to The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
a concrete category: DGG is not a concrete category
“over SET”, but “over SET2 ” (as will be defined later). Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Categories
Small examples
Monoids
Functors
Large categories
Universes

Concrete categories

Forgetful functors
Transformations
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Categories
Small examples
Monoids
Functors
Large categories
Universes

Concrete categories

Forgetful functors
Transformations
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The category of categories Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
The category KAT of all categories has objects all
Categories
categories, morphisms are functors between Directed general graphs
Categories
categories, and composition and identities are as
Small examples
defined. Free categories
Monoids
Like DGG, the category KAT is not a concrete Quasi-orders
category “over SET” but “over SET2 ”. Functors

Definition
Examples
We have identified two interesting induced (full) Large categories

subcategories of KAT: Meta-categories
Universes
The full subcategory MON0 of all one-object

Categories of sets
1
Concrete categories
categories, which is “essentially” the same as MON. Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
0
2 The full subcategory QORD of all preordered (thin) The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
categories, which is “essentially” the same as
Discussion
QORD. A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Remarks: “Essentially” ?! Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
I leave it as an exercise (?) to find out the exact Sets
relationship between MON0 and MON, and between Categories
QORD0 and QORD:

Categories
Small examples
The functor cat : MON → KAT is “quite close” to an Free categories
isomorphism (when restricting the image). For a Monoids

Quasi-orders
universe U one should be able to “construct” actually Functors

an isomorphism between MON0U and MONU . Definition
Examples
(As a start one could use the natural isomorphism Large categories
between MON0 and MON × cat((U, U2 )) (the latter Meta-categories

Universes
is the “complete” preordered category over U).) Categories of sets

Concrete categories
The functor cat : QORD → KAT is “quite close” to Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
an isomorphism (image-restricted). For a universe U The Hom-bifunctor
one should be able to “construct” actually an Transformations
isomorphism between QORD0U and QORDU . Discussion

A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Functors we have seen so far Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Among the functors we have “seen” (please check(!)), we Sets

have the following functors into the category of categories Categories
(the three basic constructions for small categories): Directed general graphs
Categories
1 cat : DGG → KAT (the formation of free categories Small examples

Free categories
over a dgg). Monoids
Quasi-orders
2 cat : MON → KAT (interpreting monoids as Functors
one-object categories). Definition
Examples
3 cat : QORD → KAT (interpreting quasi-ordered sets Large categories

Meta-categories
as thin categories). Universes
Categories of sets
And we have “seen” the functors dgg : KAT → DGG and Concrete categories
Two set-functors
qos : KAT → QORD which forget some structure. Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Now what about the functors defined on concrete Transformations

categories like MON and QORD, which simply forget all Discussion
the special structure, and uncover bare sets and maps? A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Functors we have seen so far Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Among the functors we have “seen” (please check(!)), we Sets

have the following functors into the category of categories Categories
(the three basic constructions for small categories): Directed general graphs
Categories
1 cat : DGG → KAT (the formation of free categories Small examples

Free categories
over a dgg). Monoids
Quasi-orders
2 cat : MON → KAT (interpreting monoids as Functors
one-object categories). Definition
Examples
3 cat : QORD → KAT (interpreting quasi-ordered sets Large categories

Meta-categories
as thin categories). Universes
Categories of sets
And we have “seen” the functors dgg : KAT → DGG and Concrete categories
Two set-functors
qos : KAT → QORD which forget some structure. Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Now what about the functors defined on concrete Transformations

categories like MON and QORD, which simply forget all Discussion
the special structure, and uncover bare sets and maps? A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The discourse-universe Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Before coming to forgetful functors, we should discuss the Directed general graphs
Categories
hidden indices in a notation like Small examples

Free categories
“cat : MON → KAT”, Monoids

Quasi-orders
Functors
since actually both categories are only defined “up to a Definition
Examples
universe”: Large categories
Meta-categories
When relating two universe-indexed categories CU and Universes

Categories of sets
DU0 , then we assume U = U0 , otherwise the relation Concrete categories
Two set-functors
between the universes should be discussed. Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Sizing categories Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
We define the universe U(C) of a category as the Sets
smallest universe U with Obj(C), Mor(C) ⊆ U. Categories

Note that, although card(Obj(C)) ≤ card(Mor(C)), Categories
Small examples
since idC : Obj(C) → Mor(C) is injective, it could Free categories
Monoids
Obj(C) nevertheless require a higher universe than Quasi-orders
Mor(C) due to “representational excess”. Functors

Definition
The two conditions Obj(C), Mor(C) ⊆ U are Examples
equivalent to the single condition ◦(C) ⊆ U. Large categories

Meta-categories
For a category CU induced by a meta-category on a Universes

Categories of sets
universe U we have U(CU ) ⊆ U, and normally we Concrete categories
Two set-functors
have equality here, but strict subsumption (in which Forgetful functors
case we actually have U(CU ) ∈ U) could occur if the The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
meta-category is not “powerful” enough to fill the
Discussion
space U given to it. A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
“Small” and “large” categories Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
A category C is called small if C ∈ U(C), and large
otherwise: Sets
Categories
1 Note that “small” and “large” are relative notions Directed general graphs
here, so that for example a sub-category of a small Categories
Small examples
category could be a large category (in its own, Free categories
Monoids
smaller, universe). Quasi-orders
2 Also a small category can be much larger (in terms Functors

Definition
of cardinality) than a large category. Examples
Large categories
3 However, when fixing the universe of discourse, than Meta-categories
Universes
“small” and “large” really refer to qualitative Categories of sets
differences in size. Concrete categories
Two set-functors
The distinction between small and large categories Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
corresponds to the distinction between “sets and classes” Transformations

(but at many different levels). For us, the notions “small” Discussion
and “large” are mainly used to connect to other literature, A problem
Alternative notions
and for illustrational purposes. History and outlook

Categories:
Forgetful functors Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Now for a concrete category C we define the forgetful
Sets
functor V : C → SET, which strips away the structure
Categories
and leaves the bare sets and maps, more precisely as Directed general graphs
Categories
V : C → SETU(C) . Small examples

Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
Thus we get the forgetful functors V : MON → SET and
Functors
V : QORD → SET. Some remarks: Definition
Examples
1 There could be some “excess” in the choice of the Large categories
universe for SET in the case that the structure for a Meta-categories
Universes
set does not fit into the same universe as the set Categories of sets
Concrete categories
itself. This does not occur in natural examples. Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
2 The definition of forgetful functors for concrete The Hom-bifunctor
categories C overlaps with the convention for the Transformations
discourse-universe in case C is meta-category Discussion

A problem
induced: Both treatments agree in all natural cases. Alternative notions

History and outlook
Categories:
Interlude: Product categories Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Given a family (Ci )i∈I of categories, the product category Sets
Categories
Y Directed general graphs
Ci Categories
i∈I Small examples

Free categories
Monoids
is defined as follows: Quasi-orders
Q
1 The object set is Obj(Ci ).
i∈I
Functors
Definition
Q Examples
2 The morphism set is i∈I Mor(Ci ).
Large categories
3 Composition of morphisms happens componentwise. Meta-categories
Universes
4 Identity morphisms are the Categories of sets

Concrete categories
componentwise-identities. Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
As for sets, the product category C1 × · · · × Cn for n ∈ N The Hom-bifunctor
uses tuples (instead of families) for the representation of Transformations
Discussion
objects and morphisms. A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The relation between KAT and DGG Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
As we have already remarked, we have a forgetful functor
Sets
2
VDGG : DGG → SET Categories
Categories
(forgetting the source and target map), and in the same Small examples
Free categories
vein we have Monoids
VKAT : KAT → SET2 .

Quasi-orders
Functors
Definition
Now actually the latter forgetful functor should be Examples
factorised as Large categories

Meta-categories
Universes
VKAT = VDGG ◦ dggKAT , Categories of sets

Concrete categories
Two set-functors
using the forgetful functor Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
dggKAT : KAT → DGG
Discussion
A problem
which extracts the underlying dgg from a category. Alternative notions

History and outlook
Categories:
The relation between KAT and DGG Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
As we have already remarked, we have a forgetful functor
Sets
2
VDGG : DGG → SET Categories
Categories
(forgetting the source and target map), and in the same Small examples
Free categories
vein we have Monoids
VKAT : KAT → SET2 .

Quasi-orders
Functors
Definition
Now actually the latter forgetful functor should be Examples
factorised as Large categories

Meta-categories
Universes
VKAT = VDGG ◦ dggKAT , Categories of sets

Concrete categories
Two set-functors
using the forgetful functor Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
dggKAT : KAT → DGG
Discussion
A problem
which extracts the underlying dgg from a category. Alternative notions

History and outlook
Categories:
Outlook: “Adjoint pairs” Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Recall the pair (catDGG , dggKAT ) of reverse functors Sets
Categories
catDGG : DGG → KAT, dggKAT : KAT → DGG. Directed general graphs
Categories
Small examples
The functor cat here yields the “free category of a dgg”, Free categories
Monoids
and the pair (catDGG , dggKAT ) is called an “adjoint pair”. Quasi-orders
Functors
Another adjoint pair is (qosKAT , catQORD ) for Definition
Examples
qosKAT : KAT → QORD and catQORD : QORD → KAT
Large categories
as considered before. Meta-categories
Universes
In the same spirit, formation of the free monoid A∗ over a

Categories of sets
Concrete categories
set A is “left-adjoint” to V : MON → SET. Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
(As a (very) informal definition for now, the left-adjoint (if it The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
exists(!)) of a forgetful functor yields “free objects”, the
Discussion
most general way of adding structure with excess.) A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Categories
Categories
Small examples
Monoids
Functors
Examples
Large categories
Universes

Categories of sets
Concrete categories

Forgetful functors
Transformations
Discussion
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Categories
Categories
Small examples
Monoids
Functors
Examples
Large categories
Universes

Categories of sets
Concrete categories

Forgetful functors
Transformations
Discussion
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Categories
Categories
Small examples
Monoids
Functors
Examples
Large categories
Universes

Categories of sets
Concrete categories

Forgetful functors
Transformations
Discussion
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Exercises Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
2
1 Does the forgetful functor VKAT : KAT → SET has a Categories
left-adjoint (the “free way” of creating a category, Categories
given a set of objects and a set of morphisms)? Small examples

Free categories
2 Perhaps we should first ask for the left-adjoint of Monoids

Quasi-orders
VDGG : DGG → SET2 , and then combine the Functors
construction of this “free dgg” from a pair of sets with Definition

Examples
the construction of the free category from a dgg, Large categories

Meta-categories
obtaining the free category from a pair of sets?! Universes
Categories of sets
One of the beautiful things about category theory is Concrete categories
Two set-functors
“dualisation”: We can also ask about the existence of Forgetful functors
“right-adjoints” of forgetful functors! (Asking for the The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
“cofree objects”, like indiscrete spaces.)
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The dual category Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
1 For a dgg G = (V , E, α, β) we define the transposed Sets
dgg G t as Categories
G t := (V , E, β, α). Categories
Small examples
2 For a category C = (G, ◦, id) we define the dual Free categories
Monoids
category C t as Quasi-orders
Functors
C t := (G t , ◦ t , id),
Definition
Examples
Large categories
where ◦ t ((f , g)) = ◦(g, f ). Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
It is not hard to see that C t actually is also a category Concrete categories
Two set-functors
(with the same object and morphisms sets and the same Forgetful functors
identities — only the arrow directions are reversed). We The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
have
(C t ) t = C.
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Remark on categories of correspondences Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Given a correspondency-type σ, we define the “dual” σ t Categories
by flipping “left” and “right”. Small examples

Free categories
Monoids
Now the category KORσt is isomorphic to the category Quasi-orders
KORσ t , using the identity on the object set, and formation Functors
Definition
of the inverse correspondence on the morphism set: Examples
Large categories
(R, A, B)−1 := (R −1 , B, A)
Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
R −1 := {(y , x) : (x, y ) ∈ R}. Concrete categories
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Contravariant functors Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Considering functors in the simple sense (not as triples), Directed general graphs
Categories
for arbitrary categories C, D we have the equivalences Small examples

Free categories
Monoids
t t
F :C→D⇔F :C →D Quasi-orders
t t Functors
F :C →D⇔F :C→D. Definition
Examples
In the first case F is called a covariant functor, in the Large categories

Meta-categories
second case a contravariant functor. Universes

Categories of sets
Concrete categories
(We also see that duality of categories yields an Two set-functors
automorphism of the category of all categories.) Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The Hom-functor in two arguments Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
For a category C let MorC (−, −) be the map with domain Sets
Obj(C)2 given by Categories

Categories
MorC (X , Y ) := {f ∈ Mor(C) : dom(f ) = X ∧ cod(f ) = Y } Small examples

Free categories
Monoids
(one also find the notation “C(X , Y ) := MorC (X , Y )”, but in Quasi-orders
Functors
this way we cannot easily refer to the whole map). Definition
Examples
If the range of MorC is a subset of U(C), then let Large categories

U := U(C), while otherwise let U be the universe of U(C). Meta-categories
Universes
Now we have functor Categories of sets

Concrete categories
Two set-functors
MorC (−, −) : C t × C → SETU . Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Exercise (and Talk 2) to specify the morphism map of this
Discussion
“bi-hom-functor”. A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Definition of a natural transformation Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Given categories C, D and functors F , G : C → D, a
Sets
natural transformations η : F → G is a family
Categories
η = (ηX )X ∈Obj(C) in Mor(D) (in other words, a map Directed general graphs
η : Obj(C) → Mor(D), but using family-notation) with Categories
Small examples
ηX : F (X ) → G(X ) such that for all objects A, B in C and Free categories
Monoids
morphisms f : A → B we have Quasi-orders
Functors
ηB ◦ F (f ) = G(f ) ◦ ηA . Definition
Examples
Large categories
In other words, the diagrams Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
G(f ) Concrete categories
G(A) / G(B)
O O Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
ηA ηB The Hom-bifunctor
F (f ) Transformations
F (A) / F (B)
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
commute. History and outlook
Categories:
Definition of a natural transformation Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Given categories C, D and functors F , G : C → D, a
Sets
natural transformations η : F → G is a family
Categories
η = (ηX )X ∈Obj(C) in Mor(D) (in other words, a map Directed general graphs
η : Obj(C) → Mor(D), but using family-notation) with Categories
Small examples
ηX : F (X ) → G(X ) such that for all objects A, B in C and Free categories
Monoids
morphisms f : A → B we have Quasi-orders
Functors
ηB ◦ F (f ) = G(f ) ◦ ηA . Definition
Examples
Large categories
In other words, the diagrams Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
G(f ) Concrete categories
G(A) / G(B)
O O Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
ηA ηB The Hom-bifunctor
F (f ) Transformations
F (A) / F (B)
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
commute. History and outlook
Categories:
Remark: Commutative diagrams Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
1 A diagram in a category C is a dgg-homomorphism Categories

D : G → dgg(C) for some dgg G. Categories
The dgg G is called here the “diagram scheme”. Small examples

Free categories
2 Because of freeness, there is exactly one extension Monoids

Quasi-orders
Functors
D 0 : cat(G) → C. Definition
Examples
Large categories
(This is essentially the same as lifting a Meta-categories
dgg-homomorphism f : G → G0 to a functor
Universes
Categories of sets
cat(f ) : cat(G) → cat(G0 ).)

Concrete categories
Two set-functors
3 Now D is commutative iff D 0 is constant on every Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
morphism set Morcat(G) (u, w) in cat(G). Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Remark: Commutativity and preorder Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
1 A functor F : C → D induces a congruence relation Sets
∼F on C via Categories
Categories
f ∼F g :⇐⇒ Small examples

Free categories
dom(f ) = dom(g) ∧ cod(f ) = cod(g) ∧ Monoids

Quasi-orders
F (f ) = F (g) Functors
Definition
Examples
for morphisms f , g ∈ Mor(Obj(C)). Large categories

Meta-categories
2 For every congruence relation ∼ on a category C we Universes
Categories of sets
obtain the quotient category C/∼ in the usual way Concrete categories
(keeping all objects, while replacing morphisms by Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
equivalence classes of morphisms). The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
3 Now a diagram D : G → dgg(C) is commutative iff
Discussion
cat(G)/∼D 0 is a preordered category. A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Categories of functors Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
1 For every functor F : C → D we have the identity Sets

transformation idF : F → F given by (idF (X ) )X ∈Obj(C) . Categories
2 Consider functors F , G, H : C → D. For natural Categories
transformations η : F → G and ζ : G → H the Small examples

Free categories
composition Monoids
ζ ◦η :F →H Quasi-orders
Functors
is given by Definition
(ζ ◦ η)X := ζX ◦ ηX . Examples
Large categories
Thus for categories C, D we obtain the functor category Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
FUN(C, D), Concrete categories
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
which has as objects the functors from C to D, and as The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
morphisms the natural transformations between functors
Discussion
(together with the above composition of natural A problem
transformation and the identity transformations). Alternative notions

History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann


Free categories
composition Monoids
Functors
Large categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
Transformations
Discussion

History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann


Free categories
composition Monoids
Functors
Large categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
Transformations
Discussion

History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann


Free categories
composition Monoids
Functors
Large categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
Transformations
Discussion

History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann


Free categories
composition Monoids
Functors
Large categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
Transformations
Discussion

History and outlook
Categories:
Entry exam into the world of categories Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
Functors
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
FUN : KAT × KAT → KAT. Functors
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Meta-categories
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Categories of sets
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
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Examples
Large categories
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Concrete categories
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Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Monoids
Quasi-orders
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Large categories
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Monoids
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Sets
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Sets
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Sets
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Sets
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Sets
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Monoids
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Monoids
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Monoids
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Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
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Examples
Large categories
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
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Examples
Large categories
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A problem
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
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Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
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Two set-functors
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
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Concrete categories
Two set-functors
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
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Two set-functors
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
and pr Categories of sets
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
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Concrete categories
Two set-functors
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
and prov Categories of sets
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
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The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
and prove Categories of sets
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
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Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
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Concrete categories
Two set-functors
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Alternative notions
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
and prove th Categories of sets
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
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The Hom-bifunctor
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Discussion
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Alternative notions
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Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
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Concrete categories
Two set-functors
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Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
and prove that Categories of sets
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
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The Hom-bifunctor
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
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Definition
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Concrete categories
Two set-functors
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
and prove that we Categories of sets
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
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Alternative notions
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Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
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Concrete categories
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Discussion
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Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
and prove that we ha Categories of sets
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
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Alternative notions
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
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t
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Examples
Large categories
Universes
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Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
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t
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Examples
Large categories
Universes
and prove that we have a Categories of sets
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Monoids
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
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Examples
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Concrete categories
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Alternative notions
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
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Definition
Examples
Large categories
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Two set-functors
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
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Examples
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Monoids
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
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Examples
Large categories
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
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Examples
Large categories
Universes
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
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The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
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Alternative notions
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Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
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Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
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Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Free categories
Monoids
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Large categories
Universes
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
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Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Categories
Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
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Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
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A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
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t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
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Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
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History and outlook
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
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Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
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Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
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Definition
Examples
Large categories
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Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
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Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
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Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
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Sets
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Small examples
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Monoids
Quasi-orders
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Definition
Examples
Large categories
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Forgetful functors
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
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Definition
Examples
Large categories
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Forgetful functors
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Transformations
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Small examples
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Definition
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Sets
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Small examples
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Monoids
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Definition
Examples
Large categories
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Forgetful functors
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Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
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Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
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Definition
Examples
Large categories
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Forgetful functors
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Small examples
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Small examples
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Small examples
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Definition
Examples
Large categories
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Forgetful functors
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Sets
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
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Definition
Examples
Large categories
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Forgetful functors
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Transformations
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A problem
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
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Definition
Examples
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Forgetful functors
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Transformations
Discussion
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Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
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Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
t
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Universes
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The size of index sets Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
In a formulation like
Sets
“Let (Ai )i∈I be a family of objects in the category C.”, Categories

Categories
the set I is just an arbitrary set. If we don’t want arbitrary Small examples
sets, we have to explicitely say so (for example, we speak Free categories
Monoids
of “finite families”). Quasi-orders
Functors
However, there are situations where we implicitly assume Definition
Examples
a certain natural restriction on the size of the index sets: Large categories
“The category of sets has all products.” (Somehow Meta-categories

Universes
Q
asserting, that for families (Xi )i∈I in SET also i∈I Xi Categories of sets
Concrete categories
is an object of SET.) Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
“The category of categories has all products.” The Hom-bifunctor
(Somehow asserting, that for families (Ci )i∈I in KAT Transformations

Q Discussion
also i∈I Ci is an object of KAT.) A problem
Alternative notions
For arbitrary I, these statements are always false. History and outlook
Categories:
The size of index sets Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
In a formulation like
Sets
“Let (Ai )i∈I be a family of objects in the category C.”, Categories

Categories
the set I is just an arbitrary set. If we don’t want arbitrary Small examples
sets, we have to explicitely say so (for example, we speak Free categories
Monoids
of “finite families”). Quasi-orders
Functors
However, there are situations where we implicitly assume Definition
Examples
a certain natural restriction on the size of the index sets: Large categories
“The category of sets has all products.” (Somehow Meta-categories

Universes
Q
asserting, that for families (Xi )i∈I in SET also i∈I Xi Categories of sets
Concrete categories
is an object of SET.) Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
“The category of categories has all products.” The Hom-bifunctor
(Somehow asserting, that for families (Ci )i∈I in KAT Transformations

Q Discussion
also i∈I Ci is an object of KAT.) A problem
Alternative notions
For arbitrary I, these statements are always false. History and outlook
Categories:
The “normal size” of index sets Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
The problem is, that the size of I has to be bounded (I
Sets
Q
represents the arity of infinitary operations as i∈I Xi ).
Categories
For a category C, a “normal” index set (if we somehow Categories
Small examples
assume such a notion) is an index set of the same Free categories
cardinality as some element of U(C), the universe of C. Monoids

Quasi-orders
Functors
Actually, in most situations it is sufficient to consider Definition
Examples
I ∈ U(C) (like in statements of the form “all products Large categories

exist”) — recall the literal meaning of “universe”. Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
U(C) can be called the indexing universe of C. Concrete categories
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
However, there is an important exception, when we go to The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
“higher-order spaces” aka functor categories Discussion
A problem
(one of the strong points of category theory!). Alternative notions

History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Q
Categories
Small examples

Quasi-orders
Functors
Examples

Universes
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
Transformations
A problem

History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Q
Categories
Small examples

Quasi-orders
Functors
Examples

Universes
Categories of sets
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
Transformations
A problem

History and outlook
Categories:
A typical examples: “Weak presheaves” Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Consider a small category C and the category
Sets
FUN(C t , SET) Categories

Categories
of set-valued contravariant functors (if C carries some Small examples

appropriate extra structure, called a “coverage” (or, in Free categories
Monoids
older texts, a “Grothendiek pretopology”), then these Quasi-orders
Functors
functors are called “presheaves on C”). Definition
Examples
According to the general convention, there is a universe Large categories

U such that C ∈ U and SET = SETU . Now where do the Meta-categories
Universes
“presheaves” live?! Categories of sets

Concrete categories
“Presheaves” F should be small objects (i.e., F ∈ U) — Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
however, according to the triple construction, they are The Hom-bifunctor
not! (Since F = (F0 , C, SET) !) Transformations
Discussion
The universe of FUN(C t , SET) is the universe U0 A problem
Alternative notions
containing U — which is far too big. History and outlook

Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets

Categories

Monoids
Functors
Examples

Universes

Concrete categories

Forgetful functors
Discussion
Alternative notions

Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets

Categories

Monoids
Functors
Examples

Universes

Concrete categories

Forgetful functors
Discussion
Alternative notions

Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets

Categories

Monoids
Functors
Examples

Universes

Concrete categories

Forgetful functors
Discussion
Alternative notions

Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets

Categories

Monoids
Functors
Examples

Universes

Concrete categories

Forgetful functors
Discussion
Alternative notions

Categories:
A general rule for this exception Foundations
So in this case the “indexing category” of FUN(C t , SET) Oliver Kullmann
is again U. Sets
Categories
In general, for categories C, D: Directed general graphs
Categories
1 If both C, D are small (w.r.t. the same universe — this Small examples
is always assumed in such contexts), then also Free categories
Monoids
FUN(C, D) is small, so there is no problem here. Quasi-orders
Functors
2 If C is small and D is large, then the “indexing Definition
Examples
category” of FUN(C, D) is the current
Large categories
discourse-universe. Meta-categories
Universes
And thus FUN(C, D) is considered as just a large Categories of sets
Concrete categories
category (not “super-large”), which can be justified
Two set-functors
by removing (in thoughts) the superfluous labels “D” Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
of the functors (as triples).
Transformations
(The whole problem consists just in “lazy formulations” Discussion
A problem
like “all products” (or “all limits”), and one just needs to be Alternative notions
a bit more precise here.) History and outlook

Categories:
Remark: Other reactions Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
The cause of the (small) problem here was the triple Directed general graphs
construction (F , C, D) for functors, which created a large Categories
Small examples
object even for small C. In the literature one finds two Free categories
alternative treatments: Monoids

Quasi-orders
Abandon the triple construction: Instead of having Functors

Definition
“independent morphisms” one can have a framework Examples
(“categories as morphism-sets”) where morphisms Large categories

Meta-categories
can only be accessed having domain and codomain Universes

Categories of sets
at hand, and then the triple construction is no longer Concrete categories
needed (set-theoretical (“naked”) maps then for Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
example are the morphisms of the category of sets). The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Remark: Other reactions (continued) Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Ignore the object names: Extend the notion of “large Categories
categories”, and only ask for the morphism set to be Small examples
Free categories
a subset of the current universe. Every such Monoids
Quasi-orders
“enlarged category” is isomorphic to a normal large
Functors
category, and triples got harmless (they are just Definition
Examples
names, finally). Large categories
Meta-categories
The second approach creates other trouble elsewhere, Universes
Categories of sets
and has (apparently) not been further pursued in the Concrete categories
literature, while the former has some advantages (and Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
followers). The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Further remark: “Small” and “large” Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Traditionally, the distinction between small and large sets
was the main tool to handle categories like the “category Sets
of categories” (sometimes “small” is called “set”, and Categories

“large” is called “class”). This method has some Categories
Small examples
disadvantages: Free categories
Monoids
In order to keep things small certain hacks are used. Quasi-orders
At most places, the distinction is useless, but the Functors

Definition
distinction is floating around nevertheless. Examples
Large categories
In our (“modern”) framework the distinction between Meta-categories
Universes
“small” and “large” is largely irrelevant: Categories of sets
Concrete categories
We localised the problem by the use of Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
“indexing universes”. The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
I think it’s better to mention problems explicitely, than to Discussion
trust some kind of “semi-automatic” solution which A problem

Alternative notions
causes more trouble than it solves. History and outlook

Categories:
Variations on the notion of a category Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
The main variations on the notion of a category occur (to Categories
the best of my knowledge) among the following (mainly Directed general graphs
Categories
orthogonal) dimensions: Small examples

Free categories
I Different foundations are used (instead of ZFCU): Monoids
Quasi-orders
(i) Other (weaker) set-theories are used. Functors
(ii) Or set-theory is avoided. Definition
Examples
II Different basic structures are used (instead of dgg’s): Large categories

Meta-categories
(i) The morphism-sets Mor(X , Y ) are taken as basic. Universes

Categories of sets
(ii) Or objects are dropped. Concrete categories
Two set-functors
We will now discuss these variations, and argue that for Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
our purpose (category theory as a mathematical theory
Transformations
like algebra or topology) the chosen foundations fits best.
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The basic foundational issue Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
The basic problem is how to handle large categories like Categories
the category of “all sets”. Directed general graphs
Categories
We use meta-categories for this purpose: Small examples

Free categories
1 This is sufficient for us, since meta-categories are Monoids

Quasi-orders
only devices to fill universes. Functors

Definition
2 Without universes, meta-categories would not be Examples
suitable, since we want categories to be “first class Large categories

Meta-categories
citizens”, that is, objects of the theory, and not Universes

Categories of sets
meta-constructions. Concrete categories
(And not meta-meta-...-constructions(!)). Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
How to handle large categories in set theories without
Transformations
universes?
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Using weaker set-theories Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
1 In ZFC there is no handle.
Sets
2 Some (older) texts uses “set theory with classes”, Categories
which adds the notion of “(proper) classes” to set Directed general graphs
Categories
theory. However, this is just a hack: One can build Small examples
the category of sets, and the category of “small Free categories
Monoids
categories”, but these large categories now do not Quasi-orders
participate anymore in the “higher theory”: Functors

Definition
Examples
One of the revolutionary changes enabled by set theory is Large categories

Meta-categories
the possibility to go to more and more abstract spaces, Universes
Categories of sets
on higher and higher levels — ad infinitum ! Concrete categories
We should not go back to earlier stages of strictly Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
separated “class societies”. The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
(On top of classes one can stack super-classes Discussion

A problem
(“conglomerates”) and so on — all we get in this way is just a Alternative notions
History and outlook
poor-mans version of ZFCU.)
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Monoids

Definition
Examples

Meta-categories
Categories of sets

Forgetful functors
Transformations

A problem
History and outlook
Categories:
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Monoids

Definition
Examples

Meta-categories
Categories of sets

Forgetful functors
Transformations

A problem
History and outlook
Categories:
Parameterising the logic Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
A defensible quest is to search for minimal logical Categories
theories allowing to do category theory. Small examples

Free categories
This however is true for every mathematical subject, Monoids

Quasi-orders
and it can get very complicated (and messy), and is Functors

Definition
furthermore a specialist’s topic. Examples
For the general theory, we should go as far out as Large categories

Meta-categories
possible, without “foundational stinginess”. Universes

Categories of sets
Though some parts of category has been found Concrete categories
Two set-functors
intrinsically (?) linked with intuitionistic logic. Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Comment: Not a tuple Foundations
Often categories are not “packed” into tuples, but a Oliver Kullmann
category is “somehow” an associations of several things: Sets
1 This reflects the wish to keep even large categories Categories

“within the universe”. Categories
Small examples
2 For a consistent set-theoretical treatment like ours, Free categories
Monoids
there is no need for such fuzziness. Quasi-orders
3 We treat categories as any other mathematical Functors

Definition
object: Examples
1 The importance of small categories (as combinatorial Large categories

Meta-categories
objects, related to graph theory and constraint Universes
satisfaction) is on the rise. Categories of sets

Concrete categories
2 Yet for example “large groups” (of universe size) are Two set-functors
only considered in set theory and model theory, but I Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
expect also this to become more important over time.
Transformations
So the “traditional dichotomy”, that categories are Discussion
large and mathematical objects are small, is (slowly) A problem
Alternative notions
melting down. History and outlook

Categories:
Starting with the morphism-sets Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
We have based the notion of a category on the notion of
a directed general graph. A (popular) alternative starts Sets
with the morphism sets MorC (X , Y ): Categories

A “category via morphism-sets” is a quadruple Categories
Small examples
(O, (Mor(X , Y ))(X ,Y )∈O 2 , (◦X ,Y ,Z )(X ,Y ,Z )∈O 3 , (idX )X ∈O ) : Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
1 O is a set (the set of objects); Functors

Definition
2 (Mor(X , Y ))(X ,Y )∈O 2 is a family of sets (the family of Examples
morphism sets); Large categories

Meta-categories
3 (◦X ,Y ,Z )(X ,Y ,Z )∈O 3 is a family of maps Universes

Categories of sets
◦X ,Y ,Z : Mor(X , Y ) × Mor(Y , Z ) → Mor(X , Z ) (the Concrete categories
Two set-functors
composition of morphisms); Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
4 (idX )X ∈O is a family of morphisms idX ∈ Mor(X , X ) Transformations
(the identity morphisms); Discussion
A problem
such that the composition of morphisms is associative Alternative notions
History and outlook
and the identities are neutral elements.
Categories:
Starting with the morphism-sets Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
We have based the notion of a category on the notion of
a directed general graph. A (popular) alternative starts Sets
with the morphism sets MorC (X , Y ): Categories

A “category via morphism-sets” is a quadruple Categories
Small examples
(O, (Mor(X , Y ))(X ,Y )∈O 2 , (◦X ,Y ,Z )(X ,Y ,Z )∈O 3 , (idX )X ∈O ) : Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
1 O is a set (the set of objects); Functors

Definition
2 (Mor(X , Y ))(X ,Y )∈O 2 is a family of sets (the family of Examples
morphism sets); Large categories

Meta-categories
3 (◦X ,Y ,Z )(X ,Y ,Z )∈O 3 is a family of maps Universes

Categories of sets
◦X ,Y ,Z : Mor(X , Y ) × Mor(Y , Z ) → Mor(X , Z ) (the Concrete categories
Two set-functors
composition of morphisms); Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
4 (idX )X ∈O is a family of morphisms idX ∈ Mor(X , X ) Transformations
(the identity morphisms); Discussion
A problem
such that the composition of morphisms is associative Alternative notions
History and outlook
and the identities are neutral elements.
Categories:
Encodings Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
From a category C we obtain a “category via Sets
morphism-sets” M(C) by just using the Categories

morphism-sets MorC (X , Y ) and the restrictions of the Categories
composition of morphisms. Small examples

Free categories
From a “category via morphism-sets” C we obtain a Monoids

Quasi-orders
category m(C) by using O as the object set, Functors

Definition
[ Examples
M(X , Y ) × {X } × {Y } Large categories

(X ,Y )∈O 2 Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
as the morphism set (employing the triple Concrete categories
Two set-functors
construction), defining domain and codomain as the Forgetful functors
second resp. third component of a morphism (as The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
triple), and combining all single “local” composition
Discussion
maps into one “global” composition. A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Cryptomorphisms Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
The maps M and m translate the notion of category from Sets
Categories
one “language” into another (in the combinatorial world, Directed general graphs
where often no suitable notion of morphism is available, Categories
Small examples
such maps are called “cryptomorphisms”). Free categories
Monoids
0
From a categorical point of view, let KAT be the category Quasi-orders
Functors
of “categories via morphism-sets”: Definition
M : KAT → KAT0 and m : KAT0 → KAT are “full

Examples
1
Large categories
embeddings” (full functors, which are injective on the Meta-categories
Universes
morphisms (and objects)). Categories of sets
Concrete categories
2 However, M and m are not isomorphisms, and the Two set-functors
categories KAT and KAT0 are only isomorphic via Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
global maps which know about the universe (at least Transformations
I assume so — left as exercise). Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Disjoint morphism sets Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Now for a category C and (X , Y ), (X 0 , Y 0 ) ∈ Obj(C)2 we
actually have Sets
Categories
(X , Y ) 6= (X 0 , Y 0 ) ⇒ MorC (X , Y ) ∩ MorC (X 0 , Y 0 ) = ∅,
Categories
Small examples
since otherwise from the morphisms (alone(!)) domain Free categories

Monoids
and codomain could not be recovered. Quasi-orders
Functors
If thus we also demand disjointness for “categories via Definition
Examples
morphism-sets”, we obtain “categories via disjoint Large categories
morphism-sets”: Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
1 Now for the cryptomorphism m we do not need to Concrete categories
employ the triple construction anymore, and M and Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
m become inverse to each other. The Hom-bifunctor
2 Thus, using KAT00 for the category of “categories via Transformations
Discussion
disjoint morphism-sets”, we now have inverse A problem
isomorphisms M and m between KAT and KAT00 . Alternative notions

History and outlook
Categories:
Disjoint or not?! Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
“Categories via disjoint morphism-sets” have an Categories
easier “global structure” than without the Directed general graphs
Categories
disjointness-condition (they directly relate to directed Small examples

general graphs). Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
However, for “categories via morphisms-sets” we do
Functors
never need to employ the triple constructions, and Definition
Examples
this makes it somewhat easier to handle morphisms
Large categories
(and functors) — that is, without hand waving. Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Most texts which base the notion of categories on Concrete categories
morphism-sets use the disjointness condition, however Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
Borceaux in his “Handbook of categorical algebra” does The Hom-bifunctor
not (avoiding in this way the little problem with functor Transformations
categories). Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Small morphism sets Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Recall our definition of the Hom-bifunctor Directed general graphs
Categories
MorC (−1 , −2 ) : C t × C → SET Small examples

Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
Possibly the morphism sets Mor(X , Y ) are large here.
Functors
Now often for “categories via (disjoint) morphism-sets” Definition
Examples
the morphism-sets are required to be small:
Large categories
This requirement does not pose big problems, Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
however it is unnecessary, Concrete categories
and also somewhat unnatural from the point of view Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
of “categories as dgg’s”. The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Partial monoids Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Ideologically speaking, the morphisms in a category are Categories
more important than the objects (which can be recovered Directed general graphs
Categories
from the identity morphisms). So there arises the wish to Small examples
define “object-free” categories. Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
It is possible to define a category just as some form of Functors

“partial monoid”, a triple Definition
Examples
Large categories
(M, ◦) Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
such that ◦ is a partial operation on M which is Concrete categories
Two set-functors
associative in the appropriate sense, and such that each Forgetful functors
element f ∈ M has neutral elements “from the left and The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
right”.
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Recovering the objects Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
1 It is a simple exercise to show that in a category for Directed general graphs
each object there is exactly one endomorphism Categories
Small examples
which is left- and right-neutral regarding composition. Free categories
Monoids
2 In the same vein, for a category as a partial monoid Quasi-orders
(M, ◦) for every f ∈ M there are unique neutral Functors

Definition
elements fX , fY “from the left and right”. Examples
Large categories
3 These special morphisms then identify the objects. Meta-categories
Universes
Categories as partial monoids are not used (at least not Categories of sets
Concrete categories
to my knowledge) — however for the field of partial Two set-functors

Forgetful functors
semigroups the notions transferred/borrowed from The Hom-bifunctor
category theory seem to be quite valuable. Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
The origins of category theory Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Categories
Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
Functors
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook
Categories:
Foundations
Oliver Kullmann
Sets
Categories
Categories
Small examples
Free categories
Monoids
Quasi-orders
End Functors
Definition
Examples
Large categories
Meta-categories
Universes
Categories of sets
Concrete categories
Two set-functors
Forgetful functors
The Hom-bifunctor
Transformations
Discussion
A problem
Alternative notions
History and outlook

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Computer Science Department Functors

University of Wales Swansea Examples

PhD Theory Seminar (Hauptseminar) Concrete categories

2 We introduce the main generic examples of Monoids

monoids, and quasi-orders; Large categories

4 functor categories. Concrete categories

4 We discuss various attempts to formulate the notion Transformations

8 Discussion of the foundations Discussion

8 Discussion of the foundations Discussion

8 Discussion of the foundations Discussion

8 Discussion of the foundations Discussion

8 Discussion of the foundations Discussion

8 Discussion of the foundations Discussion

8 Discussion of the foundations Discussion

8 Discussion of the foundations Discussion

of all mathematical modelling. Categories

relation (namely element-ship “∈”); besides that we Functors

have the language of first order logic with equality. Examples

category theory is a more abstract layer). Universes

We have (x, y ) = (x 0 , y 0 ) ⇔ x = x 0 ∧ y = y 0 . Monoids

2 A (binary) relation is a set of ordered pairs. Functors

3 Let the domain and range of a relation R be defined Examples

dom(R) := {x | ∃ y : (x, y ) ∈ R} Universes

If we have f : A → B and f : →A0 B0,

(fx )x∈dom(f ) : Universes

The argument here is written as index. Concrete categories

specification. The Hom-bifunctor

For relations R, S we define the composition Sets

We have dom(S ◦ R) ⊆ dom(R) and rg(S ◦ R) ⊆ rg(S). Free categories

Basic properties are: Functors

arbitrary relations R, R 0 , R 00 we have Large categories

And if f : A → B and g : B → C, then g ◦ f : A → C. Discussion

We now define (ordered) n-tuples t for n ∈ N by induction: Sets

where t 0 is an (n − 1)-tuple, while x is a set (“object”). Examples

Given an tuple t of length n, for i ∈ {1, . . . , n} we can Two set-functors

access the i-th component of t via ti . The Hom-bifunctor

For an arbitrary family (Ai )i∈I of sets we define a choice Functors

∀ i ∈ I : f (i) ∈ Ai . Large categories

i∈I The Hom-bifunctor

3 we cannot mix tuples of different length. Small examples

To remove these restrictions, we define “(standardised) Monoids

An initial segment of the set N of natural numbers is Definition

a subset I ⊆ N such that with n ∈ I for every m ∈ N Large categories

with m ≤ n we also have m ∈ I. Meta-categories

set an initial segment of N. Two set-functors

bi−m if i > m Large categories

In my opinion, every mathematician (this includes every Categories

theoretical computer scientist) should know the basic Categories

As a thorough introduction into set theory as a foundation Quasi-orders

of mathematics I recommend: Functors

Nicolas Bourbaki, Elements of Mathematics Large categories

Theory of Sets Meta-categories

Springer, 2004 Categories of sets

ISBN 3-540-22525-0 Two set-functors

2 E is a set (the set of “directed edges”) Small examples

3 src, trg : E → V (“source” and “target” of edges). Monoids

In other words, a dgg is a 2-sorted algebraic Examples

functions of type E → V . Universes

unique dgg G with V (G) = ∅). Transformations

Directed general graphs according to the above definition Discussion

irreflexive relation on V (i.e., R ⊆ V 2 with Categories

where R is a relation on V (i.e., R ⊆ V 2 ). Functors

3 A general directed graph is a triple (V , E, γ), where Examples