Telecommunication

Early means of communicating over a distance included

visual signals, such as beacons, smoke signals, semaphore
telegraphs, signal ags, and optical heliographs.[7] Other
examples of pre-modern long-distance communication
included audio messages such as coded drumbeats, lungblown horns, and loud whistles. Modern technologies
for long-distance communication usually involve electrical and electromagnetic technologies, such as telegraph,
telephone, and teleprinter, networks, radio, microwave
transmission, ber optics, and communications satellites.
A revolution in wireless communication began in the rst
decade of the 20th century with the pioneering developments in radio communications by Guglielmo Marconi,
who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909. Other
highly notable pioneering inventors and developers in the
eld of electrical and electronic telecommunications include Charles Wheatstone and Samuel Morse (telegraph),
Alexander Graham Bell (telephone), Edwin Armstrong,
and Lee de Forest (radio), as well as John Logie Baird
and Philo Farnsworth (television).

A satellite communication antenna at the biggest facility for satellite communication in Raisting, Bavaria, Germany

1 Etymology
The word telecommunication was adapted from the
French.[5] It is a compound of the Greek prex tele(-), meaning distant, and the Latin communicare, meaning to share.[8] The French word tlcommunication was rst invented in the French Grande
Ecole Telecom ParisTech formerly known as Ecole nationale suprieure des tlcommunications in 1904 by
the French engineer and novelist douard Estauni.[9]

2 History
Visualization from the Opte Project of the various routes through
a portion of the Internet.

3 Key concepts

Telecommunication occurs when the exchange

of information between two or more entities
(communication) includes the use of technology.
Communication technology uses channels to transmit
information (as electrical signals), either over a physical
medium (such as signal cables), or in the form of
electromagnetic waves.[1][2][3][4][5][6] The word is often
used in its plural form, telecommunications, because it
involves many dierent technologies.

A number of key concepts reoccur throughout the literature on modern telecommunication theory and systems.
Some of these concepts are discussed below.

3.1 Basic elements

A basic telecommunication system consists of three primary units that are always present in some form:
1

3 KEY CONCEPTS

A transmitter that takes information and converts it graded by undesirable physical noise. (The output of a
to a signal.
transmitter is noise-free for all practical purposes.) Commonly, the noise in a communication system can be ex A transmission medium, also called the physical pressed as adding or subtracting from the desirable signal
channel that carries the signal. An example of this in a completely random way. This form of noise is called
is the free space channel.
additive noise, with the understanding that the noise can
A receiver that takes the signal from the channel and be negative or positive at dierent instants of time. Noise
that is not additive noise is a much more dicult situation
converts it back into usable information.
to describe or analyze, and these other kinds of noise will
be omitted here.
For example, in a radio broadcasting station the stations
large power amplier is the transmitter; and the broad- On the other hand, unless the additive noise disturbance
casting antenna is the interface between the power ampli- exceeds a certain threshold, the information contained in
er and the free space channel. The free space channel digital signals will remain intact. Their resistance to noise
is the transmission medium; and the receivers antenna is represents a key advantage of digital signals over analog
the interface between the free space channel and the re- signals.[11]
ceiver. Next, the radio receiver is the destination of the
radio signal, and this is where it is converted from electricity to sound for people to listen to.
3.3 Telecommunication networks
Sometimes, telecommunication systems are duplex
(two-way systems) with a single box of electronics working as both a transmitter and a receiver, or a transceiver.
For example, a cellular telephone is a transceiver.[10] The
transmission electronics and the receiver electronics in a
transceiver are actually quite independent of each other.
This can be readily explained by the fact that radio transmitters contain power ampliers that operate with electrical powers measured in the watts or kilowatts, but radio
receivers deal with radio powers that are measured in the
microwatts or nanowatts. Hence, transceivers have to be
carefully designed and built to isolate their high-power
circuitry and their low-power circuitry from each other.
Telecommunication over xed lines is called point-topoint communication because it is between one transmitter and one receiver. Telecommunication through radio
broadcasts is called broadcast communication because it
is between one powerful transmitter and numerous lowpower but sensitive radio receivers.[10]
Telecommunications in which multiple transmitters and
multiple receivers have been designed to cooperate and to
share the same physical channel are called multiplex systems. The sharing of physical channels using multiplexing often gives very large reductions in costs. Multiplexed
systems are laid out in telecommunication networks, and
the multiplexed signals are switched at nodes through to
the correct destination terminal receiver.

3.2

Analog versus digital communications

Main article: Telecommunications network

A communications network is a collection of transmitters, receivers, and communications channels that send
messages to one another. Some digital communications
networks contain one or more routers that work together
to transmit information to the correct user. An analog communications network consists of one or more
switches that establish a connection between two or more
users. For both types of network, repeaters may be necessary to amplify or recreate the signal when it is being transmitted over long distances. This is to combat
attenuation that can render the signal indistinguishable
from the noise.[12] Another advantage of digital systems
over analog is that their output is easier to store in memory, i.e. two voltage states (high and low) are easier to
store than a continuous range of states.

3.4 Communication channels

The term channel has two dierent meanings. In one
meaning, a channel is the physical medium that carries
a signal between the transmitter and the receiver. Examples of this include the atmosphere for sound communications, glass optical bers for some kinds of optical
communications, coaxial cables for communications by
way of the voltages and electric currents in them, and free
space for communications using visible light, infrared
waves, ultraviolet light, and radio waves. This last channel
is called the free space channel. The sending of radio
waves from one place to another has nothing to do with
the presence or absence of an atmosphere between the
two. Radio waves travel through a perfect vacuum just as
easily as they travel through air, fog, clouds, or any other
kind of gas besides air.

Communications signals can be either by analog signals or

digital signals. There are analog communication systems
and digital communication systems. For an analog signal,
the signal is varied continuously with respect to the information. In a digital signal, the information is encoded as
a set of discrete values (for example, a set of ones and
zeros). During the propagation and reception, the infor- The other meaning of the term channel in telecommation contained in analog signals will inevitably be de- munications is seen in the phrase communications chan-

3
nel, which is a subdivision of a transmission medium so
that it can be used to send multiple streams of information simultaneously. For example, one radio station can
broadcast radio waves into free space at frequencies in the
neighborhood of 94.5 MHz (megahertz) while another radio station can simultaneously broadcast radio waves at
frequencies in the neighborhood of 96.1 MHz. Each radio station would transmit radio waves over a frequency
bandwidth of about 180 kHz (kilohertz), centered at frequencies such as the above, which are called the carrier
frequencies. Each station in this example is separated
from its adjacent stations by 200 kHz, and the dierence
between 200 kHz and 180 kHz (20 kHz) is an engineering allowance for the imperfections in the communication
system.

eral dierent modulation schemes available to achieve

this [two of the most basic being amplitude modulation
(AM) and frequency modulation (FM)]. An example of
this process is a disc jockeys voice being impressed into
a 96 MHz carrier wave using frequency modulation (the
voice would then be received on a radio as the channel
96 FM).[15] In addition, modulation has the advantage
that it may use frequency division multiplexing (FDM).

4 Society

Telecommunication has a signicant social, cultural and

economic impact on modern society. In 2008, estimates
placed the telecommunication industrys revenue at $4.7
In the example above, the free space channel has trillion or just under 3 percent of the gross world prodbeen divided into communications channels according uct (ocial exchange rate).[16] Several following sections
to frequencies, and each channel is assigned a separate discuss the impact of telecommunication on society.
frequency bandwidth in which to broadcast radio waves.
This system of dividing the medium into channels according to frequency is called "frequency-division multiplex- 4.1 Economic impact
ing" (FDM).
Another way of dividing a communications medium into 4.1.1 Microeconomics
channels is to allocate each sender a recurring segment of
time (a time slot, for example, 20 milliseconds out of
each second), and to allow each sender to send messages
only within its own time slot. This method of dividing
the medium into communication channels is called "timedivision multiplexing" (TDM), and is used in optical ber
communication. Some radio communication systems use
TDM within an allocated FDM channel. Hence, these
systems use a hybrid of TDM and FDM.

On the microeconomic scale, companies have used

telecommunications to help build global business empires. This is self-evident in the case of online retailer
Amazon.com but, according to academic Edward Lenert,
even the conventional retailer Walmart has beneted from
better telecommunication infrastructure compared to its
competitors.[17] In cities throughout the world, home
owners use their telephones to order and arrange a variety of home services ranging from pizza deliveries to
electricians. Even relatively poor communities have been
noted to use telecommunication to their advantage. In
3.5 Modulation
Bangladesh's Narshingdi district, isolated villagers use
cellular phones to speak directly to wholesalers and arThe shaping of a signal to convey information is known range a better price for their goods. In Cte d'Ivoire, cofas modulation. Modulation can be used to represent a fee growers share mobile phones to follow hourly variadigital message as an analog waveform. This is com- tions in coee prices and sell at the best price.[18]
monly called keying a term derived from the older
use of Morse Code in telecommunications and several
keying techniques exist (these include phase-shift keying, 4.1.2 Macroeconomics
frequency-shift keying, and amplitude-shift keying). The
"Bluetooth" system, for example, uses phase-shift keying On the macroeconomic scale, Lars-Hendrik Rller and
to exchange information between various devices.[13][14] Leonard Waverman suggested a causal link between
In addition, there are combinations of phase-shift keying good telecommunication infrastructure and economic
and amplitude-shift keying which is called (in the jargon growth.[19] Few dispute the existence of a correlation alof the eld) "quadrature amplitude modulation" (QAM) though some argue it is wrong to view the relationship as
that are used in high-capacity digital radio communica- causal.[20]
tion systems.
Because of the economic benets of good telecommuModulation can also be used to transmit the information of low-frequency analog signals at higher frequencies. This is helpful because low-frequency analog signals
cannot be eectively transmitted over free space. Hence
the information from a low-frequency analog signal must
be impressed into a higher-frequency signal (known as
the "carrier wave") before transmission. There are sev-

nication infrastructure, there is increasing worry about

the inequitable access to telecommunication services
amongst various countries of the worldthis is known
as the digital divide. A 2003 survey by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) revealed that roughly a
third of countries have fewer than one mobile subscription for every 20 people and one-third of countries have

fewer than one land-line telephone subscription for every

20 people. In terms of Internet access, roughly half of all
countries have fewer than one out of 20 people with Internet access. From this information, as well as educational
data, the ITU was able to compile an index that measures
the overall ability of citizens to access and use information and communication technologies.[21] Using this measure, Sweden, Denmark and Iceland received the highest ranking while the African countries Nigeria, Burkina
Faso and Mali received the lowest.[22]

4.2

asked where they got their news yesterday, more people

said television or radio than newspapers. The results are
summarised in the following table (the percentages add up
to more than 100% because people were able to specify
more than one source).[26]
Telecommunication has had an equally signicant impact on advertising. TNS Media Intelligence reported
that in 2007, 58% of advertising expenditure in the
United States was spent on mediums that depend upon
telecommunication.[27] The results are summarised in the
following table.

Social impact

Telecommunication has played a signicant role in social

relationships. Nevertheless, devices like the telephone
system were originally advertised with an emphasis on the
practical dimensions of the device (such as the ability to
conduct business or order home services) as opposed to
the social dimensions. It was not until the late 1920s and
1930s that the social dimensions of the device became a
prominent theme in telephone advertisements. New promotions started appealing to consumers emotions, stressing the importance of social conversations and staying
connected to family and friends.[23]
Since then the role that telecommunications has played
in social relations has become increasingly important. In
recent years, the popularity of social networking sites has
increased dramatically. These sites allow users to communicate with each other as well as post photographs,
events and proles for others to see. The proles can list
a persons age, interests, sexual preference and relationship status. In this way, these sites can play important
role in everything from organising social engagements to
courtship.[24]
Prior to social networking sites, technologies like short
message service (SMS) and the telephone also had a signicant impact on social interactions. In 2000, market
research group Ipsos MORI reported that 81% of 15- to
24-year-old SMS users in the United Kingdom had used
the service to coordinate social arrangements and 42% to
irt.[25]

4.3

GOVERNMENT

Other impacts

5 Government
Many countries have enacted legislation which conforms
to the International Telecommunication Regulations established by the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU), which is the leading UN agency for information
and communication technology issues.[28] In 1947, at
the Atlantic City Conference, the ITU decided to afford international protection to all frequencies registered
in a new international frequency list and used in conformity with the Radio Regulation. According to the ITUs
Radio Regulations adopted in Atlantic City, all frequencies referenced in the International Frequency Registration Board, examined by the board and registered on the
International Frequency List shall have the right to international protection from harmful interference.[29]
From a global perspective, there have been political
debates and legislation regarding the management of
telecommunication and broadcasting. The history of
broadcasting discusses some debates in relation to balancing conventional communication such as printing and
telecommunication such as radio broadcasting.[30] The
onset of World War II brought on the rst explosion of international broadcasting propaganda.[30] Countries, their
governments, insurgents, terrorists, and militiamen have
all used telecommunication and broadcasting techniques
to promote propaganda.[30][31] Patriotic propaganda for
political movements and colonization started the mid1930s. In 1936, the BBC broadcast propaganda to the
Arab World to partly counter similar broadcasts from
Italy, which also had colonial interests in North Africa.[30]

Modern insurgents, such as those in the latest Iraq war,

often use intimidating telephone calls, SMSs and the distribution of sophisticated videos of an attack on coalition troops within hours of the operation. The Sunni
insurgents even have their own television station, AlZawraa, which while banned by the Iraqi government,
still broadcasts from Erbil, Iraqi Kurdistan, even as coalition pressure has forced it to switch satellite hosts several
[31]
Telecommunication has also transformed the way people times.
receive their news. A survey led in 2006 by the non-prot On 10 November 2014, President Obama recommended
Pew Internet and American Life Project found that when the Federal Communications Commission reclassify
just over 3,000 people living in the United States were broadband Internet service as a telecommunications serIn cultural terms, telecommunication has increased the
publics ability to access music and lm. With television,
people can watch lms they have not seen before in their
own home without having to travel to the video store or
cinema. With radio and the Internet, people can listen to
music they have not heard before without having to travel
to the music store.

6.2

Telephone

vice in order to preserve net neutrality.[32][33]

6
6.1

Modern media
Worldwide equipment sales

5
the signals voltage. Although short-distance calls may be
handled from end-to-end as analog signals, increasingly
telephone service providers are transparently converting
the signals to digital signals for transmission. The advantage of this is that digitized voice data can travel sideby-side with data from the Internet and can be perfectly
reproduced in long distance communication (as opposed
to analog signals that are inevitably impacted by noise).

According to data collected by Gartner[34][35] and Ars

Technica[36] sales of main consumers telecommunication Mobile phones have had a signicant impact on telephone
networks. Mobile phone subscriptions now outnumber
equipment worldwide in millions of units was:
xed-line subscriptions in many markets. Sales of mobile phones in 2005 totalled 816.6 million with that gure being almost equally shared amongst the markets of
6.2 Telephone
Asia/Pacic (204 m), Western Europe (164 m), CEMEA
(Central Europe, the Middle East and Africa) (153.5 m),
North America (148 m) and Latin America (102 m).[37]
In terms of new subscriptions over the ve years from
1999, Africa has outpaced other markets with 58.2%
growth.[38] Increasingly these phones are being serviced
by systems where the voice content is transmitted digitally
such as GSM or W-CDMA with many markets choosing
to depreciate analog systems such as AMPS.[39]
There have also been dramatic changes in telephone communication behind the scenes. Starting with the operation
of TAT-8 in 1988, the 1990s saw the widespread adoption
of systems based on optical bers. The benet of communicating with optic bers is that they oer a drastic
increase in data capacity. TAT-8 itself was able to carry
10 times as many telephone calls as the last copper cable
laid at that time and todays optic bre cables are able to
carry 25 times as many telephone calls as TAT-8.[40] This
increase in data capacity is due to several factors: First,
optic bres are physically much smaller than competing
technologies. Second, they do not suer from crosstalk
which means several hundred of them can be easily bundled together in a single cable.[41] Lastly, improvements
in multiplexing have led to an exponential growth in the
data capacity of a single bre.[42][43]

Optical ber provides cheaper bandwidth for long distance communication.

In a telephone network, the caller is connected to the person they want to talk to by switches at various telephone
exchanges. The switches form an electrical connection
between the two users and the setting of these switches
is determined electronically when the caller dials the
number. Once the connection is made, the callers
voice is transformed to an electrical signal using a small
microphone in the callers handset. This electrical signal
is then sent through the network to the user at the other
end where it is transformed back into sound by a small
speaker in that persons handset.
The landline telephones in most residential homes are
analogthat is, the speakers voice directly determines

Assisting communication across many modern optic bre networks is a protocol known as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). The ATM protocol allows for the sideby-side data transmission mentioned in the second paragraph. It is suitable for public telephone networks because it establishes a pathway for data through the network and associates a trac contract with that pathway.
The trac contract is essentially an agreement between
the client and the network about how the network is to
handle the data; if the network cannot meet the conditions
of the trac contract it does not accept the connection.
This is important because telephone calls can negotiate a
contract so as to guarantee themselves a constant bit rate,
something that will ensure a callers voice is not delayed
in parts or cut o completely.[44] There are competitors
to ATM, such as Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS),
that perform a similar task and are expected to supplant
ATM in the future.[45][46]

6.3

6 MODERN MEDIA

Radio and television

compression. ATSC uses Dolby Digital AC-3 for audio compression, ISDB uses Advanced Audio Coding
Main articles: Radio, Television and Broadcasting
(MPEG-2 Part 7) and DVB has no standard for audio
In a broadcast system, the central high-powered compression but typically uses MPEG-1 Part 3 Layer
2.[50][51] The choice of modulation also varies between
the schemes. In digital audio broadcasting, standards are
much more unied with practically all countries choosing
to adopt the Digital Audio Broadcasting standard (also
known as the Eureka 147 standard). The exception is the
United States which has chosen to adopt HD Radio. HD
DVB-T
Radio, unlike Eureka 147, is based upon a transmission
ATSC
ISDB-T
DTMB
method known as in-band on-channel transmission that
allows digital information to piggyback on normal AM
or FM analog transmissions.[52]
Digital television standards and their adoption worldwide

broadcast
tower
transmits
a
high-frequency
electromagnetic wave to numerous low-powered receivers. The high-frequency wave sent by the tower
is modulated with a signal containing visual or audio
information. The receiver is then tuned so as to pick up
the high-frequency wave and a demodulator is used to
retrieve the signal containing the visual or audio information. The broadcast signal can be either analog (signal
is varied continuously with respect to the information)
or digital (information is encoded as a set of discrete
values).[10][47]
The broadcast media industry is at a critical turning point
in its development, with many countries moving from
analog to digital broadcasts. This move is made possible by the production of cheaper, faster and more capable integrated circuits. The chief advantage of digital
broadcasts is that they prevent a number of complaints
common to traditional analog broadcasts. For television,
this includes the elimination of problems such as snowy
pictures, ghosting and other distortion. These occur because of the nature of analog transmission, which means
that perturbations due to noise will be evident in the nal
output. Digital transmission overcomes this problem because digital signals are reduced to discrete values upon
reception and hence small perturbations do not aect the
nal output. In a simplied example, if a binary message
1011 was transmitted with signal amplitudes [1.0 0.0 1.0
1.0] and received with signal amplitudes [0.9 0.2 1.1 0.9]
it would still decode to the binary message 1011 a perfect reproduction of what was sent. From this example,
a problem with digital transmissions can also be seen in
that if the noise is great enough it can signicantly alter
the decoded message. Using forward error correction a
receiver can correct a handful of bit errors in the resulting
message but too much noise will lead to incomprehensible
output and hence a breakdown of the transmission.[48][49]
In digital television broadcasting, there are three competing standards that are likely to be adopted worldwide.
These are the ATSC, DVB and ISDB standards; the adoption of these standards thus far is presented in the captioned map. All three standards use MPEG-2 for video

However, despite the pending switch to digital, analog

television remains being transmitted in most countries.
An exception is the United States that ended analog television transmission (by all but the very low-power TV
stations) on 12 June 2009[53] after twice delaying the
switchover deadline. For analog television, there are three
standards in use for broadcasting color TV (see a map on
adoption here). These are known as PAL (German designed), NTSC (North American designed), and SECAM
(French designed). (It is important to understand that
these are the ways of sending color TV, and they do not
have anything to do with the standards for black & white
TV, which also vary from country to country.) For analog
radio, the switch to digital radio is made more dicult by
the fact that analog receivers are sold at a small fraction of
the price of digital receivers.[54][55] The choice of modulation for analog radio is typically between amplitude
(AM) or frequency modulation (FM). To achieve stereo
playback, an amplitude modulated subcarrier is used for
stereo FM.

6.4 Internet
The Internet is a worldwide network of computers and
computer networks that communicate with each other using the Internet Protocol.[56] Any computer on the Internet has a unique IP address that can be used by other computers to route information to it. Hence, any computer on
the Internet can send a message to any other computer using its IP address. These messages carry with them the
originating computers IP address allowing for two-way
communication. The Internet is thus an exchange of messages between computers.[57]
It is estimated that the 51% of the information owing through two-way telecommunications networks in the
year 2000 were owing through the Internet (most of
the rest (42%) through the landline telephone). By the
year 2007 the Internet clearly dominated and captured
97% of all the information in telecommunication networks (most of the rest (2%) through mobile phones).[58]
As of 2008, an estimated 21.9% of the world population has access to the Internet with the highest access
rates (measured as a percentage of the population) in

6.5

Local area networks and wide area networks

data unit

Media Layers

Host Layers

Data
Data
Data

layers
Application
Network Process to Application

Presentation

Data Representation
and Encryption

Session
Interhost Communication

Transport

Segments

End-to-End Connections
and Reliability

Packets

Path Determination and

Logical Addressing (IP)

Frames

Physical Addressing
(MAC and LLC)

Bits

Media, Signal and

Binary Transmission

The OSI reference model

Network

Data Link
Physical

7
the Internet Protocol (IP) being adopted for logical addressing. For the World Wide Web, these IP addresses
are derived from the human readable form using the
Domain Name System (e.g. 72.14.207.99 is derived from
www.google.com). At the moment, the most widely used
version of the Internet Protocol is version four but a move
to version six is imminent.[62]
At the transport layer, most communication adopts either the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP is used when it is essential every message sent is received by the other computer whereas UDP is used when it is merely desirable.
With TCP, packets are retransmitted if they are lost and
placed in order before they are presented to higher layers.
With UDP, packets are not ordered or retransmitted if
lost. Both TCP and UDP packets carry port numbers with
them to specify what application or process the packet
should be handled by.[63] Because certain applicationlevel protocols use certain ports, network administrators
can manipulate trac to suit particular requirements. Examples are to restrict Internet access by blocking the trafc destined for a particular port or to aect the performance of certain applications by assigning priority.

Above the transport layer, there are certain protocols

North America (73.6%), Oceania/Australia (59.5%) and
that are sometimes used and loosely t in the session
Europe (48.1%).[59] In terms of broadband access, Iceand presentation layers, most notably the Secure Sockland (26.7%), South Korea (25.4%) and the Netherlands
ets Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS) pro(25.3%) led the world.[60]
tocols. These protocols ensure that data transferred beThe Internet works in part because of protocols that gov- tween two parties remains completely condential.[64] Fiern how the computers and routers communicate with nally, at the application layer, are many of the protocols
each other. The nature of computer network communi- Internet users would be familiar with such as HTTP (web
cation lends itself to a layered approach where individual browsing), POP3 (e-mail), FTP (le transfer), IRC (Inprotocols in the protocol stack run more-or-less indepen- ternet chat), BitTorrent (le sharing) and XMPP (instant
dently of other protocols. This allows lower-level pro- messaging).
tocols to be customized for the network situation while
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) allows data packnot changing the way higher-level protocols operate. A
ets to be used for synchronous voice communications.
practical example of why this is important is because it
The data packets are marked as voice type packets and
allows an Internet browser to run the same code regardcan be prioritized by the network administrators so that
less of whether the computer it is running on is connected
the real-time, synchronous conversation is less subject to
to the Internet through an Ethernet or Wi-Fi connection.
contention with other types of data trac which can be
Protocols are often talked about in terms of their place
delayed (i.e. le transfer or email) or buered in advance
in the OSI reference model (pictured on the right), which
(i.e. audio and video) without detriment. That prioritizaemerged in 1983 as the rst step in an unsuccessful attion is ne when the network has sucient capacity for all
tempt to build a universally adopted networking protocol
the VoIP calls taking place at the same time and the netsuite.[61]
work is enabled for prioritization i.e. a private corporate
For the Internet, the physical medium and data link pro- style network, but the Internet is not generally managed
tocol can vary several times as packets traverse the globe. in this way and so there can be a big dierence in the
This is because the Internet places no constraints on what quality of VoIP calls over a private network and over the
physical medium or data link protocol is used. This leads public Internet.[65]
to the adoption of media and protocols that best suit the
local network situation. In practice, most intercontinental communication will use the Asynchronous Transfer 6.5 Local area networks and wide area netMode (ATM) protocol (or a modern equivalent) on top
works
of optic ber. This is because for most intercontinental
communication the Internet shares the same infrastruc- Despite the growth of the Internet, the characteristics
ture as the public switched telephone network.
of local area networks (LANs)--computer networks that
At the network layer, things become standardized with do not extend beyond a few kilometersremain distinct.

8
This is because networks on this scale do not require all
the features associated with larger networks and are often more cost-eective and ecient without them. When
they are not connected with the Internet, they also have
the advantages of privacy and security. However, purposefully lacking a direct connection to the Internet does
not provide assured protection from hackers, military
forces, or economic powers. These threats exist if there
are any methods for connecting remotely to the LAN.
Wide area networks (WANs) are private computer networks that may extend for thousands of kilometers. Once
again, some of their advantages include privacy and security. Prime users of private LANs and WANs include
armed forces and intelligence agencies that must keep
their information secure and secret.
In the mid-1980s, several sets of communication protocols emerged to ll the gaps between the data-link layer
and the application layer of the OSI reference model.
These included Appletalk, IPX, and NetBIOS with the
dominant protocol set during the early 1990s being IPX
due to its popularity with MS-DOS users. TCP/IP existed at this point, but it was typically only used by large
government and research facilities.[66]
As the Internet grew in popularity and its trac was required to be routed into private networks, the TCP/IP
protocols replaced existing local area network technologies. Additional technologies, such as DHCP, allowed
TCP/IP-based computers to self-congure in the network. Such functions also existed in the AppleTalk/ IPX/
NetBIOS protocol sets.[67]
Whereas Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) or Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) are typical data-link
protocols for larger networks such as WANs; Ethernet and Token Ring are typical data-link protocols for
LANs. These protocols dier from the former protocols
in that they are simpler, e.g., they omit features such as
quality of service guarantees, and oer collision prevention. Both of these dierences allow for more economical
systems.[68]

REFERENCES

7 Transmission capacity
The eective capacity to exchange information worldwide through two-way telecommunication networks grew
from 281 petabytes of (optimally compressed) information in 1986, to 471 petabytes in 1993, to 2.2 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 2000, and to 65 (optimally
compressed) exabytes in 2007.[58] This is the informational equivalent of two newspaper pages per person per
day in 1986, and six entire newspapers per person per
day by 2007.[71] Given this growth, telecommunications
play an increasingly important role in the world economy
and the global telecommunications industry was about a
$4.7 trillion sector in 2012.[16][72] The service revenue of
the global telecommunications industry was estimated to
be $1.5 trillion in 2010, corresponding to 2.4% of the
worlds gross domestic product (GDP).[16]

8 See also
Active networks
Busy override
Digital Revolution
Dual-tone multi-frequency signaling
Information Age
List of telecommunications encryption terms
Nanonetwork
New media
Outline of telecommunication
Push-button telephone
Telecommunications Industry Association

Telecoms resilience
Despite the modest popularity of IBM Token Ring in
the 1980s and 1990s, virtually all LANs now use either
Wavelength-division multiplexing
wired or wireless Ethernet facilities. At the physical layer,
Wired communication
most wired Ethernet implementations use copper twistedpair cables (including the common 10BASE-T networks).
However, some early implementations used heavier coaxial cables and some recent implementations (especially 9 References
high-speed ones) use optical bers.[69] When optic bers
are used, the distinction must be made between multimode bers and single-mode bers. Multimode bers can 9.1 Citations
be thought of as thicker optical bers that are cheaper to
[1] Denition of telecommunication. Yahoo. Retrieved 28
manufacture devices for, but that suers from less usable
February 2013.
bandwidth and worse attenuation implying poorer longdistance performance.[70]
[2] Telecommunication. Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved 28 February 2013.
[3] Telecommunication. Vocabulary.com. Retrieved 28
February 2013.

9.1

Citations

[4] Telecommunication. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 28 February 2013.

[21] Digital Access Index (DAI)". itu.int. Retrieved 6 March

2008.

[5] Telecommunication. Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 28 February 2013.

[22] World Telecommunication Development Report 2003,

International Telecommunication Union, 2003.

[6] Telecommunication.
February 2013.

[23] Fischer, Claude S. "'Touch Someone': The Telephone

Industry Discovers Sociability. Technology and Culture
29.1 (January 1988): 3261. JSTOR. Web. 4 October
2009.

Dictionary.com.

Retrieved 28

[7] Websters denition: 2) technology that deals with

telecommunication usually used in plural"; Concise Encyclopedia denition: Communication n parties at a distance from one another...."; and the Online Etymology
Dictionary: telecommunication (n.) 1932, from French
tlcommunication (see tele- + communication)."; and: "
1930s: from French tlcommunication, from tl- 'at a
distance' + communication 'communication' ", Oxford online.
[8] Telecommunication, tele- and communication, New Oxford American Dictionary (2nd edition), 2005.
[9] Jean-Marie Dilhac, From tele-communicare to Telecommunications, 2004.
[10] Haykin, Simon (2001). Communication Systems (4th ed.).
John Wiley & Sons. pp. 13. ISBN 0-471-17869-1.
[11] Ambardar, Ashok (1999). Analog and Digital Signal Processing (2nd ed.). Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. pp.
12. ISBN 0-534-95409-X.
[12] ATIS Telecom Glossary 2000, ATIS Committee T1A1
Performance and Signal Processing (approved by the
American National Standards Institute), 28 February
2001.
[13] Haykin, pp 344403.
[14] Bluetooth Specication Version 2.0 + EDR (p 27), Bluetooth, 2004.
[15] Haykin, pp 88126.
[16] Worldwide Telecommunications Industry Revenues, Internet Engineering Task Force, June 2010.
[17] Lenert, Edward (December 1998). A Communication Theory Perspective on Telecommunications Policy.
Journal of Communication 48 (4): 323.
doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1998.tb02767.x.
[18] Mireille Samaan (April 2003). The Eect of Income Inequality on Mobile Phone Penetration. Boston University Honors thesis. Archived from the original (PDF) on
14 February 2007. Retrieved 8 June 2007.
[19] Rller, Lars-Hendrik; Leonard Waverman (2001).
Telecommunications
Infrastructure
and
Economic Development: A Simultaneous Approach.
American Economic Review 91 (4):
909923.
doi:10.1257/aer.91.4.909. ISSN 0002-8282.
[20] Riaz, Ali (10.1177/016344397019004004).
The
role of telecommunications in economic growth:
proposal for an alternative framework of analysis. Media, Culture & Society 19 (4): 557583.
doi:10.1177/016344397019004004. Check date values
in: |date=, |year= / |date= mismatch (help)

[24] How do you know your love is real? Check Facebook.

CNN. 4 April 2008.
[25] I Just Text To Say I Love You, Ipsos MORI, September
2005.
[26] Online News: For many home broadband users, the internet is a primary news source (PDF). Pew Internet
Project. 22 March 2006.
[27] 100 Leading National Advertisers (PDF). Advertising
Age. 23 June 2008. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
[28] International Telecommunication Union : About ITU.
ITU. Accessed 21 July 2009. (PDF of regulation)
[29] Codding, George A. Jr. "Jamming and the Protection of
Frequency Assignments". The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 49, No. 3 (July , 1955), Published
by: American Society of International Law. pp. 384
388. Republished by JSTOR.org The American Journal
of International Law". Accessed 21 July 2009.
[30] Wood, James & Science Museum (Great Britain) "History
of international broadcasting". IET 1994, Volume 1, p.2
of 258 ISBN 0-86341-302-1, ISBN 978-0-86341-302-5.
Republished by Googlebooks. Accessed 21 July 2009.
[31] Gareld, Andrew. "The U.S. Counter-propaganda Failure
in Iraq", FALL 2007, The Middle East Quarterly, Volume
XIV: Number 4, Accessed 21 July 2009.
[32] Wyatt, Edward (10 November 2014). Obama Asks
F.C.C. to Adopt Tough Net Neutrality Rules. New York
Times. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
[33] NYT Editorial Board (14 November 2014). Why the
F.C.C. Should Heed President Obama on Internet Regulation. New York Times. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
[34] Computer sales review, guardian.co.uk, 2009.
[35] Mobile phone sales data, palminfocenter.com, 2009.
[36] PC early history, arstechnica.com, 2005.
[37] Gartner Says Top Six Vendors Drive Worldwide Mobile
Phone Sales to 21% Growth in 2005, Gartner Group, 28
February 2006.
[38] Africa Calling, Victor and Irene Mbarika, IEEE Spectrum, May 2006.
[39] Ten Years of GSM in Australia, Australia Telecommunications Association, 2003.
[40] Milestones in AT&T History, AT&T Knowledge Ventures, 2006.

10

[41] Optical bre waveguide, Saleem Bhatti, 1995.

[42] Fundamentals of DWDM Technology, CISCO Systems,
2006.
[43] Report: DWDM No Match for Sonet, Mary Jander, Light
Reading, 2006.
[44] Stallings, William (2004). Data and Computer Communications (7th edition (intl) ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall. pp.
337366. ISBN 0-13-183311-1.

10

EXTERNAL LINKS

[65] Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and Internet Telephony

http://www.telecomsadvice.org.uk/infosheets/
voip_voice_over_internet_protocol_and_internet_
telephony.htm
[66] Martin, Michael (2000). Understanding the Network (The
Networkers Guide to AppleTalk, IPX, and NetBIOS),
SAMS Publishing, ISBN 0-7357-0977-7.
[67] Ralph Droms, Resources for DHCP, November 2003.
[68] Stallings, pp. 500526.

[45] MPLS is the future, but ATM hangs on, John Dix, Network World, 2002

[69] Stallings, pp 514516.

[46] Lazar, Irwin (22 February 2011). The WAN Road

Ahead: Ethernet or Bust?". Telecom Industry Updates.
Retrieved 22 February 2011.

[70] Fiber Optic Cable Tutorial, Arc Electronics. Retrieved

June 2007.

[47] How Radio Works, HowStuWorks.com, 2006.

[72] Introduction to the Telecommunications Industry, Internet

Engineering Task Force, June 2012.

[48] Digital Television in Australia, Digital Television News

Australia, 2001.
[49] Stallings, William (2004). Data and Computer Communications (7th edition (intl) ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.
ISBN 0-13-183311-1.
[50] HDV Technology Handbook, Sony, 2004.
[51] Audio, Digital Video Broadcasting Project, 2003.
[52] Status of DAB (USA), World DAB Forum, March 2005.
[53] Brian Stelter (13 June 2009). Changeover to Digital TV
O to a Smooth Start. New York Times.

[71] video animation The Economist.

9.2 Bibliography
Goggin, Gerard, Global Mobile Media (New York:
Routledge, 2011), p. 176. ISBN 978-0415469180
Haring, John (2008). Telecommunications. In
David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia
of Economics (2nd ed.). Library of Economics
and Liberty. ISBN 978-0865976658. OCLC
237794267.

[55] DAB Products, World DAB Forum, 2006.

OECD, Universal Service and Rate Restructuring

in Telecommunications, Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) Publishing, 1991. ISBN 92-64-13497-2

[56] Robert E. Kahn and Vinton G. Cerf, What Is The Internet

(And What Makes It Work), December 1999. (specically see footnote xv)

Wheen, Andrew. DOT-DASH TO DOT.COM:

How Modern Telecommunications Evolved from
the Telegraph to the Internet (Springer, 2011)

[54] GE 72664 Portable AM/FM Radio, Amazon.com, June

2006.

[57] How Internet Infrastructure Works, HowStuWorks.com,

2007.
[58] The Worlds Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information, Martin Hilbert
and Priscila Lpez (2011), Science, 332(6025), 6065;
free access to the study through here: martinhilbert.net/
WorldInfoCapacity.html
[59] World Internet Users and Population Stats, internetworldstats.com, 19 March 2007.

10 External links
ATIS Telecom Glossary
Communications Engineering Tutorials
Federal Communications Commission
IEEE Communications Society

[60] OECD Broadband Statistics, Organisation for Economic

Co-operation and Development, December 2005.

International Telecommunication Union

[61] History of the OSI Reference Model, The TCP/IP Guide

v3.0, Charles M. Kozierok, 2005.

Ericssons Understanding Telecommunications at

the Wayback Machine (archived April 13, 2004)
(Ericsson removed the book from their site in
September 2005)

[62] Introduction to IPv6, Microsoft Corporation, February

2006.
[63] Stallings, pp 683702.
[64] T. Dierks and C. Allen, The TLS Protocol Version 1.0,
RFC 2246, 1999.

VoIP, Voice over Internet Protocol and Internet telephone calls

Free Telco Dictionary

11

11
11.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Telecommunication Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication?oldid=681837716 Contributors: The Cunctator, Mav,

Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Ap, Rjstott, Aldie, Heron, Olivier, Edward, Michael Hardy, Mahjongg, Kku, Ixfd64, Dcljr, Sannse, Tregoweth,
Card~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, DavidWBrooks, Haakon, Bluelion, Glenn, Nikai, Tristanb, Raven in Orbit, Guaka, Ralesk, Reddi, Hydnjo,
Will, Wik, Tpbradbury, Munford, Maximus Rex, SEWilco, Fvw, Chuunen Baka, Robbot, Chrism, Vespristiano, RedWolf, Romanm, Modulatum, Richardpitt, Stewartadcock, Rfc1394, Steeev, Rasmus Faber, Hadal, Borislav, Betsumei, Fuelbottle, Cedars, Stirling Newberry,
Giftlite, Inkling, Mblaze, Bradeos Graphon, Curps, Rick Block, Mboverload, Bobblewik, Edcolins, Gloop, Mendel, Sonjaaa, Spatch, Antandrus, MarkSweep, Piotrus, Quarl, MacGyverMagic, Bumm13, PFHLai, Neutrality, Ratiocinate, Deglr6328, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Trevor
MacInnis, Bluemask, Jayjg, CALR, Indosauros, Discospinster, 4pq1injbok, Rich Farmbrough, Bert490, Smyth, Mjpieters, Pavel Vozenilek,
Bender235, ZeroOne, Radavidson, Kjoonlee, JoeSmack, Violetriga, Borofkin, El C, PhilHibbs, Art LaPella, Bobo192, Shenme, MaxHund, Maurreen, K12u, Jerryseinfeld, Timsheridan, Sysiphe, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Polarscribe, Riana, Batmanand, Denniss, Wtmitchell,
Rick Sidwell, TenOfAllTrades, Ceyockey, Herodotos, Kelly Martin, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Pol098, Tabletop, Wikiklrsc, MarkPos,
Ajshm, MrSomeone, RuM, Matilda, Graham87, BD2412, Kbdank71, Mendaliv, Snaekid, Casey Abell, Drbogdan, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Hulagutten, Rillian, Vegaswikian, Makru, Titoxd, Margosbot~enwiki, RexNL, RobyWayne, Intgr, Terrx, Srleer, Phoenix2~enwiki, DVdm,
Stephenw77, YurikBot, Wavelength, Radishes, RobotE, Splash, Admiral Roo, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas, Robbyyy, NawlinWiki, Cquan, Jaxl, Usingha~enwiki, Anareon, Sir48, PhilipO, Mikeblas, Tony1, Zwobot, Bucketsofg, BOT-Superzerocool, FF2010, Light
current, 2over0, David Jordan, GraemeL, Tyrenius, ArielGold, Johnpseudo, TLSuda, Rwwww, GrinBot~enwiki, Sbyrnes321, Veinor,
SmackBot, InverseHypercube, Unyoyega, CyclePat, Blue520, Misto, Eskimbot, KelleyCook, Lakhim, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains,
Ppntori, Chris the speller, Persian Poet Gal, Payxystaxna, Oli Filth, Jeysaba, Silly rabbit, Vasu99a, Telecom.portal, Colonies Chris, A. B.,
Stenson jack, , Mitsuhirato, Rrburke, Addshore, DR04, A5b, Mion, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki, SashatoBot, Rory096,
Harryboyles, Demicx, Smasafy, Bushsf, GothCabbage, Aden Scott, IronGargoyle, 16@r, Special-T, Shangrilaista, Beetstra, Milesdowsett,
Mr Stephen, Dicklyon, SandyGeorgia, TastyPoutine, Totel, Ffxaddict899, Jose77, ShakingSpirit, SansSanity, Iridescent, Joseph Solis in
Australia, Ohad.cohen, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, JohnTechnologist, JForget, CRGreathouse, CmdrObot, Wafulz, JohnCD, N2e, SkylineEvo, Thomasmeeks, Penbat, Cydebot, Obornp, Gogo Dodo, Hughdbrown, Studerby, Kraky, Tawkerbot4, Ethan01, Kozuch, Lxdbsn,
Malleus Fatuorum, Thijs!bot, Hcberkowitz, John254, Tellyaddict, Solveforce, Dawnseeker2000, Escarbot, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Luna Santin, Grammargal, Venya, Qsa5kn, PJY, Juzaily, Julie Deanna, Lperez2029, Once in a Blue Moon, JAnDbot, Harryzilber,
MER-C, CosineKitty, PhilKnight, Kerotan, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Appraiser, Verkhovensky, Bwhack, ClovisPt, LorenzoB, DerHexer,
Oicumayberight, Kayau, Gwern, Europaandio, MartinBot, Jim.henderson, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Erkan Yilmaz, J.delanoy, Pharaoh
of the Wizards, Trusilver, Wa3frp, Jesant13, A New Nation, It Is Me Here, McSly, Brolsma, Skier Dude, Zedh, The Transhumanist
(AWB), Fountains of Bryn Mawr, KylieTastic, DASonnenfeld, Mlewis000, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Remi0o, Sam Blacketer, VolkovBot,
DMcMPO11AAUK, AlnoktaBOT, Coreyxbs, Gaianauta, Sdsds, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Chimpex, GcSwRhIc, Bogatabeav, Saligron,
Canaima, From-cary, Mezzaluna, PDFbot, Bhavin105, Wikiisawesome, ARUNKUMAR P.R, SpecMode, Madhero88, Kjoseph7777, Mohan0704, Aulman, IdleUser, Synthebot, Insanity Incarnate, Symane, Logan, Kbrose, SieBot, Moonriddengirl, Scarian, Gerakibot, Keilana,
JD554, Andrew Hartford, Matthewedwards, SPACKlick, WannabeAmatureHistorian, Ioverka, Nazi 2007, Lightmouse, RW Marloe, Ngriffeth, OKBot, Svick, Spitre19, Kristine.clara, Rapaporta, Jayeshtula, WikiLaurent, Asocall, Denisarona, Ossguy, Tuxa, Twinsday, Church,
Martarius, Elassint, ClueBot, Valeria70, GorillaWarfare, PipepBot, Qedu, Pvineet131, The Thing That Should Not Be, WaltBusterkeys,
SyntaxBlitz, Wutsje, Businessphonesystems, Bbb2007, Excirial, Hadiyana, Hugsforsale, Sun Creator, Georgiamonet, Arjayay, Razorame,
Muro Bot, Pwarrior, BOTarate, Hdorren, Murali intl, Johnuniq, SoxBot III, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Skunkboy74, XLinkBot, NocturnalA6 2.7, Setherson, Sweetpoet, Gggh, Addbot, DOI bot, Fgnievinski, Bkmays, Leszek Jaczuk, Fluernutter, Kutulus, MrOllie, Download, Favonian, 5 albert square, Tyw7, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Gail, Zorrobot, MuZemike, -, Solidice190, Luckas-bot, Yobot, OrgasGirl, TaBOT-zerem, Samsam.yh, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, KamikazeBot, Nyat, AnomieBOT, Srobak, Rsayles, Bsimmons666, Bowmanmas229, Jim1138, Galoubet, Gaga.vaa, Piano non troppo, Kjkarthikmaddy, AdjustShift, Materialscientist, Whiskers9, Citation bot,
Jeremyjf22, Freeness, Elm-39, Schproject, DynamoDegsy, Readiwip, ArthurBot, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Capricorn42, 4twenty42o, IMarc89,
LoKiLeCh, DSofa, Ched, Srich32977, Coretheapple, Wiki2contrib, Nasa-verve, GrouchoBot, Wizardist, Smartishkindaguy, Bo98, Shadowjams, 11cookeaw1, SD5, Gururaju, A.amitkumar, Anth12, Tsiuser09, FrescoBot, GEBStgo, Alarics, Mthrandir, Finalius, Citation bot
1, XxTimberlakexx, Biker Biker, MacMed, Lars Washington, MastiBot, Ezhuttukari, Bridget Huntley, Blycroft, 123, Crusoe8181,
Thrissel, V4nd3r, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, SchreyP, Paul J Wayman, Lotje, Callanecc, Vrenator, Aoidh, TheGrimReaper NS, Merlinsorca, Minimac, Sideways713, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Mean as custard, Onfopt, Basangbur, Haylstorms, EmausBot, John of Reading,
Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot, Gfoley4, Katherine, Pugliavi, GoingBatty, RA0808, MCI telcomm, Telecomman, Wikipelli, Sprinklezz,
Kkm010, Vihar7, Cogiati, F, H3llBot, Marc Spoddle, LIVPAT, Alrino, IGeMiNix, Kaeh4, Donner60, Rifasj123, Rangoon11, Chris857,
ChuispastonBot, ThePowerofX, Philippe BINANT, Teapeat, Sepersann, 28bot, ClueBot NG, JetBlast, This lousy T-shirt, Draksis314,
Satellizer, DobriAtanassovBatovski, Mrgates, Mr Myson, Muon, Widr, Glauki, Helpful Pixie Bot, Hittman627, Brittanyab, Northamerica1000, Ashishkulshreshtha, Colbry53, Axis Research Mind, Joydeep, Swamynathan007, Elagoutova, HelinaZ, Achowat, Fylbecatulous,
Pratyya Ghosh, Oreileao, Khazar2, Mnativesacl, Mhughes38, Katiewiltshire, Opensourceyk, Thermocycler, PeacefulPlanet3, Lugia2453,
Perep80, Reatlas, Joeinwiki, Phamnhatkhanh, Faizan, Anawesomeeditor, Rizwaanahamed3, Chriyu, DavidLeighEllis, Daideep patel, Ugog
Nizdast, Melody Lavender, NottNott, Ginsuloft, Jianhui67, Danieltele, Joancdocyogen, Mendisar Esarimar Desktrwaimar, Iamandrewg,
Salton Finneger, Monkbot, Dsprc, Trackteur, Wikijuanjo1514, Chicken butt0192, Vkryla, ChamithN, Prinzpopo, NekoKatsun, MarkyNToby, JaDam, Aman.singh5317, Deborah Chiaravalloti, Unibateman, KasparBot, Salwati6, SamWolves23, Jhansiranim and Anonymous:
722

11.2

Images

File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original

artist: ?
File:Digital_broadcast_standards.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Digital_broadcast_standards.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: Self-made from Image:BlankMap-World6.svg and listings at the relevant Wikipedia articles.
Original artist: EnEdC
File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The

12

11

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:

The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
File:Encoding_communication.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Sreejithk2000 using CommonsHelper. Original artist:
Yupi666 at English Wikipedia
File:Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Richard Bartz, Munich aka Makro Freak <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:MFB.jpg' class='image'><img alt='MFB.jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/MFB.jpg' width='80'
height='15' data-le-width='80' data-le-height='15' /></a>
File:Fibreoptic.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Fibreoptic.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: First upload: (Sep 25 2004) en:Wikipedia Original artist: BigRiz
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Internet_map_1024.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg License: CC BY
2.5 Contributors: Originally from the English Wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: The Opte Project
File:OSI_Model_v1.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/OSI_Model_v1.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Onfopt
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Telecom-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

11.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0