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Chapter 2
Yang-Hann Kim
Yang-Hann Kim
Outline
2.1 Introduction/Study Objectives
2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation
2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy
2.4 The Units of Sound
2.5 Analysis Methods of Linear Acoustic Wave Equation
2.6 Solutions of the Wave Equation
2.7 Chapter Summary
2.8 Essentials of Wave Equations and Basic Physical Measures
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Dx
p
p +
dx S
x
pS
x
u
u
+u
x
t
r
0
x+D x
r : density of fluid(kg/m3 )
Figure 2.1
Relation between forces and motion of an infinitesimal fluid element in a pipe (expressing momentum balance:
the left-hand side shows the forces and the right exhibits the change of momentum)
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(2.4)
(2.5)
where it has been assumed that the viscous force is small enough (relative
to the force induced by pressure) to be neglected.
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du u u x
=
+
,
(2.6)
dt t x t
where u is a function of position (x ) and time (t ) and the velocity is the time
rate change of the displacement.
Therefore, we can rewrite Equation 2.6 as
du u
u
=
+u .
dt t
x
(2.7)
If the cross-section between x and x + Dx is maintained constant and Dx
becomes small ( Dx 0 ) , then Equation 2.5 can be expressed as
p
u
Du
u
= r +u = r
,
x
x
Dt
t
where
p = p0 + p ', r = r0 + r ',
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(2.8)
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(r S Dx )
t
(r u S )x
x
0
(r u S )x + Dx
x + Dx
r : density of fluid(kg/m3 )
Figure 2.2 Conservation of mass in an infinitesimal element of fluid (increasing mass of the infinitesimal volume results from a
net decrease of the mass through the surfaces of the volume).
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(2.13a)
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( r S Dx ) = ( r uS ) x - ( r uS ) x+Dx .
t
(2.13b)
As assumed before, if the area of the cross-section (S ) remains constant,
then Equation 2.13 can be rewritten as
r
= - ( ru ).
t
x
(2.14)
We can linearize this equation by substituting Equation 2.10 into Equation
2.14. Equation 2.14 then becomes
r '
u
= - r0 .
t
x
(2.15)
Equations 2.12 and 2.15 express the relation between the sound pressure
and fluid particle velocity, as well as the relation with the fluctuating
density and fluid particle velocity, respectively. One more equation is
therefore needed to completely describe the relations of the three
acoustic variables.
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p = p ( r, s),
(2.16)
p
p
dr +
ds.
r s
s r
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(2.17)
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(2.18)
where B is the bulk modulus that expresses the pressure required for a
unit volume change and c is the speed of sound.
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Figure 2.21 S is cross-sectional area of the duct, x is the coordinate that measures the distance from the disturbance, and v is
the disturbance velocity
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(2.125)
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p
.
r sc
(2.126)
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p
p
p
= g or
=
constant
,
g
(2.128)
r
r
r
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Figure 2.3 Pictorial relation between three variables that govern acoustic wave propagation ( p0 and r 0 express the mean
pressure and static density, respectively; pand r denote acoustic pressure and fluctuating density, respectively; c denotes the
speed of propagation, and u is the velocity of the fluctuating medium)
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(2.19)
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(2.23)
The right-hand term of Equation 2.23 represent the net mass flow into the
unit volume in space.
r
If we eliminate r ' and u using Equations 2.21, 2.23 and 2.18, then
1 2 p '
p' = 2 2
c t
is obtained, which is a three-dimensional form of a wave equation.
2
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(2.24)
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- Dl
p0
p0 + p
ep =
1
- Dl
p
2
l
- Dl / l
Figure 2.4 Volume change and energy for a one-dimensional element (e p is potential energy density and p is p ' for convenience)
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ep =
(2.25)
We therefore have
r0lS = ( r0 + r ) ( l + Dl ) S .
(2.26)
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(2.27)
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(2.30)
e k = r 0u 2 .
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(2.31)
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(2.32)
Note that the potential and kinetic energy are identical if the wave of
interest is a plane wave in an infinite domain.
The next question then is how the acoustic energy changes with time. We
can see that the energy per unit volume has to be balanced by the net
power flow through the surfaces that enclose the volume of interest, as
illustrated in Figure 2.5.
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Figure 2.5 Relation between energy ( e t ) and one-dimensional intensity ( pu ) (energy in the volume S Dx and the intensity through
the surface at x and x + Dx must be balanced).
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(2.33)
(2.34)
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(2.36)
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x
p ( x, t ) = Re P0 e - j (wt - kx ) = P0 cos(wt - kx)
u ( x, t ) =
P0
cos(wt - kx) = U 0 cos(wt - kx)
r0c
P0
p (0, t )
U0
u (0, t )
pu
( pu ) x =0,t
avg
t
P0
p (x,0)
l
U0
u (x,0)
( pu ) x ,t =0
pu
avg
Figure 2.6 The acoustic pressure and intensity in an infinite duct. Note that the pressure and velocity are in phase with each
other. Also, the active intensity pu avg (or average intensity with respect to time) is constant
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Figure 2.7 The acoustic pressure and intensity in a duct of finite length of L . Note that the phase difference between the
pressure and velocity is 90( p / 2 ))
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If we have the same excitation at one end, the duct has a finite length of L ,
and a rigid boundary condition exists at the other end x = L, then the phase
difference between the pressure and velocity will be 90(p 2 ).
It is not possible to effectively put energy into the system.
The intensity is always zero at the nodal point of the duct x = ( n + 1) L / 4 , but it
oscillates between these points where the energy vibrates and does not
propagate anywhere.
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(2.37)
(2.38)
p p1 - p2
.
x
Dx
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(2.40)
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- j wt +f p ( x )
(2.42)
where P ( x ) denotes the pressure magnitude which has a real value and
f p ( x ) represents the possible phase change in space.
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df p - j (wt +f p )
p dP
=
- j
.
P e
x dx
(2.43)
dx
Equations 2.39 and 2.43 then allow us to obtain the particle velocity:
1 df p
dP - j (wt +f p )
u=P
+
j
e
.
wr0 dx
dx
(2.44)
The intensity that is generated by the real part of pressure (2.42) and the
corresponding velocity (2.44), which is in phase with the real part of the
pressure, can be obtained as
P df p
1 2 df p
=P
cos 2 (wt + f p ) .
wr0
dx
(2.45)
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2wr0
dx
(2.46)
This intensity can effectively supply power to space.
On the other hand, the multiplication of the real part of the pressure and
the imaginary part of the velocity that has 90phase difference will
generate the following intensity:
1 dP
(2.47)
dP 2
=sin 2 (wt + f p ) .
4wr0 dx
We refer to this intensity as the reactive component of sound intensity.
The time average of this intensity is 0 and, therefore, there is no net
energy transport; it only oscillates.
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2 df p
I avg ( x ) = P
.
2wr0
dx
1
(2.46)
dP 2
Ir ( x ) = ,
4wr 0 dx
1
(2.48)
as reactive intensity.
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(2.49)
Using a complex function, Equation 2.49 can be expressed in simpler form,
that is
-2 j (wt +f p )
I ( x, t ) = Re C ( x ) 1 + e
,
(2.50)
where C ( x ) = I avg ( x ) + jI r ( x ) . This is often referred as a complex intensity.
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Figure 2.8 The structure of the ear and its frequency band characteristics. (a) The structure of a human ear. (Redrawn with
permission from D. Purves et al., Neuroscience, 3rd edition, 2004, pp. 288 (Figure 12.3), Sinauer Associates, Inc.,
Massachusetts, USA. 2004 Sinauer Associates, Inc.) (b) External, middle, and inner ear. (c) Basilar membrane and Corti
organ. (d) The cross-section of the cochlea shows the sensory cells (located in the organ of Corti) surrounded by the cochlear
fluids. (e) Space-frequency map: moving along the cochlea, different locations are preferentially excited by different input
acoustic frequencies. (f) Tonotopic organization. (Figure 2.8(bf) drawings by Stephan Blatrix, from Promenade around the
cochlea, EDU website: http://www.cochlea.org by Re my Pujol et al., INSERM and University Montpellier.)
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f 0 = 21/ 2 f1
f 2 = 2 f1
f1
f0
f 2 = 2 f1
f0
f 0 = 21/ 6 f1
1
3
f 2 = 2 f1
f0
Df = f 2 - f1 = 2 -1/ 2 f 0 = 0.7 f 0
f 2 = 21/ 3 f1
Df = f 2 - f1 = 0.23 f 0
f0 = 2
1
n
f 2 = 2 f1
1
2n
1
n
f1
f 2 = 2 f1
43
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SPL = L p = 10log10 2
p
(2.51)
ref
and is measured in units of decibels (dB); pref is the reference pressure,
pavg is the average pressure, and log10 is a log function that has a base of
10. pref is 20 m Pa(20106N/m2).
From Figure 2.10, we can see that the human can hear from about 0 dB to
somewhere in the range of 130-140 dB.
Table 2.4 collects some typical samples of sound levels that we can
encounter, providing some practical references of the sound pressure level
(SPL).
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Figure 2.10 Equal-loudness contour: each line shows the SPL with respect to the frequency which corresponds to a loudness
(phon) of 1 kHz pure sound. (Reproduced from ISO 226 (2003), Normal equal-loudness-level contours, International
Standards Organization, Geneva.)
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0
T
where T denotes the measurement time.
2
pavg
=
(2.52)
(2.53)
1
Pe - jwt + P * e jwt ) ,
(
2
where * denotes the complex conjugate.
(2.54)
2
avg
} {
Re { Pe - jwt } =
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1
=
4T
+ Pm* Pn e
1
=
4T
j (wm -wn )t
j ( w m +w n )t
2 Re P P e - j (wm +wn )t
m n
+ 2 Re Pm Pn*e
1
@
4T
+ Pm* Pn*e
- j (wm -wn )t
{ } dt
2 Re Pm
dt
} dt
(2.55)
1
2
Pm
.
m 2
This is only valid if and only if Equation 2.55 has a maximum when n = m .
When n m , the slowly fluctuating terms with frequency (wm - wn ) are much
greater than those with a frequency of (wm + wn ) .
=
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Fourier
transform
Pm
p
2
avg
| P2 |2
2
| P1 |2
2
1 2
SPL
| P3 |2
2
1 2
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
SPL
1 2 3
1/3 octave center frequency (Hz)
Figure 2.11 Total mean square pressure and the mean square pressure of each frequency band
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p1,2 avg
2
pref
p2,2 avg
2
ref
(2.56)
(2.57)
If these two tones occur at the same time, the SPL can be written
p1,2 avg + p2,2 avg
SPL1+ 2 = L p1+2 = 10log10
2
pref
= 10log10 10
L p1 /10
+ 10
L p 2 /10
).
(2.58)
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L p /10
1
+ L + 10
L p /10
N
).
(2.59)
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Figure 2.12 Various weighting curves. A-weighting: 40 phon curve (SPL < 55 dB); B-weighting: 70 phon curve (SPL=5585 dB);
C-weighting: 100 phon curve (SPL > 85 dB).
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p ( x, t ) = P ( x ) e - jwt .
(2.61)
(2.62)
(2.63)
Equation 2.63 is strictly only valid where the sound source exists;
otherwise a homogeneous equation is valid.
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where d ( x - x0 )
d 2P
2
+
k
P = - f ( x0 ) d ( x - x0 ) ,
2
dx
is a Dirac delta function, that is
(2.64)
d ( x - x ) = 1;
-
d ( x - x0 ) = 0; x x0 .
(2.65)
If the source exists only in the region L0, then we can write the governing
equation as
d 2P
2
+
k
P = - f ( x0 ) d ( x - x0 ) dx0 .
2
L0
dx
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(2.66)
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(2.67)
r
r
where 0 and V0 express the source position and the volume where the
source is, respectively.
V0
a 0, L P + b 0, LU = g 0, L , x = 0, L ,
(2.68)
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g
.
b
(2.70)
This type of boundary condition is called the Neumann boundary condition.
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a 0, L P + b 0, LU = 0
(2.71)
and
P
b
=- .
U
a
The impedance is described on the boundary.
(2.72)
a P + b U = 0,
on S0 ,
(2.73)
where S0 is the surface that encloses the space of interest, as depicted in
Figure 2.13 where U is the particle velocity that is normal to the surface.
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(2.66)
and
a 0, L P + b 0, LU = 0.
(2.71)
P + U =
V0
r
r
S0
2 P + k 2 P = 0
r
r0
0
Figure 2.13 General boundary
value
r
r problem ( P is complex amplitude, U is complex velocity, k is the wave number, and SS0
expresses the boundary; r and r0 indicate the observation position and boundary, respectively)
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2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd
To shed more light on this problem, we consider the special case when
a = 0 . In this case, we have a rigid-wall boundary condition and the
eigenmode can be found, intuitively, as:
Y n ( x ) = cos
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np
.
L
(2.76)
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Y n ( x ) = sin
P ( x ) = anY n ( x ).
n =0
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(2.78)
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0
(2.79)
L
and
1 if m = n
d mn =
,
(2.80)
0 if m n
2
1 L
Y
x
n ( ) dx = L n .
0
L
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(2.82)
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0
(2.84)
dx 0
dx 0
Changing the variable x to x0 reduces Equation 2.84 to the form
0
0
L
dG
dP
P ( x ) = G f ( x ) dx0 + P
G
.
0
dx0 L
dx0 L
(2.85)
We now investigate how to apply Equation 2.85 when we have a unit
amplitude sound source at x = x0 , as illustrated in Figure 2.14. This specific
case reduces Equation 2.85 to
0
dG
dP
P ( x ) = G ( x | x0 ) + P
-G
.
dx0 L
dx0 L
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(2.86)
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dG
P ( x ) = G ( x | x0 ) + P
dx0 L
or
(2.87)
P ( x ) = G ( x | x0 ) - G
dP
.
dx0 L
(2.88)
Equation 2.86 states that the sound pressure at x consists of two
components: one is a direct effect from the sound source and the other is
due to the reflection from the boundary.
Expanding Equation 2.86 to a three-dimensional form yields the integral
equation
r
r
P ( r ) = G f ( r0 ) dV +
V0
( P0G - G0 P ) n0 dS .
S
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(2.89)
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S0
( P0G - G0 P ) dS .
(2.90)
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- j (wt - kx )
(2.91)
(2.92)
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v
k
v
r
rr
r
p ( r , t ) = Ae - j ( w t - k r )
r
k
Figure 2.15 A plane wave ( is normal to the planes of constant phase)
0
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(2.96)
rr
- j w t - k r
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(2.97)
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A - j (wt -krrr )
p ( r, t ) = e
.
(2.98)
r
To assess the velocity, consider Eulers equation in the spherical
coordinate:
u
p
= r0 r ,
(2.99)
r
t
where ur is the velocity in the radial direction.
Equations 2.98 and 2.99 allow us to calculate the velocity in the radial
direction, that is
A 1
j - j (wt -krrr )
ur =
.
1 + e
r r0 c kr
(2.100)
Therefore, the impedance at r can be written as
2
kr
p
kr
( )
Zr =
= r0c
-j
.
2
2
ur
(2.101)
1 + ( kr )
1 + ( kr )
This is the monopole radiation impedance.
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Figure 2.16 Monopole radiation. (a) The monopoles radiation impedance where k is wave number, l indicates the Note is
noteworthy that it behaves as a plane wave, as the observation position is far from the origin. (b) Pressure and particle velocity
in near field ( kr is small), magnitude (left) and phase (right) of pressure (top) and particle velocity (bottom); arrows indicate
intensity. (c) As for (b) for far field case
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Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach Yang-Hann Kim
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Figure 2.17 Huygens principle. The wave front constructed by many monopole sound sources: (a) graphical illustration and (b)
shallow ripple tank
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Figure 2.18 Dipole and quadrupole distributions and their characteristics where (r ,q ,f ) indicates an arbitrary point in spherical
coordinate, k is wave number, D represents the dipole-moment amplitude vector, and Q represents the amplitude of quadrupole:
(a) pressure of the spatial pattern of dipole sound; (b) impedence of a dipole at r ; (c) magnitude (left) and phase (right) of
particle velocity of a dipole in near field (top) and far field (bottom) (arrows indicate intensity); (d) pressure of a quadrupole
pattern in space; (e) impedance of a quadrupole at r and ( f ) magnitude (left) and phase (right) of particle velocity of a
quadrupole in near field (top) and far field (bottom) (Section 2.8.4)
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