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Capa sica

Contents
1

Simplex communication

1.1

Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

ITU-T denition: One way signaling at a time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Duplex (telecommunications)

2.1

Half-duplex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2

Full-duplex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3

Full-duplex emulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.1

Time-division duplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.2

Frequency-division duplexing

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.3

Echo cancellation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.5

References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

RS-232

3.1

Scope of the standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.3

Limitations of the standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.4

Role in modern personal computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.5

Physical interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.5.1

Voltage levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.5.2

Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.5.3

Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Data and control signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

3.6.1

Ring indicator

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

3.6.2

RTS, CTS, and RTR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

Seldom used features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

3.7.1

Signal rate selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

3.7.2

Loopback testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

3.7.3

Timing signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

3.6

3.7

ii

CONTENTS
3.7.4

Secondary channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

3.8

Related standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

3.9

Development tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

3.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

3.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

3.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

Serial port

13

4.1

Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

4.1.1

DTE and DCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

4.1.2

Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

4.1.3

Pinouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

4.1.4

Hardware abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

4.2

Common applications for serial ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

4.3

Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

4.3.1

Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

4.3.2

Data bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

4.3.3

Parity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

4.3.4

Stop bits

17

4.3.5

Conventional notation

4.3.6

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

Flow control

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

4.4

Virtual serial ports

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

4.5

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

4.6

References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

4.7

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

4.8

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter

19

5.1

Transmitting and receiving serial data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

5.1.1

Data framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

5.1.2

Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

5.1.3

Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

5.1.4

Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

5.2

Synchronous transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

5.3

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

5.4

Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

5.5

Special receiver conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

5.5.1

Overrun error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

5.5.2

Underrun error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

5.5.3

Framing error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

5.5.4

Parity error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

5.5.5

Break condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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CONTENTS

iii

5.6

UART models

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

5.7

UART in modems

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

5.8

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

5.9

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

5.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

5.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

Dierential signaling

24

6.1

Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

6.1.1

Ground oset tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

6.1.2

Suitability for use with low-voltage electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

6.1.3

Resistance to electromagnetic interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

6.2

Comparison with single-ended signaling

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

6.3

Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

6.3.1

25

Data rates of some interfaces implemented with dierential pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.4

Transmission lines

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

6.5

Use in computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

6.6

High-voltage dierential signaling

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

6.7

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

6.8

References

26

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

RS-422

27

7.1

Standard scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

7.2

Characteristics

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

7.3

Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

7.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

7.5

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

7.6

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

RS-485

29

8.1

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

8.2

Standard scope and denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

8.3

Master-slave arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

8.4

Three-wire connection

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

8.5

Full duplex operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

8.6

Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

8.7

Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

8.7.1

Pin labeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

8.8

Waveform example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

8.9

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

8.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

8.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

iv
9

CONTENTS
Physical layer

33

9.1

Physical signaling sublayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33

9.2

List of services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33

9.3

List of protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

9.4

Hardware equipment (network node) examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

9.5

Relation to TCP/IP model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

9.6

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

9.7

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

9.8

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

10 Ethernet physical layer

36

10.1 Physical layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

10.1.1 Xerox experimental Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

10.1.2 Early implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

10.1.3 Fast Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

10.1.4 1 Gbit/s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

10.1.5 10 Gbit/s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

10.1.6 25 and 50 Gbit/s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

10.1.7 40 and 100 Gbit/s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

10.1.8 400 Gbit/s, 1 Tbit/s, and beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

10.1.9 First mile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

10.2 Twisted-pair cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

10.3 Minimum cable lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

10.4 Related standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

10.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38

10.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38

11 10BASE2

39

11.1 Name origination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

11.2 Network design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

11.3 Comparisons to 10BASE-T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

11.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

11.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

12 Fast Ethernet

42

12.1 General design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

12.2 Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

12.2.1 100BASE-TX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

12.2.2 100BASE-T4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

12.2.3 100BASE-T2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

12.3 Fiber optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

12.3.1 100BASE-FX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

CONTENTS

12.3.2 100BASE-SX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

12.3.3 100BASE-BX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

12.3.4 100BASE-LX10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

12.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

12.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

12.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

13 Ethernet over twisted pair

45

13.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

13.2 Naming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

13.3 Cabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

13.3.1 Shared cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

13.4 Autonegotiation and duplex mismatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

13.5 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

13.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

13.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

13.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

13.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

13.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

14 Ethernet

49

14.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

14.2 Standardization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

14.3 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

14.3.1 Shared media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

14.3.2 Repeaters and hubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52

14.3.3 Bridging and switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52

14.3.4 Advanced networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

14.4 Varieties of Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

14.5 Layer 2 datagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

14.6 Autonegotiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

14.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

14.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

14.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

14.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

14.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

15 Category 5 cable
15.1 Cable standard

57
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

15.1.1 Bending radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

15.1.2 Maximum cable segment length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

15.1.3 Category 5 vs. 5e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

vi

CONTENTS
15.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

15.2.1 Shared cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

15.3 Characteristics

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

15.3.1 Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

15.3.2 Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

15.3.3 Individual twist lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

15.3.4 Environmental ratings

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

15.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

15.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

15.6 References

59

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16 Category 6 cable

60

16.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

16.2 Category 6a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

16.3 Maximum length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

16.4 Installation caveats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

16.5 Category 6e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

16.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

16.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

16.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

17 List of network buses

62

17.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

17.2 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

17.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

17.4 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

17.4.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

17.4.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

17.4.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

Chapter 1

Simplex communication
Surveillance cameras
Pagers
Communication between a mouse and a computer
Internet multicast
Radio navigation beacons and radiolocation services
such as GPS
Simplex wireless communication

Telemetry

Simplex communication is a communication channel


that sends information in one direction only. [1] A duplex communication channel requires two simplex channels operating in opposite directions. The ITU denition
of simplex is a communications channel that operates in
one direction at a time, but that may be reversible; this is
termed "half duplex" in other contexts.

printers

1.2 ITU-T denition: One way signaling at a time


According to the ITU-T denition, a simplex circuit is
one where signals can ow in only one direction at a time.
At other times communications can ow in the reverse
direction. A more common term for this application is
half-duplex. Examples are intercoms, and two way radios
such as walkie-talkies, citizens band, and mobile radios
used dispatch police, reghters, and taxicabs.

For example, in TV and radio broadcasting, information


ows only from the transmitter site to multiple receivers.
An RS 232 interface between a computer terminal and a
modem is made up of multiple simplex control and data
circuits, but information can ow both ways since channels are provided both to and from the terminal. A pair
of walkie-talkie two-way radios provide a simplex circuit
in the ITU sense; only one party at a time can talk, while
the other listens until it can hear an opportunity to transmit. The transmission medium (the radio signal over the
air) can carry information in both directions, but the apparatus only allows one direction at a time to be used.

The old Western Union company used the term simplex when describing the half-duplex and simplex capacity of their new transatlantic telegraph cable completed
between Newfoundland and the Azores in 1928.[2] The
same denition for a simplex radio channel was used by
the National Fire Protection Association in 2002.[3]

1.1 Examples
1.3 See also

Commercial radio and television broadcast (not twoway radio such as walkie-talkies)

Communications channel

Garage door openers

Duplex (telecommunications)

Baby monitors
Wireless microphones

1.4 References

Radio controlled models

[1] IEEE Std. 100 Dictionary of Standards Terms, Simplex p.1053

Public address systems


1

[2] Milnor, J.W. and G.A. Randall. The NewfoundlandAzores High-Speed Duplex Cable. A.I.E.E. Electrical
Engineering. May 1931
[3] Report of the Committee on Public Emergency Service
Communication. NFPA 1221, May, 2002.

CHAPTER 1. SIMPLEX COMMUNICATION

Chapter 2

Duplex (telecommunications)
2.1 Half-duplex

A duplex communication system is a point-to-point system composed of two connected parties or devices that
can communicate with one another in both directions.
Duplex comes from "duo" that means two, and "plex"
that means weave or fold"; thus, a duplex system has
two clearly dened paths, with each path carrying information in only one direction: A to B over one path, and
B to A over the other. There are two types of duplex
communication systems: full-duplex and half-duplex.

In a full duplex system, both parties can communicate


with each other simultaneously. An example of a fullduplex device is a telephone; the parties at both ends of a
call can speak and be heard by the other party simultaneously. The earphone reproduces the speech of the remote
party as the microphone transmits the speech of the local
party, because there is a two-way communication channel
A simple illustration of a half-duplex communication system
between them, or more strictly speaking, because there
are two communication paths/channels between them.
A half-duplex (HDX) system provides communication in
In a half-duplex system, there are still two clearly dened both directions, but only one direction at a time (not sipaths/channels, and each party can communicate with the multaneously). Typically, once a party begins receiving
other but not simultaneously; the communication is one a signal, it must wait for the transmitter to stop transmitdirection at a time. An example of a half-duplex device ting, before replying.
is a walkie-talkie two-way radio that has a "push-to-talk"
button; when the local user wants to speak to the remote An example of a half-duplex system is a two-party system
person they push this button, which turns on the trans- such as a walkie-talkie, wherein one must use over or
mitter but turns o the receiver, so they cannot hear the another previously designated keyword to indicate the end
remote person. To listen to the other person they release of transmission, and ensure that only one party transmits
the button, which turns on the receiver but turns o the at a time, because both parties transmit and receive on
the same frequency. A good analogy for a half-duplex
transmitter.
system would be a one-lane road with trac controllers at
Duplex systems are employed in many communications each end, such as a two-lane bridge under re-construction.
networks, either to allow for a communication two-way Trac can ow in both directions, but only one direction
street between two connected parties or to provide a re- at a time, regulated by the trac controllers.
verse path for the monitoring and remote adjustment of
Half-duplex systems are usually used to conserve
equipment in the eld.
bandwidth, since only a single communication channel
Systems that do not need the duplex capability may in- is needed, which is shared alternately between the two
stead use simplex communication, in which one device directions. For example, a walkie-talkie requires only a
transmits and the others can only listen. Examples are single frequency for bidirectional communication, while
broadcast radio and television, garage door openers, baby a cell phone, which is a full-duplex device, requires two
monitors, wireless microphones, and surveillance cam- frequencies to carry the two simultaneous voice channels,
eras. In these devices the communication is only in one one in each direction.
direction.
In automatically run communications systems, such as
two-way data-links, the time allocations for communications in a half-duplex system can be rmly controlled by
3

CHAPTER 2. DUPLEX (TELECOMMUNICATIONS)

the hardware. Thus, there is no waste of the channel for


switching. For example, station A on one end of the data
link could be allowed to transmit for exactly one second,
then station B on the other end could be allowed to transmit for exactly one second, and then the cycle repeats.

by having to retransmit frames. Second, full transmission


capacity is available in both directions because the send
and receive functions are separate. Third, since there is
only one transmitter on each twisted pair, stations (nodes)
do not need to wait for others to complete their transmisIn half-duplex systems, if more than one party transmits sions.
at the same time, a collision occurs, resulting in lost mes- Some computer-based systems of the 1960s and 1970s
sages.
required full-duplex facilities, even for half-duplex operation, since their poll-and-response schemes could not tolerate the slight delays in reversing the direction of transmission in a half-duplex line.
2.2 Full-duplex

2.3 Full-duplex emulation

A simple illustration of a full-duplex communication system.


Full-duplex is not common in handheld radios as shown here due
to the cost and complexity of common duplexing methods, but is
used in telephones, cellphones and cordless phones.

A full-duplex (FDX) system, or sometimes called doubleduplex, allows communication in both directions, and,
unlike half-duplex, allows this to happen simultaneously.
Land-line telephone networks are full-duplex, since they
allow both callers to speak and be heard at the same
time, with the transition from four to two wires being
achieved by a hybrid coil in a telephone hybrid. Modern
cell phones are also full-duplex.[1]

Where channel access methods are used in point-tomultipoint networks (such as cellular networks) for dividing forward and reverse communication channels on the
same physical communications medium, they are known
as duplexing methods, such as time-division duplexing and
frequency-division duplexing.

2.3.1 Time-division duplexing


Time-division duplexing (TDD) is the application of timedivision multiplexing to separate outward and return signals. It emulates full duplex communication over a half
duplex communication link.
Time-division duplexing has a strong advantage in the
case where there is asymmetry of the uplink and downlink
data rates. As the amount of uplink data increases, more
communication capacity can be dynamically allocated,
and as the trac load becomes lighter, capacity can be
taken away. The same applies in the downlink direction.

A good analogy for a full-duplex system is a two-lane road


with one lane for each direction. Moreover, in most fullduplex mode systems carrying computer data, transmitted data does not appear to be sent until it has been received and an acknowledgment is sent back by the other
For radio systems that aren't moving quickly, another adparty; that way, such systems implement reliable transvantage is that the uplink and downlink radio paths are
mission methods.
likely to be very similar. This means that techniques such
Two-way radios can be designed as full-duplex systems, as beamforming work well with TDD systems.
transmitting on one frequency and receiving on another;
Examples of time-division duplexing systems are:
this is also called frequency-division duplex. Frequencydivision duplex systems can extend their range by using
UMTS 3G supplementary air interfaces TD-CDMA
sets of simple repeater stations because the communicafor indoor mobile telecommunications.
tions transmitted on any single frequency always travel in
the same direction.
The Chinese TD-LTE 4-G, TD-SCDMA 3-G moFull-duplex Ethernet connections work by making simulbile communications air interface.
taneous use of two physical twisted pairs inside the same
DECT wireless telephony
jacket, which are directly connected to each networked
device: one pair is for receiving packets, while the other
Half-duplex packet switched networks based on
pair is for sending packets. Some types of Ethernet, for
carrier sense multiple access, for example 2-wire or
example Gigabit Ethernet, use two twisted pairs per dihubbed Ethernet, Wireless local area networks and
rection. This eectively makes the cable itself a collisionBluetooth, can be considered as time-division dufree environment and doubles the maximum total transplexing systems, albeit not TDMA with xed framemission capacity supported by each Ethernet connection.
lengths.
Full-duplex has also several benets over the use of half IEEE 802.16 WiMAX
duplex. First, there are no collisions so time is not wasted

2.4. SEE ALSO

PACTOR

Full-duplex audio systems like telephones can create


echo, which needs to be removed. Echo occurs when the
ISDN BRI U interface, variants using the time- sound coming out of the speaker, originating from the
compression multiplex (TCM) line system
far end, re-enters the microphone and is sent back to the
far end. The sound then reappears at the original source
G.fast, a digital subscriber line (DSL) standard unend, but delayed. This feedback path may be acoustic,
der development by the ITU-T
through the air, or it may be mechanically coupled, for
example in a telephone handset. Echo cancellation is a
signal-processing operation that subtracts the far-end sig2.3.2 Frequency-division duplexing
nal from the microphone signal before it is sent back over
the network.
Frequency-division duplexing (FDD) means that the
transmitter and receiver operate at dierent carrier fre- Echo cancellation is important to the V.32, V.34, V.56,
quencies. The term is frequently used in ham radio opera- and V.90 modem standards.[2]
tion, where an operator is attempting to contact a repeater Echo cancelers are available as both software and hardstation. The station must be able to send and receive a ware implementations. They can be independent compotransmission at the same time, and does so by slightly al- nents in a communications system or integrated into the
tering the frequency at which it sends and receives. This communication systems central processing unit. Devices
mode of operation is referred to as duplex mode or oset that do not eliminate echo sometimes will not produce
mode.
good full-duplex performance.
Uplink and downlink sub-bands are said to be separated
by the frequency oset. Frequency-division duplexing
can be ecient in the case of symmetric trac. In this
case time-division duplexing tends to waste bandwidth
during the switch-over from transmitting to receiving, has
greater inherent latency, and may require more complex
circuitry.
Another advantage of frequency-division duplexing is
that it makes radio planning easier and more ecient,
since base stations do not hear each other (as they transmit and receive in dierent sub-bands) and therefore will
normally not interfere with each other. On the converse,
with time-division duplexing systems, care must be taken
to keep guard times between neighboring base stations
(which decreases spectral eciency) or to synchronize
base stations, so that they will transmit and receive at
the same time (which increases network complexity and
therefore cost, and reduces bandwidth allocation exibility as all base stations and sectors will be forced to use
the same uplink/downlink ratio)
Examples of frequency-division duplexing systems are:

2.4 See also


Duplex mismatch
Four-wire circuit
Multiplexing
Duplexer
Communications channel
Crossband operation
Push to talk
Simplex communication
Radio resource management

2.5 References

ADSL and VDSL

[1] Cell phone Frequencies. HowStuWorks.

Most
cellular
systems,
including
the
UMTS/WCDMA use frequency-division duplexing
mode and the cdma2000 system.

[2] Greenstein, Shane; Stango, Victor (2006). Standards and


Public Policy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 129132.
ISBN 978-1-139-46075-0.

IEEE 802.16 WiMax also uses frequency-division


duplexing mode.

2.3.3

Echo cancellation

Main article: Echo cancellation


See also: Modem Using digital lines and PCM
(V.90/92)

2.6 Further reading


Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (2003). Computer Networks. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-038488-7.

Chapter 3

RS-232
This article is about the RS-232 standard. For RS-232 3.1 Scope of the standard
variants, see serial port .
V.24 redirects here. For other uses, see V24 (disam- The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) standard RSbiguation).
232-C[1] as of 1969 denes:
In telecommunications, RS-232 is a standard for serial
Electrical signal characteristics such as voltage levels, signaling rate, timing and slew-rate of signals,
voltage withstand level, short-circuit behavior, and
maximum load capacitance.
Interface mechanical characteristics, pluggable connectors and pin identication.
Functions of each circuit in the interface connector.
A DB25 connector as described in the RS-232 standard

Standard subsets of interface circuits for selected


telecom applications.
The standard does not dene such elements as the
character encoding or the framing of characters, or error
detection protocols. The character format and transmission bit rate are set by the serial port hardware which may
also contain circuits to convert the internal logic levels to
RS-232 compatible signal levels. The standard does not
dene bit rates for transmission, except that it says it is
intended for bit rates lower than 20,000 bits per second.

communication transmission of data. It formally denes the signals connecting between a DTE (data terminal
equipment) such as a computer terminal, and a DCE (data
circuit-terminating equipment, originally dened as data
communication equipment [1] ), such as a modem. The
RS-232 standard is commonly used in computer serial
ports. The standard denes the electrical characteristics
and timing of signals, the meaning of signals, and the
physical size and pinout of connectors. The current version of the standard is TIA-232-F Interface Between Data
Terminal Equipment and Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment Employing Serial Binary Data Interchange, issued in
1997.

3.2 History
RS-232 was rst introduced in 1962 by the Radio Sector
of the EIA.[2][3] The original DTEs were electromechanical teletypewriters, and the original DCEs were (usually)
modems. When electronic terminals (smart and dumb)
began to be used, they were often designed to be interchangeable with teletypewriters, and so supported RS232. The C revision of the standard was issued in 1969
in part to accommodate the electrical characteristics of
these devices.

An RS-232 serial port was once a standard feature of


a personal computer, used for connections to modems,
printers, mice, data storage, uninterruptible power supplies, and other peripheral devices. However, RS-232 is
hampered by low transmission speed, large voltage swing,
and large standard connectors. In modern personal computers, USB has displaced RS-232 from most of its peripheral interface roles. Many computers do not come
equipped with RS-232 ports and must use either an external USB-to-RS-232 converter or an internal expansion
card with one or more serial ports to connect to RS-232
peripherals. Nevertheless, RS-232 devices are still used,
especially in industrial machines, networking equipment
and scientic instruments.

Since the requirements of devices such as computers,


printers, test instruments, POS terminals and so on were
not foreseen by the standard, designers implementing an
RS-232 compatible interface on their equipment often
interpreted the standard idiosyncratically. The resulting
common problems were non-standard pin assignment of
6

3.4. ROLE IN MODERN PERSONAL COMPUTERS


circuits on connectors, and incorrect or missing control
signals. The lack of adherence to the standards produced
a thriving industry of breakout boxes, patch boxes, test
equipment, books, and other aids for the connection of
disparate equipment. A common deviation from the standard was to drive the signals at a reduced voltage. Some
manufacturers therefore built transmitters that supplied
+5 V and 5 V and labeled them as RS-232 compatible.
Later personal computers (and other devices) started to
make use of the standard so that they could connect to existing equipment. For many years, an RS-232-compatible
port was a standard feature for serial communications,
such as modem connections, on many computers. It remained in widespread use into the late 1990s. In personal
computer peripherals, it has largely been supplanted by
other interface standards, such as USB. RS-232 is still
used to connect older designs of peripherals, industrial
equipment (such as PLCs), console ports and special purpose equipment.
The standard has been renamed several times during its
history as the sponsoring organization changed its name,
and has been variously known as EIA RS-232, EIA 232,
and most recently as TIA 232. The standard continued to
be revised and updated by the Electronic Industries Alliance and since 1988 by the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA).[4] Revision C was issued in a document dated August 1969. Revision D was issued in 1986.
The current revision is TIA-232-F Interface Between Data
Terminal Equipment and Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment Employing Serial Binary Data Interchange, issued
in 1997. Changes since Revision C have been in timing
and details intended to improve harmonization with the
CCITT standard V.24, but equipment built to the current
standard will interoperate with older versions.
Related ITU-T standards include V.24 (circuit identication) and V.28 (signal voltage and timing characteristics).
In revision D of EIA-232, the D-subminiature connector
was formally included as part of the standard (it was only
referenced in the appendix of RS 232 C). The voltage
range was extended to +/- 25 volts, and the circuit capacitance limit was expressly stated as 2500 pF. Revision E
of EIA 232 introduced a new, smaller, standard D-shell
26-pin Alt A connector, and made other changes to improve compatibility with CCITT standards V.24, V.28
and ISO 2110.[5]

7
tive and negative supplies increases power consumption of the interface and complicates power supply
design. The voltage swing requirement also limits
the upper speed of a compatible interface.
Single-ended signaling referred to a common signal
ground limits the noise immunity and transmission
distance.
Multi-drop connection among more than two devices is not dened. While multi-drop workarounds have been devised, they have limitations
in speed and compatibility.
The denitions of the two ends of the link are asymmetric. This makes the assignment of the role of
a newly developed device problematic; the designer
must decide on either a DTE-like or DCE-like interface and which connector pin assignments to use.
The handshaking and control lines of the interface
are intended for the setup and takedown of a dialup communication circuit; in particular, the use of
handshake lines for ow control is not reliably implemented in many devices.
No method is specied for sending power to a device. While a small amount of current can be extracted from the DTR and RTS lines, this is only
suitable for low power devices such as mice.
The 25-way connector recommended in the standard is large compared to current practice.
The standard does not address the possibility of connecting a DTE directly to a DTE (can use null modem cable to connect DTE to DTE), or a DCE to a
DCE.

3.4 Role in modern personal computers


Main article: Serial port

In the book PC 97 Hardware Design Guide,[7] Microsoft


deprecated support for the RS-232 compatible serial port
of the original IBM PC design. Today, RS-232 has mostly
been replaced in personal computers by USB for local
communications. Compared with RS-232, USB is faster,
uses lower voltages, and has connectors that are simpler
3.3 Limitations of the standard
to connect and use. However, USB is limited by standard
to no more than 5 meters of cable, thus favoring RS-232
Because RS-232 is used beyond the original purpose of when longer distances are needed. Both standards have
interconnecting a terminal with a modem, successor stan- software support in popular operating systems.
dards have been developed to address the limitations. Is- USB is designed to make it easy for device drivers to comsues with the RS-232 standard include:[6]
municate with hardware. USB is more complex than the
RS-232 standard because it includes a protocol for trans The large voltage swings and requirement for posi- ferring data to devices. This requires more software to

CHAPTER 3. RS-232
supported by the standard. In addition to the data circuits,
the standard denes a number of control circuits used to
manage the connection between the DTE and DCE. Each
data or control circuit only operates in one direction, that
is, signaling from a DTE to the attached DCE or the reverse. Since transmit data and receive data are separate
circuits, the interface can operate in a full duplex manner,
supporting concurrent data ow in both directions. The
standard does not dene character framing within the data
stream, or character encoding.

3.5.1 Voltage levels


+15V

Space
LSB

PCI Express x1 card with one RS-232 port

support the protocol used. There is no direct analog to


the terminal programs used to let users communicate directly with serial ports.
Serial ports of personal computers are also sometimes
used to directly control various hardware devices, such
as relays or lamps. Personal computers may use a serial
port to interface to devices such as uninterruptible power
supplies. In some cases, serial data is not exchanged, but
the control lines are used to signal conditions such as loss
of power or low battery alarms. An application program
can detect or change the state of RS 232 control lines
in the registers of the serial hardware using only a few
input/output instructions; by contrast, a USB interface requires software to decode the serial data.

MSB

Start

Start

b0

b1

b2

b3

b4

b5

b6

b7

Stop

+3V

Stop

-3V

Idle

Idle

Time
-15V

Mark

Diagrammatic oscilloscope trace of voltage levels for an ASCII


K character (0x4B) with 1 start bit, 8 data bits, 1 stop bit. This
is typical for start-stop communications, but the standard does
not dictate a character format or bit order.

Devices that convert between USB and RS-232 do not


work with all software or on all personal computers.
In elds such as laboratory automation or surveying, RS
232 devices may continue to be used. PLCs, VFDs, servo
drives, and CNC equipment are programmable via RS232. Some manufacturers have responded to this demand: Toshiba re-introduced the DE-9M connector on
the Tecra laptop.
Serial ports with RS-232 are also commonly used to
communicate to headless systems such as servers, where
no monitor or keyboard is installed, during boot when
operating system is not running yet and therefore no network connection is possible. An RS-232 serial port can
communicate to some embedded systems such as routers
as an alternative to network mode of monitoring.

RS-232 data line on the terminals of the receiver side (RxD)


probed by an oscilloscope (for an ASCII K character (0x4B)
with 1 start bit, 8 data bits, 1 stop bit and no parity bits).

The RS-232 standard denes the voltage levels that correspond to logical one and logical zero levels for the data
transmission and the control signal lines. Valid signals are
either in the range of +3 to +15 volts or the range 3 to
3.5 Physical interface
15 volts with respect to the Common Ground (GND)
pin; consequently, the range between 3 to +3 volts is not
In RS-232, user data is sent as a time-series of bits. a valid RS-232 level. For data transmission lines (TxD,
Both synchronous and asynchronous transmissions are RxD and their secondary channel equivalents) logic one is

3.5. PHYSICAL INTERFACE

dened as a negative voltage, the signal condition is called


mark. Logic zero is positive and the signal condition is
termed space. Control signals have the opposite polarity: the asserted or active state is positive voltage and the
deasserted or inactive state is negative voltage. Examples of control lines include request to send (RTS), clear
to send (CTS), data terminal ready (DTR), and data set
ready (DSR).

have DCE pin functions. Other devices may have any


combination of connector gender and pin denitions.
Many terminals were manufactured with female connectors but were sold with a cable with male connectors at
each end; the terminal with its cable satised the recommendations in the standard. The standard species 20
dierent signal connections. Since most devices use only
a few signals, smaller connectors can often be used.

The standard species a maximum open-circuit voltage


of 25 volts: signal levels of 5 V, 10 V, 12 V, and
15 V are all commonly seen depending on the voltages
available to the line driver circuit. Some RS-232 driver
chips have inbuilt circuitry to produce the required voltages from a 3 or 5 volt supply. RS-232 drivers and receivers must be able to withstand indenite short circuit
to ground or to any voltage level up to 25 volts. The slew
rate, or how fast the signal changes between levels, is also
controlled.

Personal computer manufacturers replaced the DB-25M


connector by the smaller DE-9M connector. Dierent pin
numbers were used for the signals (for this see serial port).
This connector, with varying pinouts, became common
for personal computers and related devices.

Because both ends of the RS-232 circuit depend on the


ground pin being zero volts, problems will occur when
connecting machinery and computers where the voltage
between the ground pin on one end, and the ground pin
on the other is not zero. This may also cause a hazardous
ground loop. Use of a common ground limits RS-232 to
applications with relatively short cables. If the two devices are far enough apart or on separate power systems,
the local ground connections at either end of the cable
will have diering voltages; this dierence will reduce
the noise margin of the signals. Balanced, dierential,
serial connections such as USB, RS-422 and RS-485 can
tolerate larger ground voltage dierences because of the
dierential signaling.[8]

Main article: Serial cable

Presence of a 25-pin D-sub connector does not necessarily indicate an RS-232-C compliant interface. For example, on the original IBM PC, a male D-sub was an RS232-C DTE port (with a non-standard current loop interface on reserved pins), but the female D-sub connector on
Because the voltage levels are higher than logic levels the same PC model was used for the parallel Centronics
typically used by integrated circuits, special intervening printer port. Some personal computers put non-standard
driver circuits are required to translate logic levels. These voltages or signals on some pins of their serial ports.
also protect the devices internal circuitry from short circuits or transients that may appear on the RS-232 interface, and provide sucient current to comply with the 3.5.3 Cables
slew rate requirements for data transmission.

Unused interface signals terminated to ground will have


an undened logic state. Where it is necessary to permanently set a control signal to a dened state, it must
be connected to a voltage source that asserts the logic 1
or logic 0 level, for example with a pullup resistor. Some
devices provide test voltages on their interface connectors
for this purpose.

3.5.2

Connectors

The standard does not dene a maximum cable length


but instead denes the maximum capacitance that a compliant drive circuit must tolerate. A widely used rule of
thumb indicates that cables more than 50 feet (15 m) long
will have too much capacitance, unless special cables are
used. By using low-capacitance cables, full speed communication can be maintained over larger distances up to
about 1,000 feet (300 m).[9] For longer distances, other
signal standards are better suited to maintain high speed.
Since the standard denitions are not always correctly applied, it is often necessary to consult documentation, test
connections with a breakout box, or use trial and error
to nd a cable that works when interconnecting two devices. Connecting a fully standard-compliant DCE device
and DTE device would use a cable that connects identical
pin numbers in each connector (a so-called straight cable). "Gender changers" are available to solve gender
mismatches between cables and connectors. Connecting devices with dierent types of connectors requires
a cable that connects the corresponding pins according to
the table above. Cables with 9 pins on one end and 25
on the other are common. Manufacturers of equipment
with 8P8C connectors usually provide a cable with either
a DB-25 or DE-9 connector (or sometimes interchangeable connectors so they can work with multiple devices).
Poor-quality cables can cause false signals by crosstalk
between data and control lines (such as Ring Indicator).

RS-232 devices may be classied as Data Terminal


Equipment (DTE) or Data Communication Equipment
(DCE); this denes at each device which wires will be
sending and receiving each signal. The standard recommended but did not make mandatory the D-subminiature
25-pin connector. According to the standard, male con- If a given cable will not allow a data connection, especially
nectors have DTE pin functions, and female connectors if a gender changer is in use, a null modem cable may

10

CHAPTER 3. RS-232

be necessary. Gender changers and null modem cables Certain personal computers can be congured for wakeare not mentioned in the standard, so there is no ocially on-ring, allowing a computer that is suspended to answer
sanctioned design for them.
a phone call.
3-wire and 5-wire RS-232
A minimal 3-wire RS-232 connection consisting only
of transmit data, receive data, and ground, is commonly
used when the full facilities of RS-232 are not required.
Even a two-wire connection (data and ground) can be
used if the data ow is one way (for example, a digital
postal scale that periodically sends a weight reading, or a
GPS receiver that periodically sends position, if no conguration via RS-232 is necessary). When only hardware
ow control is required in addition to two-way data, the
RTS and CTS lines are added in a 5-wire version.

3.6.2 RTS, CTS, and RTR


Further information: Flow control (data)

The RTS and CTS signals were originally dened for use
with half-duplex (one direction at a time) modems that
disable their transmitters when not required, and must
transmit a synchronization preamble to the receiver when
they are re-enabled. The DTE asserts RTS to indicate a
desire to transmit to the DCE, and in response the DCE
asserts CTS to grant permission, once synchronization
with the DCE at the far end is achieved. Such modems
are no longer in common use. There is no corresponding
3.6 Data and control signals
signal that the DTE could use to temporarily halt incoming data from the DCE. Thus RS-232s use of the RTS
The following table lists commonly used RS-232 sig- and CTS signals, per the older versions of the standard, is
nals (called circuits in the specications) and pin asymmetric.
assignments.[10] See serial port (pinouts) for non-standard This scheme is also employed in present-day RS-232 to
variations including the popular DE-9 connector.
RS-485 converters. RS-485 is a multiple-access bus on
The signals are named from the standpoint of the DTE. which only one device can transmit at a time, a concept
The ground pin is a common return for the other connec- that is not provided for in RS-232. The RS-232 device
tions, and establishes the zero voltage to which voltages asserts RTS to tell the converter to take control of the
on the other pins are referenced. The DB-25 connector RS-485 bus so that the converter, and thus the RS-232
includes a second protective ground on pin 1; this is device, can send data onto the bus.
connected to equipment frame ground.
Modern communications environments use full-duplex
Data can be sent over a secondary channel (when imple- (both directions simultaneously) modems. In that envimented by the DTE and DCE devices), which is equiv- ronment, DTEs have no reason to deassert RTS. Howalent to the primary channel. Pin assignments are de- ever, due to the possibility of changing line quality, delays
in processing of data, etc., there is a need for symmetric,
scribed in following table:
bidirectional ow control.

3.6.1

Ring indicator

Ring Indicator (RI), is a signal sent from the DCE to the


DTE device. It indicates to the terminal device that the
phone line is ringing. In many computer serial ports,
a hardware interrupt is generated when the RI signal
changes state. Having support for this hardware interrupt means that a program or operating system can be
informed of a change in state of the RI pin, without requiring the software to constantly poll the state of the
pin. RI does not correspond to another signal that carries
similar information the opposite way.

A symmetric alternative providing ow control in both directions was developed and marketed in the late 1980s by
various equipment manufacturers. It redened the RTS
signal to mean that the DTE is ready to receive data from
the DCE. This scheme was eventually codied in version
RS-232-E (actually TIA-232-E by that time) by dening
a new signal, RTR (Ready to Receive), which is CCITT
V.24 circuit 133. TIA-232-E and the corresponding international standards were updated to show that circuit
133, when implemented, shares the same pin as RTS (Request to Send), and that when 133 is in use, RTS is assumed by the DCE to be asserted at all times.[11]

In this scheme, commonly called RTS/CTS ow control or RTS/CTS handshaking (though the technically
correct name would be RTR/CTS), the DTE asserts
RTR to whenever it is ready to receive data from the
DCE, and the DCE asserts CTS whenever it is ready to receive data from the DTE. Unlike the original use of RTS
The Ring Indicator signal is used by some older and CTS with half-duplex modems, these two signals opuninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) to signal a power erate independently from one another. This is an example
failure state to the computer.
of hardware ow control. However, hardware ow conOn an external modem the status of the Ring Indicator pin
is often coupled to the AA (auto answer) light, which
ashes if the RI signal has detected a ring. The asserted
RI signal follows the ringing pattern closely, which can
permit software to detect distinctive ring patterns.

3.8. RELATED STANDARDS

11

trol in the description of the options available on an RS- Alternatively, the DTE can provide a clock signal, called
232-equipped device does not always mean RTS/CTS transmitter timing (TT), on pin 24 for transmitted data.
handshaking.
Data is changed when the clock transitions from OFF to
Note that equipment using this protocol must be prepared ON and read during the ON to OFF transition. TT can
to buer some extra data, since a transmission may have be used to overcome the issue where ST must traverse a
cable of unknown length and delay, clock a bit out of the
begun just before the control line state change.
DTE after another unknown delay, and return it to the
DCE over the same unknown cable delay. Since the relation between the transmitted bit and TT can be xed in
3.7 Seldom used features
the DTE design, and since both signals traverse the same
cable length, using TT eliminates the issue. TT may be
The EIA-232 standard species connections for several generated by looping ST back with an appropriate phase
features that are not used in most implementations. Their change to align it with the transmitted data. ST loop back
to TT lets the DTE use the DCE as the frequency referuse requires 25-pin connectors and cables.
ence, and correct the clock to data timing.

3.7.1

Signal rate selection

Synchronous clocking is required for such protocols as


SDLC, HDLC, and X.25.

The DTE or DCE can specify use of a high or low


signaling rate. The rates as well as which device will select 3.7.4 Secondary channel
the rate must be congured in both the DTE and DCE.
The prearranged device selects the high rate by setting pin There is a secondary data channel, identical in capability to the rst. Five signals (plus the common ground
23 to ON.
of the primary channel) comprise the secondary channel: Secondary Transmitted Data (STD), Secondary Received Data (SRD), Secondary Request To Send (SRTS),
3.7.2 Loopback testing
Secondary Clear To Send (SCTS), and Secondary Carrier
Many DCE devices have a loopback capability used for Detect (SDCD).
testing. When enabled, signals are echoed back to the
sender rather than being sent on to the receiver. If supported, the DTE can signal the local DCE (the one it is
connected to) to enter loopback mode by setting pin 18 to
ON, or the remote DCE (the one the local DCE is connected to) to enter loopback mode by setting pin 21 to
ON. The latter tests the communications link as well as
both DCEs. When the DCE is in test mode it signals the
DTE by setting pin 25 to ON.

3.8 Related standards

Other serial signaling standards may not interoperate with


standard-compliant RS-232 ports. For example, using
the TTL levels of near +5 and 0 V puts the mark level in
the undened area of the standard. Such levels are sometimes used with NMEA 0183-compliant GPS receivers
A commonly used version of loopback testing does not and depth nders.
involve any special capability of either end. A hardware A 20 mA current loop uses the absence of 20 mA curloopback is simply a wire connecting complementary pins rent for high, and the presence of current in the loop for
together in the same connector (see loopback).
low; this signaling method is often used for long-distance
Loopback testing is often performed with a specialized and optically isolated links. Connection of a current-loop
device to a compliant RS-232 port requires a level transDTE called a bit error rate tester (or BERT).
lator. Current-loop devices can supply voltages in excess of the withstand voltage limits of a compliant device.
The original IBM PC serial port card implemented a 20
3.7.3 Timing signals
mA current-loop interface, which was never emulated by
Some synchronous devices provide a clock signal to syn- other suppliers of plug-compatible equipment.
chronize data transmission, especially at higher data rates. Other serial interfaces similar to RS-232:
Two timing signals are provided by the DCE on pins 15
and 17. Pin 15 is the transmitter clock, or send timing
RS-422 (a high-speed system similar to RS-232 but
(ST); the DTE puts the next bit on the data line (pin 2)
with dierential signaling)
when this clock transitions from OFF to ON (so it is stable
during the ON to OFF transition when the DCE registers
RS-423 (a high-speed system similar to RS-422 but
the bit). Pin 17 is the receiver clock, or receive timing
with unbalanced signaling)
(RT); the DTE reads the next bit from the data line (pin
RS-449 (a functional and mechanical interface that
3) when this clock transitions from ON to OFF.

12

CHAPTER 3. RS-232
used RS-422 and RS-423 signals - it never caught on
like RS-232 and was withdrawn by the EIA)

[4] TIA Facts at a Glance. About TIA. Telecommunications


Industry Association. Retrieved 28 July 2011.

RS-485 (a descendant of RS-422 that can be used


as a bus in multidrop congurations)

[5] S. Mackay, E. Wright, D. Reynders, J. Park, Practical


Industrial Data Networks:Design, Installation and Troubleshooting, Newnes, 2004 ISBN 07506 5807X, pages 4142

MIL-STD-188 (a system like RS-232 but with better impedance and rise time control)
EIA-530 (a high-speed system using RS-422 or RS423 electrical properties in an EIA-232 pinout conguration, thus combining the best of both; supersedes RS-449)
EIA/TIA-561 8 Position Non-Synchronous Interface Between Data Terminal Equipment and Data
Circuit Terminating Equipment Employing Serial
Binary Data Interchange

[6] Horowitz, Paul; Wineld Hill (1989). The Art of Electronics (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University
Press. pp. 723726. ISBN 0-521-37095-7.
[7] PC 97 Hardware Design Guide. Redmond, Wash: Microsoft Press. 1997. ISBN 1-57231-381-1.
[8] Wilson, Michael R. (January 2000). TIA/EIA-422-B
Overview (PDF). Application Note 1031. National Semiconductor. Retrieved 28 July 2011.
[9] Lawrence, Tony (1992). Serial Wiring. A. P. Lawrence.
Retrieved 28 July 2011.

EIA/TIA-562 Electrical Characteristics for an Unbalanced Digital Interface (low-voltage version of [10] gren, Joakim (18 September 2008). Serial (PC 9)".
Hardware Book. Retrieved 28 July 2011.
EIA/TIA-232)
TIA-574 (standardizes the 9-pin D-subminiature
connector pinout for use with EIA-232 electrical
signalling, as originated on the IBM PC/AT)

3.9 Development tools


When developing or troubleshooting systems using RS232, close examination of hardware signals can be important to nd problems. A serial line analyzer is a device similar to a logic analyzer but specialized for RS232s voltage levels, connectors, and, where used, clock
signals. The serial line analyzer can collect, store, and
display the data and control signals, allowing developers
to view them in detail. Some simply display the signals as
waveforms; more elaborate versions include the ability to
decode characters in ASCII or other common codes and
to interpret common protocols used over RS-232 such
as SDLC, HDLC, DDCMP, and X.25. Serial line analyzers are available as standalone units, as software and
interface cables for general-purpose logic analyzers and
oscilloscopes, and as programs that run on common personal computers and devices.

3.10 References
[1] EIA standard RS-232-C: Interface between Data Terminal
Equipment and Data Communication Equipment Employing Serial Binary Data Interchange. Washington: Electronic Industries Association. Engineering Dept. 1969.
OCLC 38637094.
[2] RS232 Tutorial on Data Interface and cables. ARC
Electronics. 2010. Retrieved 28 July 2011.
[3] Metering Glossary Landis + Gyr Tutorial (see EIA)

[11] Casey Leedom (1990-02-20).


Re: EIA-232 full
duplex RTS/CTS ow control standard proposal.
Newsgroup: comp.dcom.modems. Usenet: 49249@lllwinken.LLNL.GOV. Retrieved 2014-02-03.

3.11 Further reading


Serial Port Complete: COM Ports, USB Virtual COM
Ports, and Ports for Embedded Systems; 2nd Edition;
Jan Axelson; Lakeview Research; 380 pages; 2007;
ISBN 978-1-931-44806-2.

3.12 External links

Chapter 4

Serial port
4.1 Hardware

A male DE-9 connector used for a serial port on an IBM PC


compatible computer along with the serial port symbol. (Pinout)

In computing, a serial port is a serial communication


physical interface through which information transfers in
or out one bit at a time (in contrast to a parallel port).[1]
Throughout most of the history of personal computers,
data was transferred through serial ports to devices such
as modems, terminals and various peripherals.
While such interfaces as Ethernet, FireWire, and USB all
send data as a serial stream, the term serial port usually
identies hardware more or less compliant to the RS-232
standard, intended to interface with a modem or with a
similar communication device.
Modern computers without serial ports may require
serial-to-USB converters to allow compatibility with RS
232 serial devices. Serial ports are still used in applications such as industrial automation systems, scientic instruments, point of sale systems and some industrial and
consumer products. Server computers may use a serial
port as a control console for diagnostics. Network equipment (such as routers and switches) often use serial console for conguration. Serial ports are still used in these
areas as they are simple, cheap and their console functions are highly standardized and widespread. A serial
port requires very little supporting software from the host
system.

A PCI Express 1 card with one serial port

Some computers, such as the IBM PC, use an integrated


circuit called a UART. This IC converts characters to and
from asynchronous serial form, implementing the timing and framing of data in hardware. Very low-cost systems, such as some early home computers, would instead
use the CPU to send the data through an output pin, using the bit-banging technique. Before large-scale integration (LSI) UART integrated circuits were common, a
minicomputer or microcomputer would have a serial port
made of multiple small-scale integrated circuits to implement shift registers, logic gates, counters, and all the other
logic for a serial port.
Early home computers often had proprietary serial ports
with pinouts and voltage levels incompatible with RS232. Inter-operation with RS-232 devices may be impossible as the serial port cannot withstand the voltage levels
produced and may have other dierences that "lock in"
the user to products of a particular manufacturer.
Low-cost processors now allow higher-speed, but more
complex, serial communication standards such as USB
and FireWire to replace RS-232. These make it possible
to connect devices that would not have operated feasi-

13

14

CHAPTER 4. SERIAL PORT

bly over slower serial connections, such as mass storage, of less costly and more compact connectors (in particusound, and video devices.
lar the DE-9 version used by the original IBM PC-AT).
The
desire to supply serial interface cards with two ports
Many personal computer motherboards still have at least
required
that IBM reduce the size of the connector to t
one serial port, even if accessible only through a pin
onto
a
single
card back panel. A DE-9 connector also
header. Small-form-factor systems and laptops may omit
ts
onto
a
card
with a second DB-25 connector that was
RS-232 connector ports to conserve space, but the elecsimilarly
changed
from the original Centronics-style contronics are still there. RS-232 has been standard for so
nector.
Starting
around
the time of the introduction of
long that the circuits needed to control a serial port bethe IBM PC-AT, serial ports were commonly built with
came very cheap and often exist on a single chip, somea 9-pin connector to save cost and space. However, prestimes also with circuitry for a parallel port.
ence of a 9-pin D-subminiature connector is not sucient
to indicate the connection is in fact a serial port, since this
connector is also used for video, joysticks, and other pur4.1.1 DTE and DCE
poses.
The individual signals on a serial port are unidirectional
and when connecting two devices the outputs of one device must be connected to the inputs of the other. Devices
are divided into two categories "data terminal equipment"
(DTE) and "data circuit-terminating equipment" (DCE).
A line that is an output on a DTE device is an input on
a DCE device and vice versa so a DCE device can be
connected to a DTE device with a straight wired cable.
Conventionally, computers and terminals are DTE while
modems and peripherals are DCE.
If it is necessary to connect two DTE devices (or two
DCE devices but that is more unusual) a cross-over null
modem, in the form of either an adapter or a cable, must
be used.

4.1.2

Connectors

A Hirose 3560-16S used for RS-232 on a Tatung TWN-5213 CU


tablet computer. Below is a mating 3540-16P-CV connector.

Some miniaturized electronics, particularly graphing calculators and hand-held amateur and two-way radio equipment, have serial ports using a phone connector, usually
the smaller 2.5 or 3.5 mm connectors and use the most
basic 3-wire interface.

Pair of female Mini DIN-8 connectors used for RS-422 serial


ports on a Macintosh LC computer

While the RS-232 standard originally specied a 25-pin


D-type connector, many designers of personal computers
chose to implement only a subset of the full standard: they
traded o compatibility with the standard against the use

Many models of Macintosh favor the related RS-422


standard, mostly using German Mini-DIN connectors,
except in the earliest models. The Macintosh included a
standard set of two ports for connection to a printer and a
modem, but some PowerBook laptops had only one combined port to save space.
The standard species 20 dierent signal connections.
Since most devices use only a few signals, smaller connectors can often be used. For example, the 9-pin DE9 connector is used by most IBM-compatible PCs since

4.2. COMMON APPLICATIONS FOR SERIAL PORTS


the IBM PC AT, and has been standardized as TIA-574.
More recently, modular connectors have been used. Most
common are 8P8C connectors. Standard EIA/TIA 561
species a pin assignment, but the Yost Serial Device
Wiring Standard[2] invented by Dave Yost (and popularized by the Unix System Administration Handbook)
is common on Unix computers and newer devices from
Cisco Systems. Many devices don't use either of these
standards. 10P10C connectors can be found on some
devices as well. Digital Equipment Corporation dened
their own DECconnect connection system which is based
on the Modied Modular Jack (MMJ) connector. This is
a 6-pin modular jack where the key is oset from the center position. As with the Yost standard, DECconnect uses
a symmetrical pin layout which enables the direct connection between two DTEs. Another common connector is
the DH10 header connector common on motherboards
and add-in cards which is usually converted via a cable to
the more standard 9-pin DE-9 connector (and frequently
mounted on a free slot plate or other part of the housing).

4.1.3

15

4.1.4 Hardware abstraction


Operating systems usually use a symbolic name to refer
to the serial ports of a computer. Unix-like operating systems usually label the serial port devices /dev/tty* (TTY
is a common trademark-free abbreviation for teletype)
where * represents a string identifying the terminal device; the syntax of that string depends on the operating system and the device. On Linux, 8250/16550
UART hardware serial ports are named /dev/ttyS*, USB
adapters appear as /dev/ttyUSB* and various types of virtual serial ports do not necessarily have names starting
with tty.
The Microsoft MS-DOS and Windows environments refer to serial ports as COM ports: COM1, COM2,..etc.
Ports numbered greater than COM9 should be referred
to using the \\.\COM10 syntax.[10]

4.2 Common applications for serial


ports

Pinouts

The RS-232 standard is used by many specialized and


The following table lists commonly used RS-232 signals custom-built devices. This list includes some of the more
common devices that are connected to the serial port on
and pin assignments.[3]
a PC. Some of these such as modems and serial mice are
The signals are named from the standpoint of the DTE,
falling into disuse while others are readily available.
for example, an IBM-PC compatible serial port. The
ground signal is a common return for the other connec- Serial ports are very common on most types of
tions; it appears on two pins in the Yost standard but is microcontroller, where they can be used to communicate
the same signal. The DB-25 connector includes a second with a PC or other serial devices.
protective ground on pin 1. Connecting this to pin 7
(signal reference ground) is a common practice but not
Dial-up modems
essential.
Conguration and management of networking
Note that EIA/TIA 561 combines DSR and RI,[8][9] and
equipment such as routers, switches, rewalls, load
the Yost standard combines DSR and DCD.
balancers
GPS receivers (typically NMEA 0183 at 4,800 bit/s)
Bar code scanners and other point of sale devices
LED and LCD text displays
Satellite phones, low-speed satellite modems and
other satellite based transceiver devices
Flat-screen (LCD and Plasma) monitors to control
screen functions by external computer, other AV
components or remotes
Test and measuring equipment such as digital
multimeters and weighing systems
Updating rmware on various consumer devices.
A converter from USB to an RS-232 compatible serial port; more
than a physical transition, it requires a driver in the host system
software and a built-in processor to emulate the functions of the
IBM XT compatible serial port hardware.

Some CNC controllers


Uninterruptible power supply
Stenography or Stenotype machines.

16

CHAPTER 4. SERIAL PORT

Software debuggers that run on a second computer.

UART integrated circuit, all settings are usually softwarecontrolled; hardware from the 1980s and earlier may reIndustrial eld buses
quire setting switches or jumpers on a circuit board. One
of the simplications made in such serial bus standards
Printers
as Ethernet, FireWire, and USB is that many of those parameters have xed values so that users can not and need
Computer terminal, teletype
not change the conguration; the speed is either xed or
Older digital cameras
automatically negotiated. Often if the settings are entered
incorrectly the connection will not be dropped; however,
Networking (Macintosh AppleTalk using RS-422 at
any data sent will be received on the other end as non230.4 kbit/s)
sense.
Serial mouse

Older GSM mobile phones

4.3.1 Speed

Some Telescopes
IDE hard drive

[11][12]

[13][14]

repair

Since the control signals for a serial port can be easily


turned on and o by a switch, some applications used
the control lines of a serial port to monitor external devices, without exchanging serial data. A common commercial application of this principle was for some models of uninterruptible power supply which used the control lines to signal loss of power, battery low alarm
and other status information. At least some Morse code
training software used a code key connected to the serial port, to simulate actual code use. The status bits of
the serial port could be sampled very rapidly and at predictable times, making it possible for the software to decipher Morse code.

4.3 Settings

Serial ports use two-level (binary) signaling, so the data


rate in bits per second is equal to the symbol rate in bauds.
A standard series of rates is based on multiples of the
rates for electromechanical teleprinters; some serial ports
allow many arbitrary rates to be selected. The port speed
and device speed must match. The capability to set a bit
rate does not imply that a working connection will result. Not all bit rates are possible with all serial ports.
Some special-purpose protocols such as MIDI for musical instrument control, use serial data rates other than the
teleprinter series. Some serial port systems can automatically detect the bit rate.
The speed includes bits for framing (stop bits, parity, etc.)
and so the eective data rate is lower than the bit transmission rate. For example with 8-N-1 character framing
only 80% of the bits are available for data (for every eight
bits of data, two more framing bits are sent).
Bit rates commonly supported include 75, 110, 300,
1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, 38400, 57600 and
115200 bit/s.[15] Crystal oscillators with a frequency of
1.843200 MHz are sold specically for this purpose.
This is 16 times the fastest bit rate and the serial port
circuit can easily divide this down to lower frequencies as
required.

4.3.2 Data bits


The number of data bits in each character can be 5 (for
Baudot code), 6 (rarely used), 7 (for true ASCII), 8 (for
most kinds of data, as this size matches the size of a byte),
or 9 (rarely used). 8 data bits are almost universally used
in newer applications. 5 or 7 bits generally only make
sense with older equipment such as teleprinters.
A four-port serial (RS-232) PCI Express 1 expansion card with
an octopus cable that breaks the cards DC-37 connector into four
standard DE-9 connectors

Many settings are required for serial connections used for


asynchronous start-stop communication, to select speed,
number of data bits per character, parity, and number of
stop bits per character. In modern serial ports using a

Most serial communications designs send the data bits


within each byte LSB (Least signicant bit) rst. This
standard is also referred to as little endian. Also possible, but rarely used, is big endian or MSB (Most Signicant Bit) rst serial communications; this was used,
for example, by the IBM 2741 printing terminal. (See
Bit numbering for more about bit ordering.) The order
of bits is not usually congurable within the serial port

4.3. SETTINGS
interface. To communicate with systems that require a
dierent bit ordering than the local default, local software
can re-order the bits within each byte just before sending
and just after receiving.

4.3.3

Parity

17
species 8 data bits, no parity, 1 stop bit. In this notation, the parity bit is not included in the data bits. 7/E/1
(7E1) means that an even parity bit is added to the seven
data bits for a total of eight bits between the start and stop
bits. If a receiver of a 7/E/1 stream is expecting an 8/N/1
stream, half the possible bytes will be interpreted as having the high bit set.

Main article: Parity bit


Parity is a method of detecting errors in transmission.
When parity is used with a serial port, an extra data bit is
sent with each data character, arranged so that the number of 1 bits in each character, including the parity bit, is
always odd or always even. If a byte is received with the
wrong number of 1s, then it must have been corrupted.
However, an even number of errors can pass the parity
check.

4.3.6 Flow control


Main article: Flow control (data)

A serial port may use signals in the interface to pause and


resume the transmission of data. For example, a slow
printer might need to handshake with the serial port to
Electromechanical teleprinters were arranged to print a indicate that data should be paused while the mechanism
special character when received data contained a parity advances a line.
error, to allow detection of messages damaged by line
noise. A single parity bit does not allow implementation Common hardware handshake signals (hardware ow
of error correction on each character, and communication control) use the RS-232 RTS/CTS or DTR/DSR signal
protocols working over serial data links will have higher- circuits. Generally, the RTS and CTS are turned o and
level mechanisms to ensure data validity and request re- on from alternate ends to control data ow, for instance
when a buer is almost full. DTR and DSR are usually
transmission of data that has been incorrectly received.
on all the time and, per the RS-232 standard and its sucThe parity bit in each character can be set to none (N), cessors, are used to signal from each end that the other
odd (O), even (E), mark (M), or space (S). None means equipment is actually present and powered-up. However,
that no parity bit is sent at all. Mark parity means that the manufacturers have over the years built many devices that
parity bit is always set to the mark signal condition (log- implemented non-standard variations on the standard, for
ical 1) and likewise space parity always sends the parity example, printers that use DTR as ow control.
bit in the space signal condition. Aside from uncommon
applications that use the 9th (parity) bit for some form Another method of ow control (software ow control)
of addressing or special signalling, mark or space par- uses special characters such as XON/XOFF to control
ity is uncommon, as it adds no error detection informa- the ow of data. The XON/XOFF characters are sent
tion. Odd parity is more useful than even, since it ensures by the receiver to the sender to control when the sender
that at least one state transition occurs in each character, will send data, that is, these characters go in the opposite
which makes it more reliable. The most common parity direction to the data being sent. The circuit starts in the
setting, however, is none, with error detection handled sending allowed state. When the receivers buers approach capacity, the receiver sends the XOFF character
by a communication protocol.
to tell the sender to stop sending data. Later, after the
receiver has emptied its buers, it sends an XON character to tell the sender to resume transmission. These are
4.3.4 Stop bits
non-printing characters and are interpreted as handshake
Stop bits sent at the end of every character allow the re- signals by printers, terminals, and computer systems.
ceiving signal hardware to detect the end of a character
and to resynchronise with the character stream. Electronic devices usually use one stop bit. If slow electromechanical teleprinters are used, one-and-one half or two
stop bits are required.

XON/XOFF ow control is an example of in-band signaling, in which control information is sent over the same
channel used for the data. XON/XOFF handshaking
presents diculties as XON and XOFF characters might
appear in the data being sent and receivers may interpret them as ow control. Such characters sent as part of
the data stream must be encoded in an escape sequence
4.3.5 Conventional notation
to prevent this, and the receiving and sending software
must generate and interpret these escape sequences. On
The D/P/S (Data/Parity/Stop) conventional notation the other hand, since no extra signal circuits are required,
species the framing of a serial connection. The most XON/XOFF ow control can be done on a 3 wire intercommon usage on microcomputers is 8/N/1 (8N1). This face.

18

CHAPTER 4. SERIAL PORT

4.4 Virtual serial ports

[6] National Instruments Serial Quick Reference Guide,


February 2007

Main article: COM port redirector

[7] RJ-45 10-Pin Plug to DB-25 Modem Cable.


Digiftp.digi.com. Retrieved 2014-02-08.

A virtual serial port is an emulation of the standard [8] Hardware Book RS-232D
serial port. This port is created by software which enable extra serial ports in an operating system without ad- [9] RS-232D EIA/TIA-561 RJ45 Pinout
ditional hardware installation (such as expansion cards,
[10] HOWTO: Specify Serial Ports Larger than COM9. Mietc.). It is possible to create a large number of virtual
crosoft support. Retrieved 26 October 2013.
serial ports in a PC. The only limitation is the amount
of resources, such as operating memory and computing [11] Pauls 8051 Code Library, IDE Hard Drive Interface.
Pjrc.com. 2005-02-24. Retrieved 2014-02-08.
power, needed to emulate many serial ports at the same
time.
[12] IDE Hard Disk experiments. Hem.passagen.se. 2004-

02-15. Retrieved 2014-02-08.


Virtual serial ports emulate all hardware serial port
functionality, including Baud rate, Data bits, Par[13] The Solution for Seagate 7200.11 HDDs - Hard Drive
ity bits, Stop bits, etc.
Additionally they allow
and Removable Media issues - MSFN Forum. Msfn.org.
controlling the data ow, emulating all signal lines
Retrieved 2014-02-08.
(DTR/DSR/CTS/RTS/DCD/RI)
and
customizing
pinout. Virtual serial ports are common with Bluetooth [14] Fixing a Seagate 7200.11 Hard Drive.
Sites.google.com. Retrieved 2014-02-08.
and are the standard way of receiving data from
Bluetooth-equipped GPS modules.

Virtual serial port emulation can be useful in case there is


a lack of available physical serial ports or they do not meet
the current requirements. For instance, virtual serial ports
can share data between several applications from one
GPS device connected to a serial port. Another option
is to communicate with any other serial devices via internet or LAN as if they are locally connected to computer
(Serial over LAN/Serial-over-Ethernet technology). Two
computers or applications can communicate through an
emulated serial port link. Virtual serial port emulators
are available for many operating systems including MacOS, Linux, and various mobile and desktop versions of
Microsoft Windows.

[15] DCB Structure. MSDN. Microsoft. Retrieved 15 March


2011.

4.7 Further reading


Serial Port Complete: COM Ports, USB Virtual COM
Ports, and Ports for Embedded Systems; 2nd Edition;
Jan Axelson; Lakeview Research; 380 pages; 2007;
ISBN 978-1-931-44806-2.

4.8 External links


Serial Port Programming in Linux

4.5 See also

RS-232 and other serial port pinouts list


Back of an old desktop computer showing 25-pin
male serial port.

COM (hardware interface)


Teleprinter

4.6 References
[1] Webopedia (2003-09-03). What is serial port? - A Word
Denition From the Webopedia Computer Dictionary.
Webopedia.com. Retrieved 2009-08-07.
[2] Yost Serial Device Wiring Standard
[3] Joakim gren. Serial (PC 9)".
[4] Cyclom-Y Installation Manual, page 38, retrieved on 29
November 2008
[5] RJ-45 8-Pin to Modem (ALTPIN
Digiftp.digi.com. Retrieved 2014-02-08.

option)".

Chapter 5

Universal asynchronous
receiver/transmitter
A universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter, abbreviated UART /jurt/, is a computer hardware device that translates data between parallel and serial forms.
UARTs are commonly used in conjunction with communication standards such as TIA (formerly EIA) RS-232,
RS-422 or RS-485. The universal designation indicates
that the data format and transmission speeds are congurable. The electric signaling levels and methods (such as
dierential signaling etc.) are handled by a driver circuit
external to the UART.

the logic level signals of the UART to and from the external signalling levels. External signals may be of many different forms. Examples of standards for voltage signaling
are RS-232, RS-422 and RS-485 from the EIA. Historically, current (in current loops) was used in telegraph circuits. Some signaling schemes do not use electrical wires.
Examples of such are optical ber, IrDA (infrared), and
(wireless) Bluetooth in its Serial Port Prole (SPP). Some
signaling schemes use modulation of a carrier signal (with
or without wires). Examples are modulation of audio sigA UART is usually an individual (or part of an) integrated nals with phone line modems, RF modulation with data
circuit (IC) used for serial communications over a com- radios, and the DC-LIN for power line communication.
puter or peripheral device serial port. UARTs are Communication may be simplex (in one direction only,
now commonly included in microcontrollers. A dual with no provision for the receiving device to send inforUART, or DUART, combines two UARTs into a sin- mation back to the transmitting device), full duplex (both
gle chip. An octal UART or OCTART combines eight devices send and receive at the same time) or half duplex
UARTs into one package, an example being the NXP (devices take turns transmitting and receiving).
SCC2698. Many modern ICs now come with a UART
that can also communicate synchronously; these devices
are called USARTs (universal synchronous/asynchronous 5.1.1 Data framing
receiver/transmitter).
The idle, no data state is high-voltage, or powered. This
is a historic legacy from telegraphy, in which the line is
held high to show that the line and transmitter are not
5.1 Transmitting and receiving se- damaged. Each character is sent as a logic low start bit,
a congurable number of data bits (usually 8, but users
rial data
can choose 5 to 8 or 9 bits depending on which UART
is in use), an optional parity bit if the number of bits per
See also: Asynchronous serial communication
character chosen is not 9 bits, and one or more logic high
stop bits. In most applications the least signicant data bit
The universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART) (the one on the left in this diagram) is transmitted rst,
takes bytes of data and transmits the individual bits in a but there are exceptions (such as the IBM 2741 printing
sequential fashion.[1] At the destination, a second UART terminal).
re-assembles the bits into complete bytes. Each UART The start bit signals the receiver that a new character is
contains a shift register, which is the fundamental method coming. The next ve to nine bits, depending on the code
of conversion between serial and parallel forms. Serial set employed, represent the character. If a parity bit is
transmission of digital information (bits) through a single used, it would be placed after all of the data bits. The
wire or other medium is less costly than parallel transmis- next one or two bits are always in the mark (logic high,
sion through multiple wires.
i.e., '1') condition and called the stop bit(s). They signal
The UART usually does not directly generate or re- the receiver that the character is completed. Since the
ceive the external signals used between dierent items of start bit is logic low (0) and the stop bit is logic high (1)
equipment. Separate interface devices are used to convert there are always at least two guaranteed signal changes
19

20

CHAPTER 5. UNIVERSAL ASYNCHRONOUS RECEIVER/TRANSMITTER

between characters.

acter may take a long time relative to CPU speeds, the


If the line is held in the logic low condition for longer UART maintains a ag showing busy status so that the
than a character time, this is a break condition that can host system does not deposit a new character for transmission until the previous one has been completed; ready for
be detected by the UART.
next character may also be signaled with an interrupt.
Since full-duplex operation requires characters to be sent
and received at the same time, UARTs use two dierent
5.1.2 Receiver
shift registers for transmitted and received characters.
All operations of the UART hardware are controlled by
a clock signal which runs at a multiple of the data rate,
typically 8 times the bit rate. The receiver tests the state
of the incoming signal on each clock pulse, looking for the
beginning of the start bit. If the apparent start bit lasts at
least one-half of the bit time, it is valid and signals the
start of a new character. If not, it is considered a spurious
pulse and is ignored. After waiting a further bit time, the
state of the line is again sampled and the resulting level
clocked into a shift register. After the required number of
bit periods for the character length (5 to 8 bits, typically)
have elapsed, the contents of the shift register are made
available (in parallel fashion) to the receiving system. The
UART will set a ag indicating new data is available, and
may also generate a processor interrupt to request that the
host processor transfers the received data.

5.1.4 Application
Transmitting and receiving UARTs must be set for the
same bit speed, character length, parity, and stop bits for
proper operation. The receiving UART may detect some
mismatched settings and set a framing error ag bit for
the host system; in exceptional cases the receiving UART
will produce an erratic stream of mutilated characters and
transfer them to the host system.

Typical serial ports used with personal computers connected to modems use eight data bits, no parity, and one
stop bit; for this conguration the number of ASCII charCommunicating UARTs usually have no shared timing acters per second equals the bit rate divided by 10.
system apart from the communication signal. Typi- Some very low-cost home computers or embedded syscally, UARTs resynchronize their internal clocks on each tems dispense with a UART and use the CPU to sample
change of the data line that is not considered a spuri- the state of an input port or directly manipulate an outous pulse. Obtaining timing information in this manner, put port for data transmission. While very CPU-intensive
they reliably receive when the transmitter is sending at a (since the CPU timing is critical), the UART chip can
slightly dierent speed than it should. Simplistic UARTs thus be omitted, saving money and space. The technique
do not do this, instead they resynchronize on the falling is known as bit-banging.
edge of the start bit only, and then read the center of each
expected data bit, and this system works if the broadcast
data rate is accurate enough to allow the stop bits to be
sampled reliably.
It is a standard feature for a UART to store the most
recent character while receiving the next. This double
buering gives a receiving computer an entire character transmission time to fetch a received character. Many
UARTs have a small rst-in, rst-out FIFO buer memory between the receiver shift register and the host system
interface. This allows the host processor even more time
to handle an interrupt from the UART and prevents loss
of received data at high rates.

5.2 Synchronous transmission

USART chips have both synchronous and asynchronous


modes. In synchronous transmission, the clock data is recovered separately from the data stream and no start/stop
bits are used. This improves the eciency of transmission on suitable channels since more of the bits sent are
usable data and not character framing. An asynchronous
transmission sends no characters over the interconnection when the transmitting device has nothing to send;
but a synchronous interface must send pad characters to
5.1.3 Transmitter
maintain synchronization between the receiver and transTransmission operation is simpler as the timing does not mitter. The usual ller is the ASCII SYN character.
have to be determined from the line state, nor is it bound This may be done automatically by the transmitting deto any xed timing intervals. As soon as the sending sys- vice.
tem deposits a character in the shift register (after com- USARTs were often used to create data streams compatpletion of the previous character), the UART generates ible with the synchronous telephonic data channels. The
a start bit, shifts the required number of data bits out to standard method would multiplex synchronous data from
the line, generates and sends the parity bit (if used), and many terminals to a telephonic data line such as E1 (Eusends the stop bits. Since transmission of a single char- rope) or T1 (US).

5.4. STRUCTURE

5.3 History

21

5.4 Structure
A UART usually contains the following components:
a clock generator, usually a multiple of the bit rate
to allow sampling in the middle of a bit period.

Some early telegraph schemes used variable-length pulses


(as in Morse code) and rotating clockwork mechanisms to
transmit alphabetic characters. The rst serial communication devices (with xed-length pulses) were rotating
mechanical switches (commutators). Various character
codes using 5, 6, 7, or 8 data bits became common in
teleprinters and later as computer peripherals. The teletypewriter made an excellent general-purpose I/O device
for a small computer.
Gordon Bell of DEC designed the rst UART, occupying an entire circuit board called a line unit, for the PDP
series of computers beginning with the PDP-1.[2][3] According to Bell, the main innovation of the UART was
its use of sampling to convert the signal into the digital
domain, allowing more reliable timing than previous circuits that used analog timing devices with manually adjusted potentiometers.[4] To reduce the cost of wiring,
backplane and other components, these computers also
pioneered ow control using XON and XOFF characters
rather than hardware wires.
DEC condensed the line unit design into an early singlechip UART for their own use.[2] Western Digital developed this into the rst widely available single-chip UART,
the WD1402A, around 1971. This was an early example
of a medium scale integrated circuit. Another popular
chip was the SCN2651 from the Signetics 2650 family.
An example of an early 1980s UART was the National
Semiconductor 8250. In the 1990s, newer UARTs were
developed with on-chip buers. This allowed higher
transmission speed without data loss and without requiring such frequent attention from the computer. For example, the popular National Semiconductor 16550 has a
16 byte FIFO, and spawned many variants, including the
16C550, 16C650, 16C750, and 16C850.

input and output shift registers


transmit/receive control
read/write control logic
transmit/receive buers (optional)
parallel data bus buer (optional)
First-in, rst-out (FIFO) buer memory (optional)

5.5 Special receiver conditions


5.5.1 Overrun error
An overrun error occurs when the receiver cannot process the character that just came in before the next one
arrives. Various devices have dierent amounts of buer
space to hold received characters. The CPU must service
the UART in order to remove characters from the input
buer. If the CPU does not service the UART quickly
enough and the buer becomes full, an Overrun Error will
occur, and incoming characters will be lost.

5.5.2 Underrun error

An underrun error occurs when the UART transmitter has completed sending a character and the transmit
buer is empty. In asynchronous modes this is treated
as an indication that no data remains to be transmitted,
rather than an error, since additional stop bits can be appended. This error indication is commonly found in USARTs, since an underrun is more serious in synchronous
Depending on the manufacturer, dierent terms are used systems.
to identify devices that perform the UART functions.
Intel called their 8251 device a Programmable Communication Interface. MOS Technology 6551 was known 5.5.3 Framing error
under the name Asynchronous Communications Interface Adapter (ACIA). The term Serial Communica- A framing error occurs when the designated start and
tions Interface (SCI) was rst used at Motorola around stop bits are not found. As the start bit is used to
1975 to refer to their start-stop asynchronous serial in- identify the beginning of an incoming character, it acts as
terface device, which others were calling a UART. Zilog a reference for the remaining bits. If the data line is not in
manufactured a number of Serial Communication Con- the expected state (hi/lo) when the stop bit is expected,
a Framing Error will occur.
trollers or SCCs.
After the RS-232 COM port was removed from most
IBM PC compatible computers in the 2000s, an exter- 5.5.4 Parity error
nal USB-to-UART serial adapter cable was used to compensate for the loss. A major supplier of these chips is A Parity Error occurs when the parity of the number of
FTDI.[5]
1 bits disagrees with that specied by the parity bit. Use

22

CHAPTER 5. UNIVERSAL ASYNCHRONOUS RECEIVER/TRANSMITTER

of a parity bit is optional, so this error will only occur if lost characters.
parity-checking has been enabled.
A 16 byte FIFO allows up to 16 characters to be received
before the computer has to service the interrupt. This increases the maximum bit rate the computer can process
5.5.5 Break condition
reliably from 9600 to 153,000 bit/s if it has a 1 millisecond interrupt dead time. A 32 byte FIFO increases the
A break condition occurs when the receiver input is maximum rate to over 300,000 bit/s. A second benet
at the space (logic low, i.e., '0') level for longer than to having a FIFO is that the computer only has to service
some duration of time, typically, for more than a char- about 8 to 12% as many interrupts, allowing more CPU
acter time. This is not necessarily an error, but appears time for updating the screen, or doing other chores. Thus
to the receiver as a character of all zero bits with a fram- the computers responses will improve as well..
ing error. The term break derives from current loop
signaling, which was the traditional signaling used for
teletypewriters. The spacing condition of a current loop
5.8 See also
line is indicated by no current owing, and a very long period of no current owing is often caused by a break or
Baud
other fault in the line.
Bit rate
Some equipment will deliberately transmit the space
level for longer than a character as an attention signal.
Modem
When signaling rates are mismatched, no meaningful
Morse code
characters can be sent, but a long break signal can be a
useful way to get the attention of a mismatched receiver
Serial communication
to do something (such as resetting itself). Unix-like systems can use the long break level as a request to change
Serial port
the signaling rate, to support dial-in access at multiple sig USB
naling rates.

5.6 UART models


5.7 UART in modems
Modems for personal computers that plug into a motherboard slot must also include the UART function on the
card. The original 8250 UART chip shipped with the
IBM personal computer had a one character buer for the
receiver and the transmitter each, which meant that communications software performed poorly at speeds above
9600 bits/second, especially if operating under a multitasking system or if handling interrupts from disk controllers. High-speed modems used UARTs that were
compatible with the original chip but which included additional FIFO buers, giving software additional time to
respond to incoming data.

5.9 References
[1] Adam Osborne, An Introduction to Microcomputers Volume 1: Basic Concepts, Osborne-McGraw Hill Berkeley
California USA, 1980 ISBN 0-931988-34-9 pp. 116-126
[2] C. Gordon Bell, J. Craig Mudge, John E. McNamara,
Computer Engineering: A DEC View of Hardware Systems
Design, Digital Press, 12 May 2014, ISBN 1483221105,
p.73
[3] Allison, David. the UART Curator, Division of Information Technology and Society, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. Smithsonian Institution Oral and Video Histories. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
[4] Oral History of Gordon Bell, 2005, accessed 2015-08-19
[5] Products; FTDI.
[6] Interfacing with a PDP-11/05:
bone.com, accessed 2015-08-19

the UART, blinken-

A look at the performance requirements at high bit rates


shows why the 16, 32, 64 or 128 byte FIFO is a necessity. [7] Zilog
Product
specication
Z8440/1/2/4,
Z84C40/1/2/3/4.
Serial input/output controller
The Microsoft specication for a DOS system requires
(PDF). 090529 zilog.com
that interrupts not be disabled for more than 1 millisecond
at a time. Some hard disk drives and video controllers vi- [8] FAQ: The 16550A UART & TurboCom drivers 1994.
olate this specication. 9600 bit/s will deliver a character
090529 cs.utk.edu
approximately every millisecond, so a 1 byte FIFO should
be sucient at this rate on a DOS system which meets [9] Tso, Theodore Y. (January 23, 1999). Re: Serial communication with the 16650. The Mail Archive. Retrieved
the maximum interrupt disable timing. Rates above this
June 2, 2013.
may receive a new character before the old one has been
fetched, and thus the old character will be lost. This is [10] bill.herrin.us - Hayes ESP 8-port Enhanced Serial Port
Manual, 2004-03-02
referred to as an overrun error and results in one or more

5.11. EXTERNAL LINKS

5.10 Further reading


Serial Port Complete: COM Ports, USB Virtual COM
Ports, and Ports for Embedded Systems; 2nd Edition;
Jan Axelson; Lakeview Research; 380 pages; 2007;
ISBN 978-1-931-44806-2.

5.11 External links


A tutorial on the RS-232 standard, describing the
denition of mark, space and their relationship with
negative and positive voltages
Freebsd Tutorials, includes standard signal denitions, history of UART ICs, and pinout for commonly used DB25 connector.
UART Tutorial for Robotics, contains many practical examples.
UART transceiver over powerline, allows multiplex
UART networking over the powerline.
CladLabs: UART, a tutorial on the UART protocol
explaining ow control, transmission speed, radiation hardening, powerline transceivers and reviewing terminal programs.

23

Chapter 6

Dierential signaling
This article is about electric signals via wires. For an im- 6.1.1
munological model that attempts to explain how T cells
survive selection during maturation, see Dierential Signaling Hypothesis.
Dierential signaling is a method for electrically trans-

Ground oset tolerance

In a system with a dierential receiver, desired signals add and


noise is subtracted away.

Elimination of noise by using dierential signaling.

mitting information using two complementary signals.


The technique sends the same electrical signal as a dierential pair of signals, each in its own conductor. The pair
of conductors can be wires (typically twisted together)
or traces on a circuit board. The receiving circuit responds to the electrical dierence between the two signals, rather than the dierence between a single wire and
ground. The opposite technique is called single-ended
signaling. Dierential pairs are usually found on printed
circuit boards, in twisted-pair and ribbon cables, and in
connectors.

6.1 Advantages
Provided that the source- and receiver impedances in
the dierential signalling circuit are equal, external electromagnetic interference tends to aect both conductors identically. Since the receiving circuit only detects
the dierence between the wires, the technique resists
electromagnetic noise compared to one conductor with
an un-paired reference (ground). The technique works
for both analog signaling, as in balanced audioand digital signaling, as in RS-422, RS-485, Ethernet over twisted
pair, PCI Express, DisplayPort, HDMI, and USB.

6.1.2 Suitability for use with low-voltage


electronics
The electronics industry, particularly in portable and mobile devices, continually strives to lower supply voltage to
save power and reduce emitted electromagnetic radiation.
A low supply voltage, however, reduces noise immunity.
Dierential signaling helps to reduce these problems because, for a given supply voltage, it provides twice the
noise immunity of a single-ended system.
To see why, consider a single-ended digital system with
supply voltage VS . The high logic level is VS and the
low logic level is 0 V. The dierence between the two
levels is therefore VS 0 V = VS . Now consider a
dierential system with the same supply voltage. The
voltage dierence in the high state, where one wire is
at VS and the other at 0 V, is VS 0 V = VS . The
voltage dierence in the low state, where the voltages on
the wires are exchanged, is 0 V VS = VS . The
dierence between high and low logic levels is therefore
VS (VS ) = 2VS . This is twice the dierence of the
single-ended system. If the voltage noise on one wire is
uncorrelated to the noise on the other one, it takes twice as
much noise to cause an error with the dierential system
as with the single-ended system. In other words, dierential signalling doubles the noise immunity.

24

6.4. TRANSMISSION LINES

6.1.3

Resistance to electromagnetic interference

This advantage is not directly due to dierential signaling


itself, but to the common practice of transmitting dierential signals on balanced lines.[1][2] Single-ended signals
are still resistant to interference if the lines are balanced
and terminated by a dierential amplier.

6.2 Comparison with single-ended


signaling
In single-ended signaling, the transmitter generates a single voltage that the receiver compares with a xed reference voltage, both relative to a common ground connection shared by both ends. In many instances single-ended
designs are not feasible. Another diculty is the electromagnetic interference that can be generated by a singleended signaling system that attempts to operate at high
speed.

6.3 Uses
The technique minimizes electronic crosstalk and
electromagnetic interference, both noise emission and
noise acceptance, and can achieve a constant or known
characteristic impedance, allowing impedance matching
techniques important in a high-speed signal transmission
line or high quality balanced line and balanced circuit
audio signal path.
Dierential pairs include:

25
Hypertransport 1.6 Gbit/s
Inniband 2.5 Gbit/s
PCI Express 2.5 Gbit/s
Serial ATA Revision 2.0 2.4 Gbit/s
XAUI 3.125 Gbit/s
Serial ATA Revision 3.0 4.8 Gbit/s
PCI Express 2.0 5.0 Gbit/s per lane
10 Gigabit Ethernet 10 Gbit/s (4 dierential pairs
running at 2.5 Gbit/s each)
DDR SDRAM 3.2 Gbits/s (dierential strobes latch
single-ended data)

6.4 Transmission lines


The type of transmission line that connects two devices
(chips, modules) dictates the type of signaling. Singleended signaling is used with coaxial cables, in which one
conductor totally screens the other from the environment.
All screens (or shields) are combined into a single piece
of material to form a common ground. Dierential signaling is used with a balanced pair of conductors. For
short cables and low frequencies, the two methods are
equivalent, so cheap single-ended circuits with a common ground can be used with cheap cables. As signaling speeds become faster, wires begin to behave as
transmission lines.

twisted-pair cables, shielded and unshielded


microstrip and stripline dierential pair routing
techniques on printed circuit boards

6.5 Use in computers

Dierential signaling is often used in computers to reduce


The latter can be considered as a PCB implementation of electromagnetic interference, because complete screenthe well-known twisted-pair cable, a common implemen- ing is not possible with microstrips and chips in computtation of the dierential pair.
ers, due to geometric constraints and the fact that screenDierential pairs generally carry dierential or semi- ing does not work at DC. If a DC power supply line and a
dierential signals, such as high-speed digital serial low-voltage signal line share the same ground, the power
interfaces including LVDS dierential ECL, PECL, current returning through the ground can induce a signifLVPECL, Hypertransport, Ethernet over twisted pair, icant voltage in it. A low-resistance ground reduces this
Serial Digital Interface, RS-422, RS-485, USB, Serial problem to some extent. A balanced pair of microstrip
ATA, TMDS, FireWire, and HDMI etc. or else high lines is a convenient solution, because it does not need an
quality and/or high frequency analog signals (e.g., video additional PCB layer, as a stripline does. Because each
line causes a matching image current in the ground plane,
signals, balanced audio signals, etc.).
which is required anyway for supplying power, the pair
looks like four lines and therefore has a shorter crosstalk
6.3.1 Data rates of some interfaces imple- distance than a simple isolated pair. In fact, it behaves as
well as a twisted pair. Low crosstalk is important when
mented with dierential pairs
many lines are packed into a small space, as on a typical
Serial ATA 1.2 Gbit/s
PCB.

26

CHAPTER 6. DIFFERENTIAL SIGNALING

6.6 High-voltage dierential signaling


High-voltage dierential (HVD) signaling uses highvoltage signals. In computer electronics, high voltage
normally means 5 volts or more.
SCSI-1 variations included a high voltage dierential
(HVD) implementation whose maximum cable length
was many times that of the single-ended version. SCSI
equipment for example allows a maximum total cable
length of 25 meters using HVD, while single-ended SCSI
allows a maximum cable length of 1.5 to 6 meters, depending on bus speed. LVD versions of SCSI allow less
than 25 m cable length not because of the lower voltage, but because these SCSI standards allow much higher
speeds than the older HVD SCSI.
The generic term High-voltage dierential signaling describes a variety of systems. Low-voltage dierential signaling or LVDS, on the other hand, is a specic system
dened by a TIA/EIA standard.

6.7 See also


Backplanes
Current loop signaling
Current mode logic (CML)
DDR2 SDRAM
Dierential amplier
Dierential TTL
DisplayPort
Longitudinal voltage
Signal integrity
Transition
(TMDS)

Minimized

Dierential

Signaling

6.8 References
[1] Graham Blyth. Audio Balancing Issues. Professional
Audio Learning Zone. Soundcraft. Retrieved 2009-0825. Lets be clear from the start here: if the source
impedance of each of these signals was not identical i.e.
balanced, the method would fail completely, the matching
of the dierential audio signals being irrelevant, though
desirable for headroom considerations.
[2] Part 3: Ampliers. Sound system equipment (Third
ed.). Geneva: International Electrotechnical Commission. 2000. p. 111. IEC 602689-3:2001. Only the
common-mode impedance balance of the driver, line, and

receiver play a role in noise or interference rejection. This


noise or interference rejection property is independent of
the presence of a desired dierential signal.

Chapter 7

RS-422
RS-422, also known as TIA/EIA-422, is a technical standard originated by the Electronic Industries Alliance that
species electrical characteristics of a digital signaling
circuit. Dierential signaling can transmit data at rates
as high as 10 Mbit/s, or may be sent on cables as long as
1500 meters. Some systems directly interconnect using
RS-422 signals, or RS-422 converters may be used to extend the range of RS-232 connections. The standard only
denes signal levels; other properties of a serial interface,
such as electrical connectors and pin wiring, are set by
other standards.

7.1 Standard scope

Data Rate / Line Length chart from RS-422 Annex A

RS-422 is the common short form title of American


National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard
ANSI/TIA/EIA-422-B Electrical Characteristics of
Balanced Voltage Dierential Interface Circuits and its
international equivalent ITU-T Recommendation T-RECV.11,[1] also known as X.27. These technical standards
specify the electrical characteristics of the balanced
voltage digital interface circuit.[2] RS-422 provides
for data transmission, using balanced, or dierential,
signaling, with unidirectional/non-reversible, terminated
or non-terminated transmission lines, point to point, or
multi-drop. In contrast to EIA-485 (which is multi-point
instead of multi-drop), RS-422/V.11 does not allow
multiple drivers but only multiple receivers.

The maximum cable length is not specied in the standard, but guidance is given in its annex. (This annex is
not a formal part of the standard, but is included for information purposes only.) Limitations on line length and
data rate varies with the parameters of the cable length,
balance, and termination, as well as the individual installation. Figure A.1 shows a maximum length of 1200 meters, but this is with a termination and the annex discusses
the fact that many applications can tolerate greater timing
and amplitude distortion, and that experience has shown
that the cable length may be extended to several kilometers. Conservative maximum data rates with 24AWG
UTP (POTS) cable are 10 Mbit/s at 12 m to 90 kbit/s at
1200 m as shown in the gure A.1. This gure is a conserRevision B, published in May 1994 was rearmed by the vative guide based on empirical data, not a limit imposed
Telecommunications Industry Association in 2005.
by the standard.

7.2 Characteristics

RS-422 species the electrical characteristics of a single balanced signal. The standard was written to be
referenced by other standards that specify the complete
DTE/DCE interface for applications which require a balanced voltage circuit to transmit data. These other standards would dene protocols, connectors, pin assignments and functions. Standards such as EIA-530 (DB-25
connector) and EIA-449 (DC-37 connector) use RS-422
electrical signals. Some RS-422 devices have 4 screw terminals for pairs of wire, with one pair used for data in one
direction.

Several key advantages oered by this standard include


the dierential receiver, a dierential driver and data rates
as high as 10 Megabits per second at 12 meters (40 ft).
The specication is for circuits with a data rate up to 10
Mbit/s, but since the signal quality degrades with cable
length, the maximum data rate decreases as cable length
increases. Figure A.1 in the annex plotting this stops at
RS-422 cannot implement a true multi-point communi10 Mbit/s.
27

28
cations network such as with EIA-485 since there can be
only one driver on each pair of wires, however one driver
can be connected to up to ten receivers.
RS-422 can interoperate with interfaces designed to MILSTD-188-114B, but they are not identical. RS-422 uses a
nominal 0 to 5 volt signal while MIL-STD-188-114B uses
a signal symmetric about 0 V. However the tolerance for
common mode voltage in both specications allows them
to interoperate. Care must be taken with the termination
network.
EIA-423 is a similar specication for unbalanced signaling (RS-423).

7.3 Applications
A common use of RS-422 is for RS-232 extenders.
An RS-232-compatible variant of RS-422 using a miniDIN8 connector was widely used on Macintosh hardware until it (and ADB) were replaced by Universal Serial
Bus on the iMac in 1998.

CHAPTER 7. RS-422

[1] http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-V.11/en V.11 ITU Recommendation T-REC-V.11


[2] TIA/EIA STANDARD, Electrical Characteristics of Balanced Voltage Digital Interface Circuits, TIA/EIA-422-B,
May 1994

7.6 External links


The Telecommunications Industry Association
National Semiconductor Application Note AN1031 TIA/EIA-422-B Overview, January 2000,
National Semiconductor Inc., retrieved from
National Semiconductor Application Note AN-759
Comparing EIA-485 and EIA-422-A Line Drivers
and Receivers in Multipoint Applications, February
1991, National Semiconductor Inc., retrieved from
National Semiconductor Application Note AN214 Transmission Line Drivers and Receivers or
TIA/EIA Standards RS-422 and RS-423 August
1993, National Semiconductor Inc., retrieved from

Broadcast automation systems and post-production linear


editing facilities use RS-422A to remotely control the
Maxim IC Application Note 723 Selecting and Usplayers/recorders located in the central apparatus room.
ing RS-232, RS-422, and RS-485 Serial Data StanIn most cases the Sony 9-pin connection is used, which
dards Dec 2000,
makes use of a standard DE-9 connector. This is a de
facto industry standard connector for RS-422 used by
Maxim Integrated Products, Inc., retrieved from
many manufacturers.
When used in relation to communications wiring, RS-422
wiring refers to cable made of 2 sets of twisted pair, often
with each pair being shielded, and a ground wire. While a
double pair cable may be practical for many RS-422 applications, the RS-422 specication only denes one signal path and does not assign any function to it. Any complete cable assembly with connectors should be labeled
with the specication that dened the signal function and
mechanical layout of the connector, such as RS-449.

7.4 See also


Electronic Industries Alliance
Probus
Fieldbus
List of network buses

7.5 References
This article is based on material taken from the Free Online Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008
and incorporated under the relicensing terms of the
GFDL, version 1.3 or later.

Texas Instruments Application Report 422 and 485


Standards Overview and System Congurations
June 2002, Texas Instruments, retrieved from
Texas Instruments Application Report SLLA067B
Comparing Bus Solutions October 2009, Texas
Instruments, retrieved from

Chapter 8

RS-485
TIA-485-A, also known as ANSI/TIA/EIA-485,
TIA/EIA-485, EIA-485 or RS-485, is a standard dening the electrical characteristics of drivers and receivers
for use in balanced digital multipoint systems. The standard is published by the Telecommunications Industry
Association/Electronic Industries Alliance (TIA/EIA).
Digital communications networks implementing the
EIA-485 standard can be used eectively over long distances and in electrically noisy environments. Multiple
receivers may be connected to such a network in a linear,
multi-drop conguration. These characteristics make
such networks useful in industrial environments and
similar applications.

a line or bus, not a star, ring, or multiply connected network. Ideally, the two ends of the cable will have a termination resistor connected across the two wires. Without
termination resistors, reections of fast driver edges can
cause multiple data edges that can cause data corruption.
Termination resistors also reduce electrical noise sensitivity due to the lower impedance, and bias resistors (see
below) are required. The value of each termination resistor should be equal to the cable characteristic impedance
(typically, 120 ohms for twisted pairs).

Star and ring topologies are not recommended because of


signal reections or excessively low or high termination
impedance. If a star conguration is unavoidable, speThe EIA once labeled all its standards with the prex cial RS-485 star/hub repeaters are available which bidiRS (Recommended Standard), but the EIA-TIA of- rectionally listen for data on each span and then retransmit
cially replaced RS with EIA/TIA to help identify the data onto all other spans.
the origin of its standards.[1] The EIA has ocially disbanded and the standard is now maintained by the TIA.
The RS-485 standard is superseded by TIA-485, but often engineers and applications guides continue to use the
RS designation.

680
8.1 Overview

120

RS-485 enables the conguration of inexpensive local


networks and multidrop communications links. It oers
data transmission speeds of 35 Mbit/s up to 10 m and
100 kbit/s at 1200 m. Since it uses a dierential balanced
line over twisted pair (like RS-422), it can span relatively
large distances (up to 4,000 feet (1,200 m)). A rule of
thumb is that the speed in bit/s multiplied by the length
in meters should not exceed 108 . Thus a 50 meter cable
should not signal faster than 2 Mbit/s.[2]
In contrast to RS-422, which has a single driver circuit
which cannot be switched o, RS-485 drivers need to be
put in transmit mode explicitly by asserting a signal to
the driver. This allows RS-485 to implement linear bus
topologies using only two wires. The equipment located
along a set of RS-485 wires are interchangeably called
nodes, stations or devices.[3]

680

Typical bias network together with termination. Biasing and termination values are not specied in the RS-485 standard.

Somewhere along the set of wires, pull up or pull down


resistors are established to fail-safe bias each data wire
when the lines are not being driven by any device. This
The recommended arrangement of the wires is as a con- way, the lines will be biased to known voltages and nodes
nected series of point-to-point (multidropped) nodes, i.e. will not interpret the noise from undriven lines as actual
29

30

CHAPTER 8. RS-485

data; without biasing resistors, the data lines oat in such


a way that electrical noise sensitivity is greatest when all
device stations are silent or unpowered.[4]

8.2 Standard scope and denition


RS-485 only species electrical characteristics of the
generator and the receiver. It does not specify or recommend any communications protocol, only the physical
layer. Other standards dene the protocols for communication over an RS-485 link. The foreword to the standard recommends The Telecommunications Systems Bulletin TSB-89 which contains application guidelines, including data signaling rate vs. cable length, stub length,
and congurations.
Section 4 denes the electrical characteristics of the generator (transmitter or driver), receiver, transceiver, and
system. These characteristics include: denition of a
unit load, voltage ranges, open circuit voltages, thresholds, and transient tolerance. It also denes three generator interface points (signal lines); A, B and C. The
data is transmitted on A and B. C is a ground reference. This section also denes the logic states 1 (o)
and 0 (on), by the polarity between A and B terminals. If
A is negative with respect to B, the state is binary 1. The
reversed polarity (A +, B ) is binary 0. The standard
does not assign any logic function to the two states.

8.3 Master-slave arrangement


Often in a master-slave arrangement when one device
dubbed the master initiates all communication activity, the master device itself provides the bias and not the
slave devices. In this conguration, the master device is
typically centrally located along the set of RS-485 wires,
so it would be two slave devices located at the physical
end of the wires that would provide the termination. The
master device itself would provide termination if it were
located at a physical end of the wires, but that is often
a bad design[5] as the master would be better located at
a halfway point between the slave devices, to maximize
signal strength and therefore line distance and speed. Applying the bias at multiple node locations could possibly
cause a violation of the RS-485 specication and cause
communications to malfunction.

8.4 Three-wire connection

RS-485 3 wire connection

8.5 Full duplex operation


RS-485, like RS-422, can be made full-duplex by using
four wires. Since RS-485 is a multi-point specication,
however, this is not necessary in many cases. RS-485 and
RS-422 can interoperate with certain restrictions.
Converters between RS-485 and other formats are available to allow a personal computer to communicate with
remote devices. By using Repeaters and MultiRepeaters very large RS-485 networks can be formed.
TSB-89A, The Application Guidelines for TIA/EIA485-A has one diagram called Star Conguration. Not
recommended. Using an RS-485 Multi-Repeater can
allow for Star Congurations with Home Runs (or
multi-drop) connections similar to Ethernet Hub/Star implementations (with greater distances). Hub/Star systems
(with Multi-Repeaters) allow for very maintainable systems, without violating any of the RS-485 specications.
Repeaters can also be used to extend the distance or number of nodes on a network.

8.6 Applications
RS-485 signals are used in a wide range of computer
and automation systems. In a computer system, SCSI2
and SCSI-3 may use this specication to implement the
physical layer for data transmission between a controller
and a disk drive. RS-485 is used for low-speed data communications in commercial aircraft cabins vehicle bus. It
requires minimal wiring, and can share the wiring among
several seats, reducing weight.

RS-485 is used as the physical layer underlying many


Connection of a third wire between the source and re- standard and proprietary automation protocols used to
ceiver may be done to limit the common mode voltage implement Industrial Control Systems, including the most
common versions of Modbus and Probus. These are
that can be impressed on the receiver inputs.

8.8. WAVEFORM EXAMPLE

31

used in programmable logic controllers and on factory The RS-485 signaling specication shows that signal A is
oors. Since it is dierential, it resists electromagnetic the non-inverting pin and signal B is the inverting pin.[8]
interference from motors and welding equipment.
This is in accordance with the A/B naming used by most
In theatre and performance venues RS-485 networks dierential transceiver manufacturers, including, among
are used to control lighting and other systems using the others:
DMX512 protocol.
RS-485 is also used in building automation as the simple bus wiring and long cable length is ideal for joining
remote devices. It may be used to control video surveillance systems or to interconnect security control panels
and devices such as access control card readers.
Its also used in model railway: the layout is controlled
by a command station using DCC. The external interface
to the DCC command station is often RS-485 used by
hand-held controllers[6] or for controlling the layout in a
network/PC environment.[7] Connectors in this case are
8P8C / RJ45.
Although many applications use RS-485 signal levels; the
speed, format, and protocol of the data transmission is
not specied by RS-485. Interoperability of even similar devices from dierent manufacturers is not assured
by compliance with the signal levels alone.

8.7 Connectors

Texas Instruments, as seen in their application handbook on EIA-422/485 communications (A=noninverting, B=inverting)
Intersil, as seen in their data sheet for the ISL4489
transceiver[9]
Maxim, as seen in their data sheet for the MAX483
transceiver[10]
Linear Technology, as seen in their datasheet for the
LTC2850, LTC2851, LTC2852[11]
Analog Devices, as seen in their datasheet for the
ADM3483, ADM3485, ADM3488, ADM3490,
ADM3491[12]
FTDI, as seen in their datasheet for the USB-RS485WE-1800-BT[13]

These manufacturers are correct, and their practice is in


RS-485 does not specify any connector or pinout. widespread use, but care must be taken when using A/B
Circuits may be terminated on screw terminals, D- naming.
subminiature connectors, or other types of connectors.
To avoid these confusions, some equipment manufacturers have created a third D+ and D naming convention.
D is the input (drive) signal, D is electrically inverting,
8.7.1 Pin labeling
and D+ is electrically non-inverting.
The RS-485 dierential line consists of two pins:
The standard does not discuss cable shielding, but makes
some recommendations on preferred methods of inter A aka '-' aka Data - (D-) aka TxD-/RxD- aka in- connecting the signal reference common and equipment
case grounds.
verting pin
B aka '+' aka Data + (D+) aka TxD+/RxD+ aka
non-inverting pin
SC aka G aka reference pin.

8.8 Waveform example

The diagram below shows potentials of the '+' and '' pins
The SC line is the optional voltage reference connection. of an RS-485 line during transmission of one byte (0xD3,
This is the reference potential used by the transceiver to least signicant bit rst) of data using an asynchronous
measure the A and B voltages.
start-stop method.

Mark Space

Space

Mark

1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1

Stop

Idle

Start

These names are all in use on various equipment, but the


actual standard released by EIA only uses the names A
and B. However, despite the unambiguous standard, there
is much confusion about which is which:

U+
U_

Mark

Mark

In addition to the A and B connections, the EIA standard also species a third interconnection point called C,
which is the common signal reference ground.

Space

The B line is positive (compared to A) when the line is


idle (i.e., data is 1).

32

CHAPTER 8. RS-485

8.9 See also

8.11 External links


TUTORIAL 763: Guidelines for Proper Wiring of
an RS-485 (TIA/EIA-485-A) Network, Maxim Integrated, 19 November 2001

List of network buses


RS-232
RS-423

RS232 to RS485 cable pinout. Pinouts.ru. 7 October 2012.

UART

RS485 serial information. Lammert Bies. August


2012. Retrieved 12 November 2012. Practical
information about implementing RS485

8.10 References
[1] Trim-the-fat-o-RS-485-designs. EE Times. 2000.
[2] Soltero, Manny; Zhang, Jing; Cockril, Chris; Zhang,
Kevin; Kinnaird, Clark; Kugelstadt, Thomas (May 2010)
[2002]. RS-422 and RS-485 Standards Overview and System Congurations, Application Report (pdf). Texas Instruments (Technical report). SLLA070D.
[3] Electronic Industries Association (1983). Electrical Characteristics of Generators and Receivers for Use in Balanced Multipoint Systems. EIA Standard RS-485. OCLC
10728525.
[4] DS3695,DS3695A,DS3695AT,DS3695T,DS96172,
DS96174,DS96F172MQML,DS96F174MQML:
Application Note 847 FAILSAFE Biasing of Dierential
Buses (Literature Number: SNLA031) (PDF), Texas
Instruments, 1998
[5] Thomas, George (MarchApril 2008). Examining the
BACnet MS/TP Physical Layer (PDF). the Extension
(Contemporary Control Systems, Inc.) 9 (2).
[6] XpressNET FAQ, lenzusa.com, accessed July 26, 2015
[7] BiDiBus, a Highspeed-Bus for
bidib.org, accessed July 26, 2015.

model-railways,

[8] Polarity conventions (PDF). Texas Instruments. 2003.


[9] Data Sheet FN6074.3: 15kV ESD Protected, 1/8 Unit
Load, 5V, Low Power, High Speed and Slew Rate Limited,
Full Duplex, RS-485/RS-422 Transceivers (PDF), Intersil
Corporation, 28 April 2006
[10] Data
Sheet
19-0122

MAX481/MAX483/MAX485/MAX487
MAX491/MAX1487: Low-Power, Slew-Rate-Limited
RS-485/RS-422 Transceivers (PDF), Maxim Integrated,
September 2009
[11] LTC2850/LTC2851/LTC2852
3.3V
20Mbps
RS485/RS422 Transceivers (PDF), Linear Technology Corporation, 2007
[12] ADM3483/ADM3485/ADM3488/ADM3490/ADM3491
(Rev. E) (PDF), Analog Devices, Inc., 22 November
2011
[13] USB to RS485 Serial Converter Cable Datasheet (PDF),
Future Technology Devices International Ltd, 27 May
2010

Scordino, Claudio (22 November 2011). Linux


RS485 support. Retrieved 12 November 2012.
Implementation of RS485 standard in the Linux OS
Marais, Hein (2008), APPLICATION NOTE AN960: RS-485/RS-422 Circuit Implementation Guide
(PDF), Analog Devices

Chapter 9

Physical layer
In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking, 9.2 List of services
the physical layer or layer 1 is the rst (lowest) layer.[1]
The implementation of this layer is often termed PHY.
The major functions and services performed by the physThe physical layer consists of the basic networking hard- ical layer are:
ware transmission technologies of a network.[2] It is a
fundamental layer underlying the logical data structures
Bit-by-bit or symbol-by-symbol delivery
of the higher level functions in a network. Due to the
Providing a standardized interface to physical
plethora of available hardware technologies with widely
transmission media, including
varying characteristics, this is perhaps the most complex
layer in the OSI architecture.
Mechanical specication of electrical connecThe physical layer denes the means of transmitting
tors and cables, for example maximum cable
raw bits rather than logical data packets over a physilength
cal link connecting network nodes. The bit stream may
Electrical specication of transmission line
be grouped into code words or symbols and converted
signal level and impedance
to a physical signal that is transmitted over a hardware
Radio interface, including electromagnetic
transmission medium. The physical layer provides an
spectrum frequency allocation and specicaelectrical, mechanical, and procedural interface to the
tion of signal strength, analog bandwidth, etc.
transmission medium. The shapes and properties of the
electrical connectors, the frequencies to broadcast on, the
Specications for IR over optical ber or a
modulation scheme to use and similar low-level paramewireless IR communication link
ters, are specied here.
Modulation
Within the semantics of the OSI network architecture, the
physical layer translates logical communications requests
Line coding
from the data link layer into hardware-specic operations
Bit synchronization in synchronous serial communito aect transmission or reception of electronic signals.
cation
Start-stop signalling and ow
asynchronous serial communication

9.1 Physical signaling sublayer

control

in

Circuit switching
In a local area network (LAN) or a metropolitan area network (MAN) using open systems interconnection (OSI)
architecture, the physical signaling sublayer is the portion
of the physical layer that:[3][4]
interfaces with the data link layer's media access
control (MAC) sublayer,

Multiplexing
Establishment and termination of circuit
switched connections
Carrier sense and collision detection utilized by
some level 2 multiple access protocols

performs character encoding, transmission, reception and decoding and,

Equalization ltering, training sequences, pulse


shaping and other signal processing of physical signals

performs galvanic isolation.

Forward error correction[5] for example bitwise convolutional coding


33

34
Bit-interleaving and other channel coding
The physical layer is also concerned with
Bit rate
Point-to-point, multipoint or point-to-multipoint
line conguration
Physical network topology, for example bus, ring,
mesh or star network

CHAPTER 9. PHYSICAL LAYER

9.4 Hardware equipment (network


node) examples
Network adapter
Repeater
Network hub
Modem
Fiber Media Converter

Serial or parallel communication


Simplex, half duplex or full duplex transmission
mode

9.5 Relation to TCP/IP model

Autonegotiation

The TCP/IP model, dened in RFC 1122 and RFC 1123,


is a high-level networking description used for the Internet and similar networks. It does not dene an equivalent
layer that deals exclusively with hardware-level specications and interfaces, as this model does not concern itself
directly with physical interfaces. Several RFCs mention a
physical layer and data link layer, but that is in context of
IEEE protocols. RFC 1122 and 1123 do not mention any
physical layer functionality or physical layer standards.

9.3 List of protocols


ARINC 818 Avionics Digital Video Bus
Bluetooth physical layer
CAN bus (controller area network) physical layer
DSL
EIA RS-232, EIA-422, EIA-423, RS-449, RS-485
Etherloop
Ethernet physical layer Including 10BASE-T,
10BASE2, 10BASE5, 100BASE-TX, 100BASEFX, 100BASE-T, 1000BASE-T, 1000BASE-SX
and other varieties
GSM Um air interface physical layer
G.hn/G.9960 physical layer
IEEE 1394 interface
ISDN
IRDA physical layer
ITU Recommendations: see ITU-T
Mobile Industry Processor Interface physical layer
Optical Transport Network (OTN)
SONET/SDH
T1 and other T-carrier links, and E1 and other Ecarrier links
TransferJet physical layer
USB physical layer
Telephone network modems- V.92
Varieties of 802.11 Wi-Fi physical layers

9.6 See also


Clock recovery
Ethernet physical layer
Data transmission
Digital communication
Digital modulation
Line code
Pulse shaping
Bit synchronization
Channel model

9.7 References
[1] Banzal, Shashi (2007). Data and Computer Network Communication. Firewall Media. p. 41.
[2] Iyengar, Shisharama (2010). Fundamentals of Sensor Network Programming. Wiley. p. 136.
[3] This article incorporates public domain material from
the General Services Administration document Federal
Standard 1037C.
[4] physical signaling sublayer (PLS)". Retrieved 2011-0729.
[5] Bertsekas, Dimitri; Gallager, Robert (1992). Data Networks. Prentice Hall. p. 61. ISBN 0-13-200916-1.

9.8. EXTERNAL LINKS

9.8 External links


Gorry Fairhurst (2001-01-01). Physical Layer.
Archived from the original on 2009-06-08.
Physical Layer (Layer 1)
10G Layer 1 Walkthrough

35

Chapter 10

Ethernet physical layer


The Ethernet physical layer is the physical layer com- high-pass lters.
ponent of the Ethernet family of computer network standards.
The Ethernet physical layer evolved over a considerable 10.1.3 Fast Ethernet
time span and encompasses quite a few physical media
interfaces and several magnitudes of speed. The speed Main article: Fast Ethernet
ranges from 1 Mbit/s to 100 Gbit/s, while the physical
medium can range from bulky coaxial cable to twisted
pair and optical ber. In general, network protocol stack
software will work similarly on all physical layers.

10.1.4 1 Gbit/s

10 Gigabit Ethernet was already used in both enterprise


and carrier networks by 2007, with 40 Gbit/s[1][2] and 100 Main article: Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet[3] ratied.[4] Higher speeds are under
development.[5] Robert Metcalfe, one of the co-inventors
of Ethernet, in 2008 said he believed commercial appli- All gigabit Ethernet variants use a star topology.
cations using Terabit Ethernet may occur by 2015, though
it might require new Ethernet standards.[6]
Many Ethernet adapters and switch ports support multiple speeds, using autonegotiation to set the speed and
duplex for the best values supported by both connected
devices. If auto-negotiation fails, a multiple-speed device
will sense the speed used by its partner, but will assume
half-duplex. A 10/100 Ethernet port supports 10BASET and 100BASE-TX. A 10/100/1000 Ethernet port supports 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, and 1000BASE-T.

10.1 Physical layers


10.1.1

Xerox experimental Ethernet

10.1.5 10 Gbit/s
Main article: 10 Gigabit Ethernet
10 Gigabit Ethernet denes a version of Ethernet with a
nominal data rate of 10 Gbit/s, ten times as fast as Gigabit
Ethernet. In 2002, the rst 10 Gigabit Ethernet standard
was published as IEEE Std 802.3ae-2002. Subsequent
standards encompassed media types for single-mode bre
(long haul), multi-mode bre (up to 300 m), copper backplane (up to 1 m) and copper twisted pair (up to 100 m).
All 10-gigabit varieties were consolidated into IEEE Std
802.3-2008. As of 2009, 10 Gigabit Ethernet is predominantly deployed in carrier networks, where 10GBASELR and 10GBASE-ER enjoy signicant market shares.

The following sections provide a brief summary of ofcial Ethernet media types (section numbers from the
IEEE 802.3-2008 standard are parenthesized). In addi10.1.6 25 and 50 Gbit/s
tion to these ocial standards, many vendors have implemented proprietary media types for various reasons
often to support longer distances over ber optic cabling. Main article: 25 Gigabit Ethernet
An IEEE 802.3 workgroup has been formed to develop a
25-gigabit Ethernet standard based on one lane of the 4 by
25-Gbit/s 100 Gigabit Ethernet standard and is expected
Early Ethernet standards used Manchester coding so that to progress quickly.[10] A 50-Gbit/s option is also being
the signal was self-clocking not adversely aected by discussed.[11]

10.1.2

Early implementations

36

10.3. MINIMUM CABLE LENGTHS

10.1.7

40 and 100 Gbit/s

37

10.3 Minimum cable lengths

Main article: 100 Gigabit Ethernet

Fiber connections have minimum cable lengths due to


level requirements on received signals.[22] Fiber ports deThis version of Ethernet specied two speeds and was signed for long-haul wavelengths require a signal attenustandardized in June 2010 as IEEE 802.3ba, with one ator if used within a building.
addition in March 2011 as IEEE 802.3bg.[12][13] The 10BASE2 installations, running on RG-58 coaxial cable,
nomenclature is as follows:[14]
require a minimum of 0.5 m between stations tapped into
the network cable, this is to minimize reections.[23]

10.1.8

400 Gbit/s, 1 Tbit/s, and beyond

Main article: Terabit Ethernet


The standards body the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) wants to dene a new Ethernet standard capable of 400 Gbit/s and possibly 1
Tbit/s.[15][16][17]

10BASE-T, 100BASE-T, and 1000BASE-T installations


running on twisted pair cable use a star topology. No
minimum cable length is required for these networks.[24]
[25]

10.4 Related standards

Some networking standards are not part of the IEEE


They believed that Terabit Ethernet may make a debut 802.3 Ethernet standard, but support the Ethernet frame
as early as 2015, and would be followed rapidly by a format, and are capable of interoperating with it.
scaling to 100 Terabit, possibly as early as 2020. It is
worth noting that these were theoretical predictions of
LattisNetA SynOptics pre-standard twisted-pair
technological ability, rather than estimates of when such
10 Mbit/s variant.
speeds would actually become available at a practical
100BaseVGAn early contender for 100 Mbit/s
price point.[18]
Ethernet. It runs over Category 3 cabling. Uses four
pairs. Commercial failure.

10.1.9

First mile

Main article: Ethernet in the rst mile


For providing Internet access service directly from
providers to homes and small businesses:

10.2 Twisted-pair cable


Main article: Ethernet over twisted pair

TIA
100BASE-SXPromoted
by
the
Telecommunications
Industry
Association.
100BASE-SX is an alternative implementation
of 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over ber; it is incompatible with the ocial 100BASE-FX standard. Its
main feature is interoperability with 10BASE-FL,
supporting autonegotiation between 10 Mbit/s and
100 Mbit/s operation a feature lacking in the
ocial standards due to the use of diering LED
wavelengths. It is targeted at the installed base of
10 Mbit/s ber network installations.

Several varieties of Ethernet were specically designed to


run over 4-pair copper structured cabling already installed
in many locations. ANSI recommends using Category 6
cable for new installations.

TIA
1000BASE-TXPromoted
by
the
Telecommunications Industry Association, it
was a commercial failure, and no products exist.
1000BASE-TX uses a simpler protocol than the
ocial 1000BASE-T standard so the electronics
can be cheaper, but requires Category 6 cabling.

Combining 10Base-T (or 100BASE-TX) with "IEEE


802.3af mode A allows a hub to transmit both power and
data over only two pairs. This was designed to leave the
other two pairs free for analog telephone signals.[21] The
pins used in IEEE 802.3af Mode B supply power over
the spare pairs not used by 10BASE-T and 100BASETX.

G.hnA standard developed by ITU-T and promoted by HomeGrid Forum for high-speed (up to
1 Gbit/s) local area networks over existing home
wiring (coaxial cables, power lines and phone lines).
G.hn denes an Application Protocol Convergence
(APC) layer that accepts Ethernet frames and encapsulates them into G.hn MSDUs.

In a departure from both 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX,


1000BASE-T uses all four cable pairs for simultaneous Other networking standards do not use the Ethernet frame
transmission in both directions through the use of echo format but can still be connected to Ethernet using MACcancellation.
based bridging.

38
802.11Standards for wireless local area networks
(LANs), sold with brand name Wi-Fi
802.16Standards for wireless metropolitan area
networks (MANs), sold with brand name WiMAX
Other special-purpose physical layers include Avionics
Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet and TTEthernet TimeTriggered Ethernet for embedded systems.

10.5 References
[1] Consideration for 40 Gigabit Ethernet (PDF). IEEE
HSSG. May 2007.
[2] 40 gigabit Ethernet answers (PDF). IEEE HSSG. May
2007.
[3] HECTO: High-Speed Electro-Optical Components for
Integrated Transmitter and Receiver in Optical Communication. Hecto.eu. Retrieved December 17, 2011.
[4] IEEE P802.3ba 40Gb/s and 100Gb/s Ethernet Task
Force. IEEE. 2010-06-19.
[5] Yiran Ma, Qi Yang, Yan Tang, Simin Chen, and William
Shieh, 1-Tb/s single-channel coherent optical OFDM transmission over 600-km SSMF ber with subwavelength bandwidth access, retrieved 2010-07-30

CHAPTER 10. ETHERNET PHYSICAL LAYER

[16] http://www.proavbiz-europe.com/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=6151:
ieee-begins-work-on-new-ethernet-standard&catid=
15&Itemid=401979
[17] http://www.ieee802.org/3/ad_hoc/bwa/BWA_Report.
pdf
[18] http://www.electronista.com/articles/12/08/20/aging.
standard.is.still.ahead.of.most.core.networking/
[19] Inneon Strengthens Leadership in MDU/MTU Market with Ethernet over VDSL Technology Patent Award.
News release (Inneon Technologies AG). January 8,
2001. Archived from the original on April 13, 2001. Retrieved August 27, 2011.
[20] Inneon Announces Second Quarter Results. News
release (Inneon Technologies). April 24, 2001. Retrieved August 28, 2011. ...strategic design-win with
Cisco for new long range Ethernet products incorporating
Inneon 's 10BaseS technology
[21] Tech Info - LAN and Telephones. Zytrax.com. Retrieved December 17, 2011.
[22] Cisco 100BASE-FX SFP Fast Ethernet Interface Converter on Gigabit SFP Ports. Cisco Systems. Archived
from the original on 2007-10-13.
[23] IEEE Standard for Ethernet 802.3-2008 Clauses
10.7.2.1-2 (PDF).

[6] Bob Metcalfe on the Terabit Ethernet. Light Reading.


February 15, 2008. Retrieved August 27, 2013.

[24] http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/support/docs/
interfaces-modules/port-adapters/12768-eth-collisions.
html

[7] John F. Shoch; Yogen K. Dalal; David D. Redell; Ronald


C. Crane (August 1982). Evolution of the Ethernet Local
Computer Network (PDF). IEEE Computer 15 (8): 14
26. doi:10.1109/MC.1982.1654107.

[25] http://web.cs.dal.ca/~{}yongzhen/course/6704/report.
pdf

[8] L-com Introduces Commercial-Grade Thinnet (10Base2) and Thicknet (10Base-5) Converters for Legacy Installs. Virtual-Strategy Magazine. 2012-06-11. Retrieved 2012-07-01.
[9] Cisco Gigabit Ethernet Solutions for Cisco 7x00 Series
Routers, undated, URL retrieved on 17 February 2008
[10] Jim Duy (9/3/2014). 25G Ethernet moving fast.
Network World. Check date values in: |date= (help)
[11] Rick Merritt (9/3/2014). 50G Ethernet Debate Brewing. EE Times. Check date values in: |date= (help)
[12] Reimer, Jeremy (July 25, 2007). New Ethernet standard:
not 40Gbps, not 100, but both. Ars Technica. Retrieved
December 17, 2011.
[13] IEEE P802.3bg 40Gb/s Ethernet: Single-mode Fibre
PMD Task Force. ocial task force web site. IEEE 802.
April 12, 2011. Retrieved June 17, 2011.
[14] Ilango Ganga (May 13, 2009). Chief Editors Report
(PDF). IEEE P802.3ba 40Gb/s and 100Gb/s Ethernet Task
Force public record. p. 8. Retrieved June 7, 2011.
[15] http://www.ieee802.org/3/bs/index.html

10.6 External links


Get IEEE 802.3
IEEE 802.3
How to make an Ethernet cable

Chapter 11

10BASE2

10BASE2 cable showing the BNC connector end.

10BASE2 cable end terminator.

11.1 Name origination


The name 10BASE2 is derived from several characteristics of the physical medium. The 10 comes from the maximum transmission speed of 10 Mbit/s (millions of bits
per second). The BASE stands for baseband signalling,
and the 2 supposedly refers to the maximum segment
length of 200 meters, though in practical use it can only
run up to 185 meters. (The IEEE rounded 185 up to 200
to come up with the name 10BASE2, for consistency with
the general standard).

10BASE2 cable with a BNC T-connector.

10BASE2 (also known as cheapernet, thin Ethernet,


thinnet, and thinwire) is a variant of Ethernet that uses
thin coaxial cable (RG-58A/U or similar, as opposed to
the thicker RG-8 cable used in 10BASE5 networks), terminated with BNC connectors. During the mid to late
1980s this was the dominant 10 Mbit/s Ethernet standard,
but due to the immense demand for high speed networking, the low cost of Category 5 Ethernet cable, and the
popularity of 802.11 wireless networks, both 10BASE2
and 10BASE5 have become increasingly obsolete, though
they still exist in some locations.[1]

11.2 Network design


10BASE2 coax cables have a maximum length of 185
meters (607 ft). The maximum practical number of
nodes that can be connected to a 10BASE2 segment is
limited to 30. In a 10BASE2 network, each segment
of cable is connected to the transceiver (which is usually
built into the network adaptor) using a BNC T-connector,
with one segment connected to each female connector of
the T. The T-connector must be plugged directly into the
network adaptor with no cable in between.

39

40

CHAPTER 11. 10BASE2


there is a break in the cable, the AC signal on the bus is
reected, rather than dissipated, when it reaches the end.
This reected signal is indistinguishable from a collision,
and so no communication would be able to take place.
Some terminators have a metallic chain attached to them
for grounding purposes, however many people never
understood how to properly ground cabling and thus
grounded the terminators at both ends rather than just one
end. This caused many of the grounding loop problems
during that era which caused network outages and/or data
corruption when swells of electricity traversed the coaxial cablings outer shield on its path to the ground with the
least resistance.
When wiring a 10BASE2 network, special care has to
be taken to ensure that cables are properly connected
to all T-connectors, and appropriate terminators are installed. One, and only one, terminator must be connected
to ground via a ground wire. Bad contacts or shorts are
especially dicult to diagnose, though a time-domain reectometer will nd most problems quickly. A failure
at any point of the network cabling tends to prevent all
communications. For this reason, 10BASE2 networks
could be dicult to maintain and were often replaced by
10BASE-T networks, which (provided category 5 cable
or better was used) also provided a good upgrade path to
100BASE-TX. An alternative, more reliable connection
was established by the introduction of EAD-sockets.

EAD outlet

11.3 Comparisons to 10BASE-T


10BASE2 networks cannot generally be extended without breaking service temporarily for existing users and the
presence of many joints in the cable also makes them very
vulnerable to accidental or malicious disruption. There
were proprietary wallport/cable systems that claimed to
avoid these problems (e.g. SaferTap) but these never became widespread, possibly due to a lack of standardization.

Dierent types of T-connectors, with AAUIs

As is the case with most other high-speed buses, Ethernet segments have to be terminated with a resistor at
each end. Each end of the cable has a 50 ohm () resistor attached. Typically this resistor is built into a male
BNC and attached to the last device on the bus. This is
most commonly connected directly to the T-connector on
a workstation though it does not technically have to be. A
few devices such as Digitals DEMPR and DESPR had a
built-in terminator and so could only be used at one physical end of the cable run. If termination is missing, or if

10BASE2 systems do have a number of advantages over


10BASE-T. They do not need the 10BASE-T hub, so the
hardware cost is very low, and wiring can be particularly
easy since only a single wire run is needed, which can be
sourced from the nearest computer. These characteristics
mean that 10BASE2 is ideal for a small network of two
or three machines, perhaps in a home where easily concealed wiring may be an advantage. For a larger complex
oce network the diculties of tracing poor connections make it impractical. Unfortunately for 10BASE2,
by the time multiple home computer networks became
common, the format had already been practically superseded. It is becoming very dicult to nd 10BASE2compatible network cards as distinct pieces of equipment,
and integrated LAN controllers on motherboards don't
have the connector, although the underlying logic may
still be present.

11.5. REFERENCES

11.4 See also


Local area network
Electrical termination
Computer network
EAD-socket
Bus network
Coaxial Cable
List of network buses

11.5 References
[1] L-com Introduces Commercial-Grade Thinnet (10Base2) and Thicknet (10Base-5) Converters for Legacy Installs. Virtual-Strategy Magazine. 2012-06-11. Retrieved 2012-07-01.

This article is based on material taken from the Free Online Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008
and incorporated under the relicensing terms of the
GFDL, version 1.3 or later.

41

Chapter 12

Fast Ethernet
refers to baseband signalling. The letter following the
dash (T or F) refers to the physical medium that carries the signal (twisted pair or ber, respectively), while
the last character (X, 4, etc.) refers to the used
encoding method.
A Fast Ethernet adapter can be logically divided into a
Media Access Controller (MAC), which deals with the
higher-level issues of medium availability, and a Physical Layer Interface (PHY). The MAC may be linked to
the PHY by a four-bit 25 MHz synchronous parallel interface known as a Media Independent Interface (MII),
or by a two-bit 50 MHz variant called Reduced Media
Independent Interface (RMII). Repeaters (hubs) are also
allowed and connect to multiple PHYs for their dierent
interfaces.
The MII may (rarely) be an external connection but is
usually a connection between ICs in a network adapter or
In computer networking, Fast Ethernet is a collective even within a single IC. The specs are written based on
term for a number of Ethernet standards that carry trac the assumption that the interface between MAC and PHY
at the nominal rate of 100 Mbit/s (the original Ethernet will be a MII but they do not require it.
speed was 10 Mbit/s). Of the Fast Ethernet standards, The MII xes the theoretical maximum data bit rate for
100BASE-TX is by far the most common.
all versions of Fast Ethernet to 100 Mbit/s. The data sigFast Ethernet was introduced in 1995 as the IEEE 802.3u naling rate actually observed on real networks is less than
standard[1] and remained the fastest version of Ethernet the theoretical maximum, due to the necessary header
for three years before it was superseded by the Gigabit and trailer (addressing and error-detection bits) on every
frame, the occasional lost frame due to noise, and time
Ethernet.[2]
waiting after each sent frame for other devices on the network to nish transmitting.
Intel PRO/100 Fast Ethernet NIC, a PCI card

12.1 General design


Fast Ethernet is an extension of the existing Ethernet
standard. It runs on UTP data or optical ber cable in
a star wired bus topology, similar to 10BASE-T where
all cables are attached to a hub. Fast Ethernet provides
compatibility with existing 10BASE-T systems, enabling
plug-and-play upgrades from 10BASE-T. Fast Ethernet
is sometimes referred to as 100BASE-X, where X is a
placeholder for the FX and TX variants.[3] The standard
species the use of CSMA/CD for media access control,
although in practice all modern networks use Ethernet
switches and operate in full-duplex mode.

12.2 Copper

100BASE-T is any of several Fast Ethernet standards


for twisted pair cables, including: 100BASE-TX (100
Mbit/s over two-pair Cat5 or better cable), 100BASET4 (100 Mbit/s over four-pair Cat3 or better cable, defunct), 100BASE-T2 (100 Mbit/s over two-pair Cat3 or
better cable, also defunct). The segment length for a
100BASE-T cable is limited to 100 metres (328 ft) (as
with 10BASE-T and gigabit Ethernet). All are or were
standards under IEEE 802.3 (approved 1995). Almost
The 100 in the media type designation refers to the all 100BASE-T installations are 100BASE-TX.
transmission speed of 100 Mbit/s, while the BASE In the early days of Fast Ethernet, much vendor advertis42

12.3. FIBER OPTICS

43
at 125 MHz symbol rate. The 4B5B encoding provides
DC equalization and spectrum shaping (see the standard
for details). Just as in the 100BASE-FX case, the bits are
then transferred to the physical medium attachment layer
using NRZI encoding. However, 100BASE-TX introduces an additional, medium dependent sublayer, which
employs MLT-3 as a nal encoding of the data stream before transmission, resulting in a maximum fundamental
frequency of 31.25 MHz. The procedure is borrowed
from the ANSI X3.263 FDDI specications, with minor
discrepancies.[5]

12.2.2 100BASE-T4
3Com 3c905-TX 100BASE-TX PCI network interface card

ing centered on claims by competing standards that said


vendors standards will work better with existing cables
than other standards. In practice, it was quickly discovered that few existing networks actually met the assumed
standards, because 10 Megabit Ethernet was very tolerant of minor deviations from specied electrical characteristics and few installers ever bothered to make exact
measurements of cable and connection quality; if Ethernet worked over a cable, no matter how well it worked, it
was deemed acceptable. Thus most networks had to be
rewired for 100 Megabit speed whether or not there had
supposedly been CAT3 or CAT5 cable runs.

12.2.1

100BASE-TX

100BASE-TX is the predominant form of Fast Ethernet, and runs over two wire-pairs inside a category 5 or
above cable. Like 10BASE-T, the active pairs in a standard connection are terminated on pins 1, 2, 3 and 6.
Since a typical category 5 cable contains 4 pairs, it can
support two 100BASE-TX links with a wiring adaptor.[4]
Cabling is conventional wired to TIA/EIA-568-B's termination standards, T568A or T568B. This places the active
pairs on the orange and green pairs (canonical second and
third pairs).
Each network segment can have a maximum cabling distance of 100 metres (328 ft). In its typical conguration,
100BASE-TX uses one pair of twisted wires in each direction, providing 100 Mbit/s of throughput in each direction (full-duplex). See IEEE 802.3 for more details.
The conguration of 100BASE-TX networks is very similar to 10BASE-T. When used to build a local area network, the devices on the network (computers, printers
etc.) are typically connected to a hub or switch, creating a star network. Alternatively it is possible to connect
two devices directly using a crossover cable.
With 100BASE-TX hardware, the raw bits (4 bits wide
clocked at 25 MHz at the MII) go through 4B5B binary
encoding to generate a series of 0 and 1 symbols clocked

100BASE-T4 was an early implementation of Fast Ethernet. It requires four twisted copper pairs, but those pairs
were only required to be category 3 rather than the category 5 required by TX. One pair is reserved for transmit,
one for receive, and the remaining two will switch direction as negotiated. A very unusual 8B6T code is used to
convert 8 data bits into 6 base-3 digits (the signal shaping is possible as there are nearly three times as many
6-digit base-3 numbers as there are 8-digit base-2 numbers). The two resulting 3-digit base-3 symbols are sent in
parallel over 3 pairs using 3-level pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM-3). The fact that 3 pairs are used to transmit
in each direction makes 100BASE-T4 inherently halfduplex. This standard can be implemented with CAT 3,
4, 5 UTP cables, or STP if needed against interference.
Maximum distance is limited to 100 meters. 100BASET4 was not widely adopted but the technology developed
for it is used in 1000BASE-T.[6]

12.2.3 100BASE-T2
In 100BASE-T2, standardized in IEEE 802.3y, the data
is transmitted over two copper pairs, 4 bits per symbol. It
uses these two pairs for simultaneously transmitting and
receiving on both pairs[7] thus allowing full-duplex operation. First, a 4-bit symbol is expanded into two 3-bit symbols through a non-trivial scrambling procedure based on
a linear feedback shift register; see the standard for details. This is needed to atten the bandwidth and emission
spectrum of the signal, as well as to match transmission
line properties. The mapping of the original bits to the
symbol codes is not constant in time and has a fairly large
period (appearing as a pseudo-random sequence). The
nal mapping from symbols to PAM-5 line modulation
levels obeys the table on the right. 100BASE-T2 was not
widely adopted but the technology developed for it is used
in 1000BASE-T.[6]

12.3 Fiber optics

44

12.3.1

CHAPTER 12. FAST ETHERNET

100BASE-FX

12.3.4 100BASE-LX10

100BASE-FX is a version of Fast Ethernet over optical 100BASE-LX10 is a version of Fast Ethernet over two
ber. It uses a 1300 nm near-infrared (NIR) light single-mode optical bers. It has a nominal reach of 10
[11]
wavelength transmitted via two strands of optical ber, km and a nominal wavelength of 1310 nm.
one for receive(RX) and the other for transmit(TX). Maximum length is 412 metres (1,350 ft) for half-duplex connections (to ensure collisions are detected), and 2 kilo- 12.4 See also
metres (6,600 ft) for full-duplex over multi-mode optical
ber.[8] 100BASE-FX uses the same 4B5B encoding and
List of device bandwidths
NRZI line code that 100BASE-TX does. 100BASE-FX
should use SC, ST, LC, MTRJ or MIC connectors with
SC being the preferred option.[9]
12.5 References
100BASE-FX is not compatible with 10BASE-FL, the
10 MBit/s version over optical ber.

[1] IEEE 802.3u-1995


[2] The 802.3z Gigabit Ethernet Standard was published

12.3.2

100BASE-SX

[3] Cisco 100BASE-X Small Form-Factor Pluggable Modules for Fast Ethernet Applications Data Sheet. Cisco.
[4] CAT5E Adapters (PDF). Retrieved 2012-12-17.

100BASE-SX is a version of Fast Ethernet over optical


ber. It uses two strands of multi-mode optical ber for
receive and transmit. It is a lower cost alternative to using 100BASE-FX, because it uses short wavelength optics which are signicantly less expensive than the long
wavelength optics used in 100BASE-FX. 100BASE-SX
can operate at distances up to 550 metres (1,800 ft).
100BASE-SX uses the same wavelength as 10BASEFL, the 10 Mbit/s version over optical ber. Unlike 100BASE-FX, this allows 100BASE-SX to be
backwards-compatible with 10BASE-FL.

[5] The 100BASE-TX PMD (and MDI) is specied by incorporating the FDDI TP-PMD standard, ANSI X3.263:
1995 (TP-PMD), by reference, with the modications
noted below. (section 25.2 of IEEE802.3-2002).
[6] Charles E. Spurgeon (2000). Ethernet: the Denitive
Guide. O'Reilly Media. p. 156. ISBN 978-1-56592-6608.
[7] Robert Breyer and Sean Riley (1999). Switched, Fast,
and Gigabit Ethernet. Macmillan Technical Publishing.
p. 107.
[8] 100BASE-FX Technical Brief (PDF). hp.com. Re-

Because of the shorter wavelength used (850 nm) and the


trieved 2014-02-20.
shorter distance it can support, 100BASE-SX uses less
expensive optical components (LEDs instead of lasers) [9] 802.3-2008 section 26.4.1
which makes it an attractive option for those upgrading
[10] IEEE 802.3. IEEE.
from 10BASE-FL and those who do not require long dis[11] IEEE 802.32012, section 5, chapter 58.
tances.

100BASE-SX is not standardized by the IEEE 802.3


This article is based on material taken from the Free Oncommittee.[10] It is an industry de facto standard rather
line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008
than a formal Ethernet standard.
and incorporated under the relicensing terms of the
GFDL, version 1.3 or later.

12.3.3

100BASE-BX

100BASE-BX is a version of Fast Ethernet over a single


strand of optical ber (unlike 100BASE-FX, which uses
a pair of bers). Single-mode ber is used, along with
a special multiplexer which splits the signal into transmit
and receive wavelengths; the two wavelengths used for
transmit and receive are 1310 nm and 1550 nm. The terminals on each side of the ber are not equal, as the one
transmitting downstream (from the center of the network to the outside) uses the 1550 nm wavelength, and
the one transmitting upstream uses the 1310 nm wavelength. Distances can be 10, 20 or 40 km.[11]

12.6 External links


Common 100 Mbit/s Hardware Variations
Origins and History of Ethernet
100BASE-SX Fast Ethernet proposal site
Fast Ethernet Chipsets Comparison
IEEE802.3 standards free download
ProCurve Networking 100BASE-FX Technical
Brief

Chapter 13

Ethernet over twisted pair


shared-medium CSMA/CD operation.[4]
All these standards use 8P8C connectors,[note 1] and the
cables from Cat3 to Cat7 have four pairs of wires; though
10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX only require two of the
pairs.
A 40GBASE-T standard, transporting 40 Gbit/s over up
to 30 m Cat.8 cable is being dened as P802.3bq.[5]

Ethernet over twisted-pair cable

8P8C plug

13.1 History
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) standards association ratied several versions
of the technology. The rst two early designs were
StarLAN, standardized in 1986, at one megabit per
second,[6] and LattisNet, developed in January 1987, at
10 megabit per second.[7][8] Both were developed before the 10BASE-T standard (published in 1990 as IEEE
802.3i) and used dierent signalling, so they were not directly compatible with it.[9]

released StarLAN 10, named for working


Ethernet over twisted pair technologies use twisted- In 1988 AT&T
[10]
at
10
Mbit/s.
The StarLAN 10 signalling was used as
pair cables for the physical layer of an Ethernet computer
the
basis
of
10BASE-T,
with the addition of link beat
network.
to quickly indicate connection status. (A number of netEarly Ethernet cabling had generally been based on var- work interface cards at the time could work with either
ious grades of coaxial cable, but in 1984, StarLAN StarLAN 10 or 10BASE-T, by switching link beat on or
showed the potential of simple unshielded twisted pair by o.[11] )
using Cat3 cablethe same simple cable used for telephone systems. This led to the development of 10BASE- Using twisted pair cabling, in a star topology, for Ethernet
T and its successors 100BASE-TX and 1000BASE-T, addressed several weaknesses of the previous standards:
supporting speeds of 10, 100 and 1000 Mbit/s respec Twisted pair cables could be used more generally
tively. Often the higher-speed implementations support
and were already present in many oce buildings,
the lower-speed standards making it possible to mix diflowering overall cost.
ferent generations of equipment; with the inclusive capability designated 10/100 or 10/100/1000 for connections
The centralized star topology was a more common
that support such combinations.[1]:123
approach to cabling than the bus in earlier standards
All these three standards dene both full-duplex and
and easier to manage.
half-duplex communication. However, half-duplex op Using point-to-point links instead of a shared bus
eration for gigabit speed isn't supported by any existgreatly simplied troubleshooting and was less prone
[2][3]
The higher speed 10GBASE-T runing hardware.
to failure.
ning at 10 Gbit/s, consequently denes only full duplex point-to-point links which are generally connected
Exchanging cheap repeater hubs for more advanced
by network switches, and doesn't support the traditional
switching hubs provided a viable upgrade path.
45

46

CHAPTER 13. ETHERNET OVER TWISTED PAIR

Mixing dierent speeds in a single network became called MDI-X, transmitting on pin 3 and 6 and receivpossible with the arrival of Fast Ethernet.
ing on pin 1 and 2. These ports are connected using a
straight-through cable, so each transmitter talks to the
receiver on the other side.

13.2 Naming
The common names for the standards derive from aspects of the physical media. The leading number (10 in
10BASE-T) refers to the transmission speed in Mbit/s.
BASE denotes that baseband transmission is used. The T
designates twisted pair cable, where the pair of wires for
each signal is twisted together to reduce radio frequency
interference and crosstalk between pairs. Where there
are several standards for the same transmission speed,
they are distinguished by a letter or digit following the
T, such as TX.

13.3 Cabling

Nodes can have two types of ports, MDI (Uplink port) or


MDI-X (Regular Port, 'X' for internal crossover). Hubs
and switches have regular ports. Routers, servers and end
hosts (e.g. Personal Computer) have uplink ports. When
two nodes having the same type of ports need to be connected, a crossover cable is often required at speeds of
10 or 100 Mbit/s, else connecting nodes having dierent type of ports (i.e. MDI to MDI-X and vice verse)
requires straight-through cable. Thus connecting an end
host to a hub or switch requires a straight-through cable.
On switches/hubs sometimes a button is provided to allow a port to act as either a normal (regular) or an uplink
port, i.e. using MDI-X or MDI pinout respectively.
Many modern Ethernet host adapters can automatically detect another computer connected with a straightthrough cable and then automatically introduce the required crossover, if needed; if neither of the adapters has
this capability, then a crossover cable is required. Most
newer switches have automatic crossover (auto MDI-X
or auto-uplink) on all ports, eliminating the uplink port
and the MDI/MDI-X switch, and allowing all connections
to be made with straight-through cables. If both devices
being connected support 1000BASE-T according to the
standards, they will connect regardless of the cable being
used or how it is wired.
A 10BASE-T transmitter sends two dierential voltages,
+2.5 V or 2.5 V.
100BASE-TX follows the same wiring patterns as
10BASE-T, but is more sensitive to wire quality and
length, due to the higher bit rates.

8P8C modular plug pin positioning

Twisted-pair Ethernet standards are such that the majority of cables can be wired straight-through (pin 1 to pin
1, pin 2 to pin 2 and so on), but others may need to be
wired in the "crossover" form (receive to transmit and
transmit to receive).

A 100BASE-TX transmitter sends three dierential voltages, +1 V, 0 V, or 1 V.[12]


1000BASE-T uses all four pairs bi-directionally and the
standard includes auto MDI-X; however, implementation is optional. With the way that 1000BASE-T implements signaling, how the cable is wired is immaterial
in actual usage. The standard on copper twisted pair is
IEEE 802.3ab for Cat 5e UTP, or 4D-PAM5; four dimensions using PAM (pulse amplitude modulation) with
ve voltages, 2 V, 1 V, 0 V, +1 V, and +2 V[13] While
+2 V to 2 V voltage may appear at the pins of the line
driver, the voltage on the cable is nominally +1 V, +0.5
V, 0 V, 0.5 V and 1 V.[14]

It is conventional to wire cables for 10- or 100-Mbit/s


Ethernet to either the T568A or T568B standards. Since
these standards dier only in that they swap the positions of the two pairs used for transmitting and receiving (TX/RX), a cable with T568A wiring at one end and
T568B wiring at the other is referred to as a crossover cable. The terms used in the explanations of the 568 standards, tip and ring, refer to older communication tech- 100BASE-TX and 1000BASE-T were both designed to
nologies, and equate to the positive and negative parts of require a minimum of Category 5 cable and also specify
a maximum cable length of 100 meters. Category 5 cathe connections.
ble has since been deprecated and new installations use
A 10BASE-T or 100BASE-TX node such as a PC uses Category 5e.
a connector wiring called medium dependent interfaces
(MDI), transmitting on pin 1 and 2 and receiving on pin 3 Unlike earlier Ethernet standards using broadband and
and 6 to a network device. An infrastructure node (a hub, coaxial cable, such as 10BASE5 (thicknet) and 10BASE2
switch, or router) accordingly uses a connector wiring (thinnet), 10BASE-T does not specify the exact type of

13.5. VARIANTS
wiring to be used, but instead species certain characteristics that a cable must meet. This was done in anticipation of using 10BASE-T in existing twisted-pair
wiring systems that may not conform to any specied
wiring standard. Some of the specied characteristics
are attenuation, characteristic impedance, timing jitter,
propagation delay, and several types of noise. Cable
testers are widely available to check these parameters to
determine if a cable can be used with 10BASE-T. These
characteristics are expected to be met by 100 meters of
24-gauge unshielded twisted-pair cable. However, with
high quality cabling, cable runs of 150 meters or longer
are often obtained and are considered viable by most
technicians familiar with the 10BASE-T specication.

47

13.5 Variants
13.6 See also
25-pair color code
Copper cable certication
Ethernet physical layer
Ethernet extender
Fast Ethernet, 100 Mbit/s
Gigabit Ethernet
IEEE 802.3

13.3.1

Shared cable

Main article: Category 5 cable Shared cable

Network isolator
Power over Ethernet (PoE)
Twisted pair

10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX only require two pairs


(pins 12, 36) to operate. Since Category 5 cable
has four pairs, it is possible, but not necessarily standards compliant, to use the spare pairs (pins 45, 78)
in 10- and 100-Mbit/s congurations. The spare pairs
may be used for Power over Ethernet (PoE); or two phone
lines; or a second 10BASE-T or 100BASE-TX connection. In practice, great care must be taken to separate
these pairs as most 10/100-Mbit/s hubs, switches, and
PCs electrically terminate the unused pins. Moreover,
1000BASE-T requires all four pairs to operate.

13.4 Autonegotiation and duplex


mismatch
Main articles: Autonegotiation and Duplex mismatch
Many dierent modes of operations (10BASE-T half duplex, 10BASE-T full duplex, 100BASE-TX half duplex,
...) exist for Ethernet over twisted pair, and most network
adapters are capable of dierent modes of operation.
1000BASE-T requires autonegotiation to be on in order
to operate.
When two linked interfaces are set to dierent duplex
modes, the eect of this duplex mismatch is a network
that functions much more slowly than its nominal speed.
Duplex mismatch may be inadvertently caused when an
administrator congures an interface to a xed mode (e.g.
100 Mbit/s full duplex) and fails to congure the remote
interface, leaving it set to autonegotiate. Then, when the
autonegotiation process fails, half duplex is assumed by
the autonegotiating side of the link.

13.7 Notes
[1] The 8P8C modular connector is often called RJ45 after a
telephone industry standard.

13.8 References
[1] Charles E. Spurgeon (2000). Ethernet: the denitive guide.
OReilly Media. ISBN 978-1-56592-660-8.
[2] Seifert, Rich (1998). 10. Gigabit Ethernet: Technology
and Applications for High-Speed LANs. Addison Wesley.
ISBN 0-201-18553-9.
[3] Conguring
and
Troubleshooting
Ethernet
10/100/1000Mb Half/Full Duplex Auto-Negotiation.
Cisco. 2009-10-28. Retrieved 2015-02-15.
[4] Michael Palmer. Hands-On Networking Fundamentals,
2nd ed. Cengage Learning. p. 180. ISBN 978-1-28540275-8.
[5] IEEE P802.3bq 40GBASE-T Task Force. IEEE 802.3.
[6] Urs von Burg (2001). The triumph of Ethernet: technological communities and the battle for the LAN standard.
Stanford University Press. pp. 175176, 255256. ISBN
978-0-8047-4095-1.
[7] Paula Musich (August 3, 1987). User lauds SynOptic
system: LattisNet a success on PDS. Network World 4
(31). pp. 2, 39. Retrieved June 10, 2011.
[8] W.C. Wise, Ph.D. (March 1989). Yesterday, somebody
asked me what I think about LattisNet. Heres what I told
him in a nutshell. CIO Magazine 2 (6). p. 13. Retrieved
June 11, 2011. (Advertisement)

48

[9] Network Maintenance and Troubleshooting Guide. Fluke


Networks. 2002. p. B-4. ISBN 1-58713-800-X.
[10] StarLAN Technology Report, 4th Edition. Architecture
Technology Corporation. 1991.
[11] Ohland, Louis. 3Com 3C523. Walsh Computer Technology. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[12] David A. Weston (2001). Electromagnetic Compatibility:
principles and applications. CRC Press. pp. 240242.
ISBN 0-8247-8889-3. Retrieved June 11, 2011.
[13] Steve Prior. 1000BASE-T Duers Guide to Basics and
Startup (PDF). Retrieved 2011-02-18.
[14] Nick van Bavel, Phil Callahan and John Chiang (200410-25). Voltage-mode line drivers save on power. Retrieved 2011-02-18.
[15] 802.3a,b,c, and e-1988 IEEE Standards for Local Area
Networks: Supplements to Carrier Sense Multiple Access
With Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access Method and
Physical Layer Specications. IEEE Standards Association. 1987. doi:10.1109/IEEESTD.1987.78883.
[16] Eric Killorin (November 2, 1987). LattisNet makes the
grade in Novell benchmark tests 4 (44). Network World.
p. 19. Retrieved March 18, 2011.
[17] IEEE Computer Society (2008-12-26), IEEE Std 802.32008 : 14.1.1.3 Twisted-pair media, IEEE

13.9 Further reading


IEEE 802.3 standards documents

13.10 External links


How to Make a Network Cable, a how-to article
from wikiHow
How to create your own Ethernet Cables
How to wire a 10Base-T or 100Base-T connector
with category 5 cable and 8P8C modular connectors
Step by step instructions on how to punch down category 5e cable to a RJ45
How to make a crossover patch cable using Cat5e or
Cat6 and RJ45

CHAPTER 13. ETHERNET OVER TWISTED PAIR

Chapter 14

Ethernet
good degree of backward compatibility. Features such
as the 48-bit MAC address and Ethernet frame format
have inuenced other networking protocols.

14.1 History

A Cat 5e connection on a laptop, used for Ethernet

Ethernet /irnt/ is a family of computer networking technologies for local area networks (LANs) and
metropolitan area networks (MANs). It was commercially introduced in 1980 and rst standardized in 1983
as IEEE 802.3,[1] and has since been rened to support
higher bit rates and longer link distances. Over time, Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired LAN technologies such as token ring, FDDI, and ARCNET. The
primary alternative for contemporary LANs is not a
wired standard, but instead a wireless LAN standardized
as IEEE 802.11 and also known as Wi-Fi.

An 8P8C modular connector (often called RJ45) commonly used


on Cat 5 cables in Ethernet networks

Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC between 1973


and 1974.[4][5] It was inspired by ALOHAnet, which
Robert Metcalfe had studied as part of his PhD
dissertation.[6] The idea was rst documented in a memo
that Metcalfe wrote on May 22, 1973, where he named
it after the disproven luminiferous ether as an omnipresent, completely-passive medium for the propagation of electromagnetic waves.[4][7][8] In 1975, Xerox
led a patent application listing Metcalfe, David Boggs,
Chuck Thacker, and Butler Lampson as inventors.[9] In
1976, after the system was deployed at PARC, Metcalfe
and Boggs published a seminal paper.[10][lower-alpha 1]

The Ethernet standards comprise several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI physical layer in use with Ethernet. The original 10BASE5 Ethernet uses coaxial cable
as a shared medium, while the newer Ethernet variants
use twisted pair and ber optic links in conjunction with
hubs or switches. Over the course of its history, Ethernet data transfer rates have been increased from the original 2.94 megabits per second (Mbit/s)[2] to the latest 100
[4][12]
gigabits per second (Gbit/s), with 400 Gbit/s expected by Metcalfe left Xerox in June 1979 to form 3Com.
He convinced Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC),
early 2017.[3]
Intel, and Xerox to work together to promote Ethernet
Systems communicating over Ethernet divide a stream of as a standard. The so-called DIX standard, for Digidata into shorter pieces called frames. Each frame con- tal/Intel/Xerox, specied 10 Mbit/s Ethernet, with 48tains source and destination addresses and error-checking bit destination and source addresses and a global 16data so that damaged data can be detected and re- bit Ethertype-type eld. It was published on Septemtransmitted. As per the OSI model, Ethernet provides ber 30, 1980 as The Ethernet, A Local Area Network.
services up to and including the data link layer.
Data Link Layer and Physical Layer Specications.[13]
Since its commercial release, Ethernet has retained a Version 2 was published in November, 1982[14] and de49

50
nes what has become known as Ethernet II. Formal
standardization eorts proceeded at the same time and
resulted in the publication of IEEE 802.3 on June 23,
1983.[1]
Ethernet initially competed with two largely proprietary
systems, Token Ring and Token Bus. Because Ethernet
was able to adapt to market realities and shift to inexpensive and ubiquitous twisted pair wiring, these proprietary
protocols soon found themselves competing in a market inundated by Ethernet products, and, by the end of
the 1980s, Ethernet was clearly the dominant network
technology.[4] In the process, 3Com became a major
company. 3Com shipped its rst 10 Mbit/s Ethernet
3C100 NIC in March 1981, and that year started selling
adapters for PDP-11s and VAXes, as well as Multibusbased Intel and Sun Microsystems computers.[15]:9 This
was followed quickly by DECs Unibus to Ethernet
adapter, which DEC sold and used internally to build its
own corporate network, which reached over 10,000 nodes
by 1986, making it one of the largest computer networks
in the world at that time.[16] An Ethernet adapter card
for the IBM PC was released in 1982, and, by 1985,
3Com had sold 100,000.[12] By the early 1990s, Ethernet became so prevalent that it was a must-have feature
for modern computers, and Ethernet ports began to appear on some PCs and most workstations. This process
was greatly sped up with the introduction of 10BASE-T
and its relatively small modular connector, at which point
Ethernet ports appeared even on low-end motherboards.

CHAPTER 14. ETHERNET


In February 1980, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) started project 802 to standardize
local area networks (LAN).[12][20] The DIX-group with
Gary Robinson (DEC), Phil Arst (Intel), and Bob Printis
(Xerox) submitted the so-called Blue Book CSMA/CD
specication as a candidate for the LAN specication.[13]
In addition to CSMA/CD, Token Ring (supported by
IBM) and Token Bus (selected and henceforward supported by General Motors) were also considered as candidates for a LAN standard. Competing proposals and
broad interest in the initiative led to strong disagreement over which technology to standardize. In December
1980, the group was split into three subgroups, and standardization proceeded separately for each proposal.[12]
Delays in the standards process put at risk the market
introduction of the Xerox Star workstation and 3Coms
Ethernet LAN products. With such business implications
in mind, David Liddle (General Manager, Xerox Oce
Systems) and Metcalfe (3Com) strongly supported a proposal of Fritz Rscheisen (Siemens Private Networks)
for an alliance in the emerging oce communication
market, including Siemens support for the international
standardization of Ethernet (April 10, 1981). Ingrid
Fromm, Siemens representative to IEEE 802, quickly
achieved broader support for Ethernet beyond IEEE by
the establishment of a competing Task Group Local
Networks within the European standards body ECMA
TC24. As early as March 1982 ECMA TC24 with its
corporate members reached agreement on a standard for
CSMA/CD based on the IEEE 802 draft.[15]:8 Because
the DIX proposal was most technically complete and because of the speedy action taken by ECMA which decisively contributed to the conciliation of opinions within
IEEE, the IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD standard was approved
in December 1982.[12] IEEE published the 802.3 standard as a draft in 1983 and as a standard in 1985.[21]

Since then, Ethernet technology has evolved to meet


new bandwidth and market requirements.[17] In addition to computers, Ethernet is now used to interconnect
appliances and other personal devices.[4] It is used in
industrial applications and is quickly replacing legacy data
transmission systems in the worlds telecommunications
networks.[18] By 2010, the market for Ethernet equipment
amounted to over $16 billion per year.[19]
Approval of Ethernet on the international level was
achieved by a similar, cross-partisan action with
Fromm as the liaison ocer working to integrate with
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Tech14.2 Standardization
nical Committee 83 (TC83) and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Technical Committee 97
Sub Committee 6 (TC97SC6). The ISO 8802-3 standard
was published in 1989.[22]

14.3 Evolution
Ethernet evolved to include higher bandwidth, improved
media access control methods, and dierent physical media. The coaxial cable was replaced with point-to-point
links connected by Ethernet repeaters or switches to reduce installation costs, increase reliability, and improve
management and troubleshooting. Many variants of Ethernet remain in common use.
An Intel 82574L Gigabit Ethernet NIC, PCI Express x1 card

Ethernet stations communicate by sending each other

14.3. EVOLUTION

51

data packets: blocks of data individually sent and delivered. As with other IEEE 802 LANs, each Ethernet station is given a 48-bit MAC address. The MAC addresses
are used to specify both the destination and the source of
each data packet. Ethernet establishes link level connections, which can be dened using both the destination and
source addresses. On reception of a transmission, the receiver uses the destination address to determine whether
the transmission is relevant to the station or should be ignored. Network interfaces normally do not accept packets addressed to other Ethernet stations. Adapters come
programmed with a globally unique address.[lower-alpha 2]
An EtherType eld in each frame is used by the operating system on the receiving station to select the appropriate protocol module (e.g., an Internet Protocol version such as IPv4). Ethernet frames are said to be selfidentifying, because of the frame type. Self-identifying
frames make it possible to intermix multiple protocols on
the same physical network and allow a single computer to
use multiple protocols together.[23] Despite the evolution
of Ethernet technology, all generations of Ethernet (excluding early experimental versions) use the same frame
formats[24] (and hence the same interface for higher layers), and can be readily interconnected through bridging.
Due to the ubiquity of Ethernet, the ever-decreasing cost
of the hardware needed to support it, and the reduced
panel space needed by twisted pair Ethernet, most manufacturers now build Ethernet interfaces directly into PC
motherboards, eliminating the need for installation of a
separate network card.[25]

14.3.1

Shared media

10BASE5 Ethernet equipment. Clockwise from top-left: A latemodel transceiver with an in-line 10BASE2 adapter, a similar model transceiver with a 10BASE5 adapter, an AUI cable, a dierent style of transceiver with 10BASE2 T-connector,
two 10BASE5 end ttings, an orange vampire tap installation tool (which includes a specialized drill bit at one end and
a socket wrench at the other), and an early model 10BASE5
transceiver (h4000) manufactured by DEC. The short length of
yellow 10BASE5 cable has one end terminated and the other end
prepared to have a termination tting installed; the half-black,
half-grey rectangular object through which the cable passes is an
installed vampire tap.

Through the rst half of the 1980s, Ethernets 10BASE5


implementation used a coaxial cable 0.375 inches (9.5
mm) in diameter, later called thick Ethernet or thicknet. Its successor, 10BASE2, called thin Ethernet or
thinnet, used a cable similar to cable television cable of
the era. The emphasis was on making installation of the
cable easier and less costly.

Ethernet was originally based on the idea of computers


communicating over a shared coaxial cable acting as a
broadcast transmission medium. The methods used were
similar to those used in radio systems,[lower-alpha 3] with
the common cable providing the communication channel likened to the Luminiferous aether in 19th century Since all communications happen on the same wire,
physics, and it was from this reference that the name Eth- any information sent by one computer is received by
all, even if that information is intended for just one
ernet was derived.[26]
[lower-alpha 6]
The network interface card inOriginal Ethernets shared coaxial cable (the shared destination.
terrupts
the
CPU
only
when applicable packets are remedium) traversed a building or campus to every atceived:
The
card
ignores
information not addressed to
tached machine. A scheme known as carrier sense mul[lower-alpha 7]
Use
of
a
single
cable also means that the
it.
tiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) govbandwidth
is
shared,
such
that,
for example, available
erned the way the computers shared the channel. This
bandwidth
to
each
device
is
halved
when two stations are
scheme was simpler than the competing token ring or
simultaneously
active.
[lower-alpha 4]
token bus technologies.
Computers are connected to an Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) transceiver,
which is in turn connected to the cable (with thin Ethernet the transceiver is integrated into the network adapter).
While a simple passive wire is highly reliable for small
networks, it is not reliable for large extended networks,
where damage to the wire in a single place, or a single bad connector, can make the whole Ethernet segment
unusable.[lower-alpha 5]

Collisions happen when two stations attempt to transmit


at the same time. They corrupt transmitted data and require stations to retransmit. The lost data and retransmissions reduce throughput. In the worst case where multiple active hosts connected with maximum allowed cable
length attempt to transmit many short frames, excessive
collisions can reduce throughput dramatically. However,
a Xerox report in 1980 studied performance of an ex-

52
isting Ethernet installation under both normal and articially generated heavy load. The report claims that 98%
throughput on the LAN was observed.[27] This is in contrast with token passing LANs (token ring, token bus), all
of which suer throughput degradation as each new node
comes into the LAN, due to token waits. This report was
controversial, as modeling showed that collision-based
networks theoretically became unstable under loads as
low as 37% of nominal capacity. Many early researchers
failed to understand these results. Performance on real
networks is signicantly better.[28]

CHAPTER 14. ETHERNET


because its bus topology is in conict with the star topology cable plans designed into buildings for telephony.
Modifying Ethernet to conform to twisted pair telephone
wiring already installed in commercial buildings provided
another opportunity to lower costs, expand the installed
base, and leverage building design, and, thus, twisted-pair
Ethernet was the next logical development in the mid1980s.
Ethernet on unshielded twisted-pair cables (UTP) began
with StarLAN at 1 Mbit/s in the mid-1980s. In 1987
SynOptics introduced the rst twisted-pair Ethernet at
10 Mbit/s in a star-wired cabling topology with a central hub, later called LattisNet.[12][30][31] These evolved
into 10BASE-T, which was designed for point-to-point
links only, and all termination was built into the device.
This changed repeaters from a specialist device used at
the center of large networks to a device that every twisted
pair-based network with more than two machines had
to use. The tree structure that resulted from this made
Ethernet networks easier to maintain by preventing most
faults with one peer or its associated cable from aecting
other devices on the network.

In a modern Ethernet, the stations do not all share one


channel through a shared cable or a simple repeater hub;
instead, each station communicates with a switch, which
in turn forwards that trac to the destination station. In
this topology, collisions are only possible if station and
switch attempt to communicate with each other at the
same time, and collisions are limited to this link. Furthermore, the 10BASE-T standard introduced a full duplex
mode of operation which has become extremely common. In full duplex, switch and station can communicate with each other simultaneously, and therefore modern Ethernets are completely collision-free.
Despite the physical star topology and the presence of
separate transmit and receive channels in the twisted pair
and ber media, repeater based Ethernet networks still
14.3.2 Repeaters and hubs
use half-duplex and CSMA/CD, with only minimal activity by the repeater, primarily the Collision Enforcement
signal, in dealing with packet collisions. Every packet is
sent to every other port on the repeater, so bandwidth and
security problems are not addressed. The total throughput of the repeater is limited to that of a single link, and
all links must operate at the same speed.

14.3.3 Bridging and switching

A 1990s network interface card supporting both coaxial cablebased 10BASE2 (BNC connector, left) and twisted pair-based
10BASE-T (8P8C connector, right)

Main article: Ethernet hub


For signal degradation and timing reasons, coaxial
Ethernet segments have a restricted size. Somewhat
larger networks can be built by using an Ethernet repeater.
Early repeaters had only two ports, allowing, at most,
a doubling of network size. Once repeaters with more
than two ports became available, it was possible to wire
the network in a star topology. Early experiments with
star topologies (called Fibernet) using optical ber were
published by 1978.[29]

Patch cables with patch elds of two Ethernet switches

Main articles: Ethernet switch and Bridging (networking)

While repeaters can isolate some aspects of Ethernet segments, such as cable breakages, they still forward all trafc to all Ethernet devices. This creates practical limits
Shared cable Ethernet is always hard to install in oces on how many machines can communicate on an Ethernet

14.3. EVOLUTION
network. The entire network is one collision domain, and
all hosts have to be able to detect collisions anywhere on
the network. This limits the number of repeaters between
the farthest nodes. Segments joined by repeaters have to
all operate at the same speed, making phased-in upgrades
impossible.

53
network technology, because it is easy to subvert switched
Ethernet systems by means such as ARP spoong and
MAC ooding.

The bandwidth advantages, the improved isolation of devices from each other, the ability to easily mix dierent
speeds of devices and the elimination of the chaining limTo alleviate these problems, bridging was created to com- its inherent in non-switched Ethernet have made switched
municate at the data link layer while isolating the physical Ethernet the dominant network technology.[32]
layer. With bridging, only well-formed Ethernet packets
are forwarded from one Ethernet segment to another; collisions and packet errors are isolated. At initial startup, 14.3.4 Advanced networking
Ethernet bridges (and switches) work somewhat like Ethernet repeaters, passing all trac between segments. By
observing the source addresses of incoming frames, the
bridge then builds an address table associating addresses
to segments. Once an address is learned, the bridge forwards network trac destined for that address only to
the associated segment, improving overall performance.
Broadcast trac is still forwarded to all network segments. Bridges also overcome the limits on total segments
between two hosts and allow the mixing of speeds, both
of which are critical to deployment of Fast Ethernet.
In 1989, the networking company Kalpana introduced
their EtherSwitch, the rst Ethernet switch.[lower-alpha 8]
This works somewhat dierently from an Ethernet
bridge, where only the header of the incoming packet
is examined before it is either dropped or forwarded to
another segment. This greatly reduces the forwarding
latency and the processing load on the network device.
One drawback of this cut-through switching method is
that packets that have been corrupted are still propagated
through the network, so a jabbering station can continue
to disrupt the entire network. The eventual remedy for
this was a return to the original store and forward approach of bridging, where the packet would be read into
a buer on the switch in its entirety, veried against its
checksum and then forwarded, but using more powerful
A core Ethernet switch
application-specic integrated circuits. Hence, the bridging is then done in hardware, allowing packets to be for- Simple switched Ethernet networks, while a great imwarded at full wire speed.
provement over repeater-based Ethernet, suer from sinWhen a twisted pair or ber link segment is used and gle points of failure, attacks that trick switches or hosts
neither end is connected to a repeater, full-duplex Eth- into sending data to a machine even if it is not intended for
ernet becomes possible over that segment. In full-duplex it, scalability and security issues with regard to switching
mode, both devices can transmit and receive to and from loops, broadcast radiation and multicast trac, and bandeach other at the same time, and there is no collision do- width choke points where a lot of trac is forced down a
main. This doubles the aggregate bandwidth of the link single link.
and is sometimes advertised as double the link speed (for Advanced networking features in switches and routers
example, 200 Mbit/s).[lower-alpha 9] The elimination of the combat these issues through means including spanningcollision domain for these connections also means that all tree protocol to maintain the active links of the network as
the links bandwidth can be used by the two devices on a tree while allowing physical loops for redundancy, port
that segment and that segment length is not limited by security and protection features such as MAC lock down
the need for correct collision detection.
and broadcast radiation ltering, virtual LANs to keep
Since packets are typically delivered only to the port they
are intended for, trac on a switched Ethernet is less
public than on shared-medium Ethernet. Despite this,
switched Ethernet should still be regarded as an insecure

dierent classes of users separate while using the same


physical infrastructure, multilayer switching to route between dierent classes and link aggregation to add bandwidth to overloaded links and to provide some measure
of redundancy.

54
IEEE 802.1aq (shortest path bridging) includes the use
of the link-state routing protocol IS-IS to allow larger networks with shortest path routes between devices. In 2012,
it was stated by David Allan and Nigel Bragg, in 802.1aq
Shortest Path Bridging Design and Evolution: The Architects Perspective that shortest path bridging is one of the
most signicant enhancements in Ethernets history.[33]

14.4 Varieties of Ethernet


Main article: Ethernet physical layer
The Ethernet physical layer evolved over a considerable
time span and encompasses coaxial, twisted pair and
ber-optic physical media interfaces, with speeds from
10 Mbit/s to 100 Gbit/s. The rst introduction of twistedpair CSMA/CD was StarLAN, standardized as 802.3
1BASE5;[34] while 1BASE5 had little market penetration, it dened the physical apparatus (wire, plug/jack,
pin-out, and wiring plan) that would be carried over to
10BASE-T.

CHAPTER 14. ETHERNET


and includes the preamble, start frame delimiter (SFD)
and carrier extension (if present).[lower-alpha 10] The frame
begins after the start frame delimiter with a frame header
featuring source and destination MAC addresses. The
middle section of the frame consists of payload data including any headers for other protocols (for example,
Internet Protocol) carried in the frame. The frame ends
with a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check, which is used to
detect corruption of data in transit.[35]:sections 3.1.1 and 3.2
Notably, Ethernet packets have no time-to-live eld, leading to possible problems in the presence of a switching
loop.

14.6 Autonegotiation
Main article: Autonegotiation

Autonegotiation is the procedure by which two connected


devices choose common transmission parameters, e.g.
speed and duplex mode. Autonegotiation is an optional
feature, rst introduced with 100BASE-TX, while it is
The most common forms used are 10BASE-T, also backward compatible with 10BASE-T. Autonegoti100BASE-TX, and 1000BASE-T. All three utilize ation is mandatory for 1000BASE-T.
twisted pair cables and 8P8C modular connectors. They
run at 10 Mbit/s, 100 Mbit/s, and 1 Gbit/s, respectively.
Fiber optic variants of Ethernet oer high performance,
better electrical isolation and longer distance (tens of 14.7 See also
kilometers with some versions). In general, network
protocol stack software will work similarly on all
5-4-3 rule
varieties.
ARCNET

14.5 Layer 2 datagrams

Chaosnet
Error 33
Ethernet crossover cable
Fiber media converter
Industrial Ethernet
List of device bit rates
LocalTalk
Metro Ethernet
PHY (chip)

A close-up of the SMSC LAN91C110 (SMSC 91x) chip, an embedded Ethernet chip.

Main article: Ethernet frame


In IEEE 802.3, a datagram is called a packet or frame.
Packet is used to describe the overall transmission unit

Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet


Power over Ethernet
Sneakernet
Wake-on-LAN

14.9. REFERENCES

14.8 Notes
[1] The experimental Ethernet described in the 1976 paper
ran at 2.94 Mbit/s and has eight-bit destination and source
address elds, so the original Ethernet addresses are not
the MAC addresses they are today.[11] By software convention, the 16 bits after the destination and source address elds specify a packet type, but, as the paper says,
dierent protocols use disjoint sets of packet types.
Thus the original packet types could vary within each different protocol. This is in contrast to the EtherType in
the IEEE Ethernet standard, which species the protocol
being used.
[2] In some cases, the factory-assigned address can be overridden, either to avoid an address change when an adapter
is replaced or to use locally administered addresses.
[3] There are fundamental dierences between wireless and
wired shared-medium communications, such as the fact
that it is much easier to detect collisions in a wired system
than a wireless system.
[4] In a CSMA/CD system packets must be large enough to
guarantee that the leading edge of the propagating wave
of the message gets to all parts of the medium and back
again before the transmitter stops transmitting, guaranteeing that collisions (two or more packets initiated within a
window of time that forced them to overlap) are discovered. As a result, the minimum packet size and the physical mediums total length are closely linked.
[5] Multipoint systems are also prone to strange failure modes
when an electrical discontinuity reects the signal in such
a manner that some nodes would work properly, while others work slowly because of excessive retries or not at all.
See standing wave for an explanation. These could be
much more dicult to diagnose than a complete failure
of the segment.
[6] This one speaks, all listen property is a security weakness of shared-medium Ethernet, since a node on an Ethernet network can eavesdrop on all trac on the wire if it
so chooses.
[7] Unless it is put into promiscuous mode.
[8] The term switch was invented by device manufacturers and
does not appear in the 802.3 standard.
[9] This is misleading, as performance will double only if trafc patterns are symmetrical.
[10] The carrier extension is dened to assist collision detection
on shared-media gigabit Ethernet.

14.9 References

55

[3] Adopted Timeline (PDF). IEEE 802.3bs Task Force.


2014-05-19. Retrieved 2015-02-24.
[4] The History of Ethernet. NetEvents.tv. 2006. Retrieved
September 10, 2011.
[5] Ethernet Prototype Circuit Board. Smithsonian National Museum of American History. 1973. Retrieved
September 2, 2007.
[6] Gerald W. Brock (September 25, 2003). The Second Information Revolution. Harvard University Press. p. 151.
ISBN 0-674-01178-3.
[7] Cade Metz (March 13, 2009). Ethernet a networking protocol name for the ages: Michelson, Morley, and
Metcalfe. The Register. p. 2. Retrieved March 4, 2013.
[8] Mary Bellis. Inventors of the Modern Computer.
About.com. Retrieved September 10, 2011.
[9] U.S. Patent 4,063,220 Multipoint data communication
system (with collision detection)"
[10] Robert Metcalfe; David Boggs (July 1976). Ethernet:
Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks (PDF). Communications of the ACM 19 (7): 395
405. doi:10.1145/360248.360253.
[11] John F. Shoch; Yogen K. Dalal; David D. Redell; Ronald
C. Crane (August 1982). Evolution of the Ethernet Local
Computer Network (PDF). IEEE Computer 15 (8): 14
26. doi:10.1109/MC.1982.1654107.
[12] von Burg, Urs; Kenney, Martin (December 2003).
Sponsors, Communities, and Standards: Ethernet vs.
Token Ring in the Local Area Networking Business (PDF). Industry & Innovation 10 (4): 351375.
doi:10.1080/1366271032000163621. Archived from the
original on 2012-03-21. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
[13] Digital Equipment Corporation, Intel Corporation and
Xerox Corporation (30 September 1980). The Ethernet,
A Local Area Network. Data Link Layer and Physical
Layer Specications, Version 1.0 (PDF). Xerox Corporation. Retrieved 2011-12-10.
[14] Digital Equipment Corporation, Intel Corporation and
Xerox Corporation (November 1982). The Ethernet, A
Local Area Network. Data Link Layer and Physical Layer
Specications, Version 2.0 (PDF). Xerox Corporation.
Retrieved 2011-12-10.
[15] Robert Breyer & Sean Riley (1999). Switched, Fast, and
Gigabit Ethernet. Macmillan. ISBN 1-57870-073-6.
[16] Jamie Parker Pearson (1992). Digital at Work. Digital
Press. p. 163. ISBN 1-55558-092-0.

[1] IEEE 802.3 'Standard for Ethernet' Marks 30 Years of


Innovation and Global Market Growth (Press release).
IEEE. June 24, 2013. Retrieved January 11, 2014.

[17] Rick Merritt (December 20, 2010). Shifts, growth ahead


for 10G Ethernet. E Times. Retrieved September 10,
2011.

[2] Xerox (August 1976). Alto: A Personal Computer System Hardware Manual (PDF). Xerox. p. 37. Retrieved
25 August 2015.

[18] My oh My Ethernet Growth Continues to Soar; Surpasses Legacy. Telecom News Now. July 29, 2011. Retrieved September 10, 2011.

56

[19] Jim Duy (February 22, 2010). Cisco, Juniper, HP drive


Ethernet switch market in Q4. Network World. Retrieved September 10, 2011.
[20] Vic Hayes (August 27, 2001). Letter to FCC (PDF).
Retrieved October 22, 2010. IEEE 802 has the basic charter to develop and maintain networking standards... IEEE
802 was formed in February 1980...
[21] IEEE 802.3-2008, p.iv
[22] ISO 8802-3:1989. ISO. Retrieved 2015-07-08.
[23] Douglas E. Comer (2000). Internetworking with TCP/IP
Principles, Protocols and Architecture (4th ed.). Prentice
Hall. ISBN 0-13-018380-6. 2.4.9 Ethernet Hardware
Addresses, p. 29, explains the ltering.
[24] Iljitsch van Beijnum. Speed matters: how Ethernet went
from 3Mbps to 100Gbps... and beyond. Ars Technica. Retrieved July 15, 2011. All aspects of Ethernet
were changed: its MAC procedure, the bit encoding, the
wiring... only the packet format has remained the same.
[25] Geetaj Channana (November 1, 2004). Motherboard
Chipsets Roundup. PCQuest. Retrieved October 22,
2010. While comparing motherboards in the last issue we
found that all motherboards support Ethernet connection
on board.
[26] Charles E. Spurgeon (2000). Ethernet: The Denitive
Guide. O'Reilly. ISBN 978-1-56592-660-8.
[27] Shoch, John F. and Hupp, Jon A. (December 1980).
Measured performance of an Ethernet local network.
Communications of the ACM (ACM Press) 23 (12): 711
721. doi:10.1145/359038.359044. ISSN 0001-0782.
[28] Boggs, D.R., Mogul, J.C., and Kent, C.A. (September
1988). Measured capacity of an Ethernet: myths and
reality (PDF). DEC WRL.
[29] Eric G. Rawson; Robert M. Metcalfe (July 1978).
Fibemet: Multimode Optical Fibers for Local Computer
Networks (PDF). IEEE transactions on communications
26 (7): 983990. doi:10.1109/TCOM.1978.1094189.
Retrieved June 11, 2011.
[30] Spurgeon, Charles E. (2000). Ethernet; The Denitive
Guide. Nutshell Handbook. O'Reilly. p. 29. ISBN 156592-660-9.
[31] Urs von Burg (2001). The Triumph of Ethernet: technological communities and the battle for the LAN standard.
Stanford University Press. p. 175. ISBN 0-8047-4094-1.
[32] Token Ring-to-Ethernet Migration. Cisco. Retrieved
October 22, 2010. Respondents were rst asked about
their current and planned desktop LAN attachment standards. The results were clearswitched Fast Ethernet is
the dominant choice for desktop connectivity to the network
[33] Allan, David; Bragg, Nigel (2012). 802.1aq Shortest Path
Bridging Design and Evolution : The Architects Perspective. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-14866-2.

CHAPTER 14. ETHERNET

[34] 1BASE5
Medium
Specication
(StarLAN)".
cs.nthu.edu.tw. 1996-12-28. Retrieved 2014-11-11.
[35] 802.3-2012 - IEEE Standard for Ethernet (PDF).
ieee.org. IEEE Standards Association. 2012-12-28. Retrieved 2014-02-08.

14.10 Further reading


Digital Equipment Corporation, Intel Corporation,
Xerox Corporation (September 1980). The EthACM SIGernet: A Local Area Network.
COMM Computer Communication Review 11 (3):
20. doi:10.1145/1015591.1015594. Version 1.0
of the DIX specication.
Ethernet Technologies. Internetworking Technology Handbook. Cisco Systems. Retrieved April 11,
2011.
Charles E. Spurgeon (2000). Ethernet: The Denitive Guide. O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-1565-926608.

14.11 External links


IEEE 802.3 Ethernet working group
IEEE 802.3-2012 standard

Chapter 15

Category 5 cable
The two schemes work equally well and may be mixed in
an installation so long as the same scheme is used on both
ends of each cable.
Each of the four pairs in a cat 5 cable has diering precise number of twists per meter to minimize crosstalk
between the pairs. Although cable assemblies containing 4 pairs are common, category 5 is not limited to 4
pairs. Backbone applications involve using up to 100
pairs.[4] This use of balanced lines helps preserve a high
signal-to-noise ratio despite interference from both external sources and crosstalk from other pairs.
The cable is available in both stranded and solid conductor forms. The stranded form is more exible and withstands more bending without breaking. Permanent wiring
Category 5 patch cable in T568B wiring
(for example, the wiring inside the wall that connects a
wall socket to a central patch panel) is solid-core, while
Category 5 cable, commonly referred to as cat 5, is a
patch cables (for example, the movable cable that plugs
twisted pair cable for carrying signals. This type of cable
into the wall socket on one end and a computer on the
is used in structured cabling for computer networks such
other) are stranded.
as Ethernet. The cable standard provides performance of
up to 100 MHz and is suitable for 10BASE-T, 100BASE- The specic category of cable in use can be identied by
[5]
TX (Fast Ethernet), and 1000BASE-T (Gigabit Ether- the printing on the side of the cable.
net). Cat 5 is also used to carry other signals such as
telephony and video.
This cable is commonly connected using punch-down
blocks and modular connectors. Most category 5 cables 15.1.1 Bending radius
are unshielded, relying on the balanced line twisted pair
design and dierential signaling for noise rejection.
Most Category 5 cables can be bent at any radius exceedCategory 5 was superseded by the category 5e (en- ing approximately four times the outside diameter of the
hanced) specication,[1] and later category 6 cable.
cable.[6][7]

15.1 Cable standard

15.1.2 Maximum cable segment length

The specication for category 5 cable was dened in


ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-A, with clarication in TSB-95.[3]
These documents specify performance characteristics
and test requirements for frequencies up to 100 MHz.
Cable types, connector types and cabling topologies are
dened by TIA/EIA-568-B. Nearly always, 8P8C modular connectors (often referred to as RJ45 connectors) are
used for connecting category 5 cable. The cable is terminated in either the T568A scheme or the T568B scheme.

The maximum length for a cable segment is 100 m per


TIA/EIA 568-5-A.[8] If longer runs are required, the
use of active hardware such as a repeater or switch is
necessary.[9][10] The specications for 10BASE-T networking specify a 100-meter length between active
devices.[11] This allows for 90 meters of solid-core permanent wiring, two connectors and two stranded patch
cables of 5 meters, one at each end.[12]

57

58

15.1.3

CHAPTER 15. CATEGORY 5 CABLE

Category 5 vs. 5e

The category 5e specication improves upon the category


5 specication by tightening some crosstalk specications
and introducing new crosstalk specications that were not
present in the original category 5 specication.[13] The
bandwidth of category 5 and 5e is the same (100 MHz)[14]
and the physical cable construction is the same, and the
reality is that most Cat5 cable meets Cat5e specications,
though it is not tested or certied as such.[15]

15.2 Applications
This type of cable is used in structured cabling for
computer networks such as Ethernet over twisted pair.
The cable standard provides performance of up to
100 MHz and is suitable for 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX
(Fast Ethernet), and 1000BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet).
10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX Ethernet connections require two wire pairs. 1000BASE-T Ethernet connections
require four wire pairs. Through the use of power over
Ethernet (PoE), up to 25 watts of power can be carried
over the cable in addition to Ethernet data.

15.3.3 Individual twist lengths


By altering the length of each twist, crosstalk is reduced,
without aecting the characteristic impedance. The distance per twist is commonly referred to as pitch. The
pitch of the twisted pairs is not specied in the standard.
Measurements on one sample of cat 5 cable yielded the
following results.[29]

15.3.4 Environmental ratings


CMR (Communications Riser), insulated with
high-density polyolen and jacketed with lowsmoke polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
CMP (Communications Plenum), insulated
with uorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) and
polyethylene (PE) and jacketed with lowsmoke polyvinyl chloride (PVC), due to better
ame test ratings.
CM (Communications) is insulated with highdensity polyolen, but not jacketed with PVC
and therefore is the lowest of the three in ame
resistance.

Some cables are UV-rated or UV-stable meaning


Cat 5 is also used to carry other signals such as telephony they can be exposed to outdoor UV radiation without sigand video.[16]
nicant destruction. The materials used for the mantle
are usually PVC.
Any cable that contains air spaces can breathe in moisture, especially if the cable runs between indoor and outdoor spaces. Warm moist air can cause condensation inIn some cases, multiple signals can be carried on a single side the colder parts of the cable outdoors. It may be neccable; cat 5 can carry two conventional telephone lines essary to take precautions such as sealing the ends of the
as well as 100BASE-TX in a single cable.[17][18][19][20][21] cables. Some cables are suitable for direct burial, but
The USOC/RJ-61 wiring standard may be used in multi- this usually requires that the cable be gel lled in order to
line telephone connections.
hinder moisture migration into the cable.

15.2.1

Shared cable

Various schemes exist for transporting both analog and When using a cable for a tower, attention must be given to
digital video over the cable. HDBaseT (10.2 Gbit/s) is vertical cable runs that may channel water into sensitive
one such scheme.[22]
indoor equipment. This can often be solved by adding
a drip-loop at the bottom of the run of cable. If water
enters the cable over a long time, for example a break in
the outer shield due to wind movement fatigue, this can
15.3 Characteristics
set up substantial head pressure within the cable. Water
ingress at 28m can induce a pressure of 40 psi forcing
water many meters along a horizontal run including back
15.3.1 Insulation
upwards. Therefore, it is imperative to maintain the integrity of the outer sheath on tall towers.
Outer insulation is typically PVC or LSOH.
Plenum-rated cables are slower to burn and produce less
smoke than cables using a mantle of materials like PVC.
This also aects legal requirements for a re sprinkler
15.3.2 Conductors
system. That is if a plenum-rated cable is used, sprinkler
[32]
Since 1995, solid-conductor UTP cables for backbone ca- requirement may be eliminated.
bling is required to be no thicker than 22 American Wire Shielded cables (FTP/STP) are useful for environGauge (AWG) and no thinner than 24 AWG, or 26 AWG ments where proximity to RF equipment may introduce
for shorter-distance cabling. This standard has been re- electromagnetic interference, and can also be used where
tained with the 2009 revision of ANSI TIA/EIA 568.[28] eavesdropping likelihood should be minimized.

15.6. REFERENCES

15.4 See also


American wire gauge (AWG)
Audio over Ethernet (AoE)
Category 6 cable
Ethernet over twisted pair (10/100/1000BASE-T)
Power over Ethernet (PoE)

15.5 Notes
15.6 References
[1] Voice and Data Cabling & Wiring Installations. Retrieved 2013-05-12.
[2] ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B.1-2001 Approved: April 12,
2001 ; Commercial Building Telecommunications Cabling Standard Part 1: General Requirements (PDF).
090917 nag.ru
[3] Additional Transmission Performance Guidelines for 4pair 100 v category 5 Cabling (PDF). Retrieved 201305-12.
[4] As noted in ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B-2 standard for backbone applications
[5] Ethernet Cable Identication and Use. Donutey. Retrieved 2011-04-01.

59

[16] Transmitting video over CAT5 cable. EE Times. 200506-08. Retrieved 2013-12-07
[17] Hack your House: Run both ethernet and phone over existing Cat-5 cable. Retrieved 2013.
[18] ZyTrax. LAN and Telephones. quote: Since 10baseT or 100base-TX wiring uses 2 pairs (4 wires) and each
analog phone connection uses a single pair (2 wires) you
can, subject to limitations, run 2 telephone connections
and LAN trac on category 5(e) wiring
[19] Siemon. Cable Sharing in Commercial Building Environments: Reducing Cost, Simplifying Cable Management, and Converging Applications onto Twisted-Pair
Media. retrieved 2014-04-28.
[20] RJ45/RJ11 Network Cable Splitters for Ethernet and
Phone Line Sharing. quote: carry one old fashioned
analog telephone signal and one 10/100Mbps Ethernet signal by the same single network cable.
[21] ATS 10/100 Base T Splitter Adapters. Duxcw.com.
Retrieved 2014-08-17.
[22] HDBaseT Alliance Shows the Future of Connected
Home Entertainment at CES 2013 (PDF). News release.
January 9, 2013. Retrieved June 5, 2013.
[23] SuperCat OUTDOOR CAT 5e U/UTP (PDF).
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-16.
[24] Transmission Line Zo.
[25] Wire Gauge and Current Limits Including Skin Depth
and Strength. PowerStream. Retrieved 2013-05-12.
[26] IEEE 802.3at-2009 Table 33-11

[6] Selecting coax and twisted-pair cable. Electronic Products.

[27] Copper Data Cables (PDF). p. 6. Archived from the


original (PDF) on 2006-06-25.

[7] Category 5. Retrieved 2013-05-12.

[28] ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B.2-2001, Commercial Building


Telecommunications Cabling Standard (PDF). p. 6
4.3.2.

[8] The Evolution of Copper Cabling Systems from Cat5 to


Cat5e to Cat6 (PDF). Panduit. 2004-02-27. Retrieved
2013-05-12.
[9] UTP technology (PDF). Extron Electronics. 2001. Retrieved 2013-05-12.
[10] CAT5e Cable Wiring Schemes. B&B Electronics.
Archived from the original on 2012-10-05.
[11] IEEE Std 802.3-2008. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. 2008. Table 13-1
[12] Horizontal Cabling. The Network Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2013-05-12.
[13] UNDERSTANDING CAT - 5 CABLES (PDF). Satelliete & Cable TV. Retrieved 2013-01-05."
[14] Cat5 Spec, cat6 specs, cat7 spec - Denitions, Comparison, Specications. TEC Datawire. Retrieved 2013-0105."
[15] Comparison between CAT5, CAT5e, CAT6, CAT7 Cables.

[29] http://www.prc68.com/I/Zo.shtml#Wm
[30] Technical Information (PDF). Belden. p. 22.20.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-03.
[31] CSA Flame Test Ratings. Retrieved 2013-05-12.
[32] What are the dierences between PVC, riser and
plenum-rated cables?". Retrieved 2009-01-26.

Chapter 16

Category 6 cable
of a cable are the same.

16.2 Category 6a
The latest standard from the TIA for enhanced performance standards for twisted pair cable systems was dened in February 2009 in ANSI/TIA-568-C.1. Category
Category 6 cable, commonly referred to as Cat 6, is 6A is dened at frequencies up to 500 MHztwice that
a standardized cable for Gigabit Ethernet and other net- of Cat 6.
work physical layers that is backward compatible with the
Category 6A performs at improved specications, in parCategory 5/5e and Category 3 cable standards.[1] Comticular in the area of alien crosstalk as compared to Cat
pared with Cat 5 and Cat 5e, Cat 6 features more strin6 UTP (unshielded twisted pair), which exhibited high
[1]
gent specications for crosstalk and system noise. The
alien noise in high frequencies.
cable standard provides performance of up to 250 MHz
and is suitable for 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX (Fast Eth- The global cabling standard ISO/IEC 11801 has been exernet), 1000BASE-T/1000BASE-TX (Gigabit Ethernet), tended by the addition of amendment 2. This amendment denes new specications for Cat 6A components
and 10GBASE-T (10-Gigabit Ethernet).[1]
and Class EA permanent links. These new global Cat
6A/Class EA specications require a new generation of
connecting hardware oering far superior performance
16.1 Description
compared to the existing products that are based on the
American TIA standard.[4]
Whereas Category 6 cable has a reduced maximum
length when used for 10GBASE-T, Category 6A ca- The most important point is a performance dierence beble (or Augmented Category 6) is characterized to 500 tween ISO/IEC and EIA/TIA component specications
MHz and has improved alien crosstalk characteristics, al- for the NEXT transmission parameter. At a frequency of
lowing 10GBASE-T to be run for the same 100 meter 500 MHz, an ISO/IEC Cat 6A connector performs 3 dB
better than a Cat 6A connector that conforms with the
distance as previous Ethernet variants.
EIA/TIA specication. 3 dB equals 50% reduction of
Category 6 cable can be identied by the printing on the near-end crosstalk noise signal power; see 3dB-point.[4]
side of the cable sheath.[2]
Confusion therefore arises because of the dierent namCat 6 patch cables are normally terminated in 8P8C mod- ing conventions and performance benchmarks laid down
ular connectors. If Cat 6 rated patch cables, jacks and by the International ISO/IEC and American TIA/EIA
connectors are not used with Cat 6 wiring, overall perfor- standards, which in turn are dierent from the regional
mance is degraded and will not meet Cat 6 performance European standard, EN 50173-1. In broad terms, the ISO
specications.[3]
standard for Cat 6A is the highest, followed by the EuroConnectors use either T568A or T568B pin assignments; pean standard, and then the American (1 on 1 matching
although performance is comparable provided both ends capability).[5][6]
A Cat 6 ethernet cable

60

16.6. SEE ALSO

61

16.3 Maximum length

vary from that established by TIA 568. Cat 6e cable will


likely vary from manufacturer to manufacturer, owing to
When used for 10/100/1000BASE-T, the maximum al- the fact it is simply a marketing name, not a standard in
lowed length of a Cat 6 cable is 100 meters (328 ft). This any way.
consists of 90 meters (295 ft) of solid horizontal cabling between the patch panel and the wall jack, plus 10
meters (33 ft) of stranded patch cable between each jack 16.6 See also
and the attached device.
Ethernet crossover cable

16.4 Installation caveats


Category 6 and 6A cable must be properly installed and
terminated to meet specications. The cable must not be
kinked or bent too tightly (the bend radius should be at
least four times the outer diameter of the cable[7] ). The
wire pairs must not be untwisted and the outer jacket must
not be stripped back more than 0.5 in (12.7 mm).
Cable shielding may be required in order to improve a
Cat 6 cables performance in high electromagnetic interference (EMI) environments. This shielding reduces the
corrupting eect of EMI on the cables data. Shielding
is typically maintained from one cable end to the other
using a drain wire that runs through the cable alongside
the twisted pairs. The shields electrical connection to
the chassis on each end is made through the jacks. The
requirement for ground connections at both cable ends
creates the possibility that a ground loop may result if
one of the networked chassis is at dierent instantaneous
electrical potential with respect to its mate. This undesirable situation may compel currents to ow between chassis through the network cable shield, and these currents
may in turn induce detrimental noise in the signal being
carried by the cable.

16.5 Category 6e
Category 6e is not a standard, and is frequently misused
because category 5 followed with 5e as an enhancement
on category 5. Soon after the ratication of Cat 6, a
number of manufacturers began oering cable labeled as
Category 6e. Their intent was to suggest their oering
was an upgrade to the Category 6 standardpresumably
naming it after Category 5e. However, no legitimate Category 6e standard exists,[8] and Cat 6e is not a recognized standard by the Telecommunications Industry Association, nor will it be. Category 7 is an international
ISO standard, but not a TIA standard. Cat 7 is already
in place as a shielded cable solution with non-traditional
connectors that are not backward-compatible with category 3 through 6A. Category 8 is the next UTP cabling
oering to be backward compatible.[9]
While all so-called cat 6e cables presumably meet category 6 standards, the actual increase in transfer speeds,
if any, is unveried. The maximum cable length cannot

16.7 References
[1] Kish, Paul (July 2002). Category 6 Cabling Questions
and Answers (PDF). NORDX/CDT, Inc. Retrieved 21
October 2013.
[2] Ethernet Cable Identication and Use
[3] ANSI/TIA/EIA 568-B.2-1
[4] A new Category 6A specication has arrived. Next generation Cat. 6A. Tyco Electronics. Archived from the
original on 2014-02-25.
[5] Cat. 6A Cat. 6 A Class EA. Next generation
Cat. 6A. Tyco Electronics. Archived from the original
on 2013-12-03.
[6] Cabling: The Complete Guide to Network Wiring, 3rd
Edition
[7] Category 5 / 5E & Cat 6 Cabling Tutorial and FAQs.
LANshack.com. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
[8] Cat 6e vs Cat 6a
[9]

16.8 External links


10 Gb/s Over Copper: Horizontal Cabling
Choices. The Siemon Company. 2006-01-10. Retrieved 2015-02-13. Information on cable construction and alien crosstalk mitigation.
Schmidt, John (MarchApril 2007). Determining
the Right Media (PDF). BICSI News 28 (2).
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-01-04.
Information on TIA TSB-155 37m versus IEEE
55m limitations.
What Really Changes With Category 6.
Siemon Company. Retrieved 2013-01-05.

The

Chapter 17

List of network buses


List of electrical characteristics of single collision domain
segment slow speed network buses:
The number of nodes can be limited by either number
of available addresses or bus capacitance. None of the
above use any analog domain modulation techniques like
MLT-3 encoding, PAM-5 etc.
PSI5 designed with automation applications in mind is a
bit unusual in that it uses Manchester code.

17.1 See also


Characteristic impedance
Category 5 cable
Telegraphers equations
Single ended
Network segment
CEBus
KNX (standard) (EIB)

17.2 References
[1] Microcontroller Interfaces, Part 3. 090114 ucpros.com
[2] Ujjals DMX512 Pages....DMX512 Physical properties.
090610 dmx512-online.com
[3] LanBox-LC FAQ, DMX FAQ and Specications.
090610 lanbox.com

17.3 External links


bipom.com - Micro interfacing.pdf

62

17.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

63

17.4 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses


17.4.1

Text

Simplex communication Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplex_communication?oldid=669515856 Contributors: Glenn, Steinsky, Maximus Rex, Lucanos, Zro, Mormegil, Imroy, Patsw, Mac Davis, Wtshymanski, Danhash, Kenyon, Oleg Alexandrov, Jersyko,
Sburke, Jonnabuz, BD2412, FreplySpang, Dpv, YurikBot, Borgx, RussBot, Mysid, Gilliam, Jumping cheese, Jbergquist, Dicklyon,
ALM scientist, Chetvorno, Wikipedia@mstrom.freeserve.co.uk, Tawkerbot4, Alaibot, N5iln, Hcberkowitz, Harryzilber, Puellanivis, 0612,
Jim.henderson, Trusilver, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Mox83, The Thing That Should Not Be, Surplu, Addbot, Leszek Jaczuk, Shraktu,
Publicly Visible, Yobot, Erik9bot, I dream of horses, Oestape, Toolnut, EmausBot, Bollyje, ClueBot NG, Vacation9, BG19bot, IluvatarBot, Rolf Kemp., ICT Instructor and Anonymous: 40
Duplex (telecommunications) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duplex_(telecommunications)?oldid=679538267 Contributors: Rjstott, Linkan, Glenn, Reddi, JimTheFrog, Robbot, Sander123, DavidCary, Gloop, Bigpeteb, Mormegil, Erc, Droob, Riana, Wtshymanski, Boscobiscotti, John W. Kennedy, Jasonm, Jonathan de Boyne Pollard, GregorB, Marudubshinki, Mandarax, Dpv, Jgp, Vegaswikian,
YurikBot, Borgx, RussBot, Falcon9x5, Bota47, ThinkingInBinary, Ninly, Triple333, SmackBot, Angelstorm, Aksi great, DMTagatac,
ERcheck, Chris the speller, Oli Filth, TripleF, Danielcohn, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, UU, Krich, Drphilharmonic, Kaddar, Vinaiwbot~enwiki, Granucci, Iball, Zebbie, Mgiganteus1, Kvng, ALM scientist, Chetvorno, JohnTechnologist, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Canarris, Luna Santin, Widefox, Soren121, Harryzilber, CosineKitty, Nikbro, .anacondabot, Magioladitis, Bwhack, Rich257, Wwmbes, Conquerist, Jim.henderson, Wylve, R'n'B, Nono64, Squiggleslash, RockMFR, Mange01, Mojodaddy, Hans Dunkelberg, L337 kybldmstr, KylieTastic, GCFreak2, Mlewis000, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Greggreggreg, Cootiequits, LeaveSleaves, Serdelll, Ar-wiki, Scribestress, Michael Frind, SieBot, Harry~enwiki, Techman224, Svick, Anchor Link Bot, Squintanar, VgerNeedsTheInfo, Taochen, Rhododendrites, Promethean, SchreiberBike, Belchre, XLinkBot, Dsimic, Albambot, Addbot, Proofreader77, Semiwiki, Luckas-bot, Ptbotgourou,
AnomieBOT, TheAMmollusc, 4twenty42o, Omnipaedista, Sophus Bie, FrescoBot, Gonzosft, Pdebonte, Btilm, Xmaillard, EmausBot,
L235, Ebrambot, Oleamm, ClueBot NG, C. Jeremy Wong, Widr, Expos4ever, Mercury907, Jimw338, KSNagra, Lone boatman, Peter.ashenden, The Quirky Kitty, Telfordbuck, U2fanboi, Oct4th, Nyarathotep, ICT Instructor and Anonymous: 149
RS-232 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-232?oldid=682045563 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Bryan Derksen, Malcolm Farmer, Justfred, Aldie, Ortolan88, Maury Markowitz, Heron, Topory, RTC, Tim Starling, Nixdorf, Pnm, Liftarn, SGBailey, Breakpoint, Delirium,
Paddu, Egil, WeiNix, Baylink, Theresa knott, Glenn, HPA, Ed Brey, Crissov, Dmsar, Reddi, Zoicon5, Sweety Rose, Itai, Ed g2s,
Bevo, Robbot, Scott McNay, SchmuckyTheCat, Captain Segfault, Giftlite, Brouhaha, Lunkwill, Christopher Parham, Inter, Ferkelparade,
TomViza, AJim, Alexander.stohr, Rchandra, Uzume, Bobblewik, Mobius, Wmahan, Utcursch, Sam Hocevar, Gazpacho, Imroy, Rich Farmbrough, Bert490, Jcmaco, IlyaHaykinson, Alistair1978, Closeapple, Plugwash, Evice, Femto, West London Dweller, Underdog~enwiki,
Wipe, Dcxf, Giraedata, Yonkie, Hawklord, Towel401, ClementSeveillac, Jason One, Gcbirzan, Alansohn, Atlant, Hopp, Water Bottle,
RoySmith, Wtmitchell, Wtshymanski, Rick Sidwell, Danhash, Jheald, Yurivict, Thryduulf, Poppafuze, Hobadee, Miketwo, Weevil, Snafekid, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, SummitWulf, Allen Moore, FlaBot, Flydpnkrtn, Chobot, Adoniscik, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Jengelh, DanMS, Shaddack, Bovineone, Anomalocaris, Mipadi, Tkbwik, Tokachu, Fixedd, Mikeblas, Neil.steiner, SixSix, Jeh, Jeremy Visser,
Caerwine, Ato basehore, The imp, Petri Krohn, Lio , CWenger, Madlobster, Jroddi, Linkminer, Krtki, SmackBot, Thunderboltz, Chris
the speller, Thumperward, Miquonranger03, Jfsamper, Colonies Chris, Frap, An-chan~enwiki, S Roper, Tony esopi patra, Efalk, Charivari, Nmnogueira, Maarten1980~enwiki, Lambiam, Petr Kopa, Fingew, Dave Yost, Gang65, Bollinger, Manifestation, Kvng, Andrew
Hampe, Paul Foxworthy, IanOfNorwich, Robinhw, CmdrObot, Chrike, Hatched3, Jesse Viviano, CuriousEric, Requestion, Spoxox, Gogo
Dodo, Wa2ise, SreekumarC, Tawkerbot4, Quibik, JLD, Gimmetrow, WillFarrell, Nekkensj, Hcberkowitz, DmitTrix, Electron9, Reswobslc, Druiloor, SparhawkWiki, J Clear, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Jj137, Markthemac, JAnDbot, CombatWombat42, MER-C, Arch dude,
IanOsgood, Austinmurphy, Jahoe, Nicolaasuni, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, SEREGA784, Jatkins, Jonsg, JaGa, I B Wright, Captainspizzo,
Ksero, Sigmundg, Exostor, Mange01, ISC PB, Wa3frp, Extransit, Davandron, Bigdumbdinosaur, Inwind, Useight, Funandtrvl, Xenonice, Buddhikaeport, Deor, VolkovBot, Vihljun~enwiki, KyferEz, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Ngorham, Wireless router, Someguy1221,
CanOfWorms, Mezzaluna, Mcculley, SheGru, Andy Dingley, NHRHS2010, Biscuittin, Ronaldesmith, Keilana, Happysailor, Fahidka,
Rowine719, Lightmouse, Engineerism, OKBot, Anchor Link Bot, Pplshero54, Dlrohrer2003, Bajsejohannes, ClueBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Uncle Milty, Pointillist, Rgraham nz, Dekisugi, The Yowser, Kthbn, Jonverve, Callinus, DumZiBoT, Theo177, XLinkBot, Spitre,
Jonbowen234, Rror, Oparidae~enwiki, Addbot, Mortense, PaterMcFly, Tothwolf, Download, Abisys, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Crispmuncher,
Mmxx, Wonder, AnomieBOT, RandomAct, Citation bot, Isheden, Nasa-verve, Bon21, Shadowjams, Haji akhundov, Depictionimage,
Tongtang, Vertago1, SpaceFlight89, Signal7, Toolnut, Pthurmes, Vrenator, Limited Atonement, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Acather96, Gfoley4, Hit.kansagra, Ponydepression, ZroBot, Mastergreg82, Makecat, Demiurge1000, Sbmeirow, Overdoer949, Electron18, Dmlmax, L
Kensington, Tsaavik, DJeo, Sven Manguard, ClueBot NG, MKA667, Matthiaspaul, Wosch21149, DieSwartzPunkt, Antiqueight, Oddbodz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, Komalnirala, Hallows AG, Robert the Devil, Dhanashreevaidya, Sdimteam, Jegor57, Pjb304, Webclient101, Sriharsh1234, Debrell, Nishitpatira, FrigidNinja, Richpike, Noyster, Stamptrader, Mmpozulp, Monkbot, Gandhi.ktn2 and
Anonymous: 447
Serial port Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_port?oldid=682048623 Contributors: Lee Daniel Crocker, Tarquin, Rmhermen,
Ray Van De Walker, Volker, Edward, Modster, Mahjongg, Pekkapihlajasaari, SGBailey, CesarB, Egil, HPA, Reddi, Pedant17, Furrykef,
Spikey, EpiVictor, Robbot, Kadin2048, Puckly, Giftlite, Brouhaha, Everyking, Alexander.stohr, Khalid hassani, Uzume, Bobblewik, Vina,
Bk0, ZZyXx, Eric B. and Rakim, Henriquevicente, Imroy, ElTyrant, Rhobite, Bert490, Clawed, Adam850, Plugwash, CanisRufus, West
London Dweller, Polluks, Towel401, MatthewWilcox, Guy Harris, Interiot, CyberSkull, Yamla, Benefros, Trylks, Wtshymanski, ComCat,
Cdric, Camw, Haikupoet, Brolin Empey, Ttwaring, Moreati, Crazycomputers, DavideAndrea, DuLithgow, Chobot, Roboto de Ajvol,
Wavelength, Hairy Dude, Torinir, Kilowattradio, Xgoat, Jengelh, JayCarlson, Yyy, Shaddack, Rsrikanth05, Wiki alf, Rei-artur, Scott
Stirling, Assjack, SixSix, Jeh, Kewp, Slicing, Whitejay251, Zzuuzz, Ninly, Closedmouth, Haymaker, Ianb1469, Cabe6403, Thumperward, Maxsonbd, Decemberster~enwiki, Snowmanradio, DMacks, Luigi.a.cruz, Feraudyh, 16@r, My Wikipedia, KurtRaschke, Kvng,
Hu12, Hetar, Courcelles, Radiant chains, Robinhw, CmdrObot, 3rik, Jesse Viviano, HenkeB, Johnlogic, MrFish, Rhe br, Thijs!bot,
DSLeB, Saruwine, Wiki fanatic, Electron9, TheJosh, Andrew sh, Wikijimmy, Druiloor, Fabulatech, AntiVandalBot, Adrzip, Myanw,
VoABot II, Dulciana, Wderousse, Hdt83, Axlq, APT, Jim.henderson, Gah4, J.delanoy, V8Cougar, Guyzero, Nikhilgupta2020, JayC, Clarince63, Dkgdkg, Andy Dingley, PeterEasthope, SieBot, Coee, Chimin 07, Lightmouse, ClueBot, Binksternet, Aaa3-other, Gavron, Ridge
Runner, Thejoshwolfe, Sv1xv, Pklala, Orangebodhi, Walkingstick3, Thingg, Mac128, Theo177, XLinkBot, Sandeepgupta26, Dsimic,
Addbot, Mortense, Ghettoblaster, Tothwolf, Scientus, MrOllie, MrVanBot, CarsracBot, RW Dutton, Lightbot, Sergioledesma, Luckas
Blade, Sergiej87, Wonder, Thaiio, Tempodivalse, Koman90, 1exec1, IRP, brahimbarbaros, Photographerguy, Mywifeandkids, ArthurBot, Kajaco2, Capricorn42, Bellerophon, Shadowjams, Motsjo, Tongtang, Glider87, Mfwitten, VipX1, Zeptozoid, Andrew kir, Onel5969,

64

CHAPTER 17. LIST OF NETWORK BUSES

DASHBot, John of Reading, Akhilan, Sbmeirow, Mayur, Peter Karlsen, Rmashhadi, ClueBot NG, Jaanus.kalde, Giobe2000, Wbm1058,
Gauravsangwan, Vanangamudiyan, ZFT, Abracus, Kokkkikumar, Insidiae, ChrisGualtieri, P-Worm, Spinlock55, Blueturtle79, RationalBlasphemist, TYTA Mahesh, Shaomingcn and Anonymous: 247
Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_asynchronous_receiver/transmitter?
oldid=682142494 Contributors: Andre Engels, Gsl, PierreAbbat, Ray Van De Walker, Heron, Hephaestos, Timwi, Dmsar, Bloodshedder,
Paul Richter, Akadruid, Uzume, Bobblewik, MFNickster, Julien~enwiki, Abdull, ThreeE, Discospinster, Thomas Willerich, CanisRufus,
Kwamikagami, Leif, West London Dweller, Polluks, Guy Harris, Atlant, Wtshymanski, Alai, Voxadam, Karnesky, Timharwoodx, Eyreland, Alecv, Graham87, Blisco, BD2412, Koavf, Ysangkok, Alvin-cs, YurikBot, Mang0es, Hede2000, Legalize, ENeville, Hydroxides,
Albedo, Zwobot, Jeh, Maddog Battie, Tiltal, Elomis, SmackBot, Roofus, Bnossum, Toddintr, Oli Filth, Nbarth, Frap, JonHarder, MartinLing, MTSbot~enwiki, Kvng, Ossworks, Irwangatot, Jesse Viviano, Johnlogic, Myasuda, Cdpatel, MegaHL90, Daven200520, Thijs!bot, Al
Lemos, Electron9, Reswobslc, TheGiantHogweed, Opelio, Mk*, JAnDbot, Dicentra, Deective, MER-C, Magioladitis, Nyq, Fordsfords,
Dulciana, Matt B., Mange01, Rhinestone K, Javawizard, Robigus, VolkovBot, Amikake3, Kakoui, Kuba425, Rei-bot, CanOfWorms,
Vskgopu, Altermike, Why Not A Duck, Sevcsik, Brenont, Lightmouse, Agunther, Majorkell, Jfromcanada, ClueBot, The Thing That
Should Not Be, Bhkjersten, Niceguyedc, Mumiemonstret, Excirial, Jonverve, Dthomsen8, Avoided, Deineka, Addbot, Zoewyr, CanadianLinuxUser, Download, Favonian, Carlos Rosa PT, Lightbot, Ulkl, Knownot, Jim1138, Kingpin13, Materialscientist, Simonjohndoherty,
RT Jones, JWBE, Dmaizer, Kwiki, I dream of horses, Thinking of England, MarioBlunk, Dewritech, Wikipelli, Bktero, Exar Corporation,
Srikanthsamaga, Sbmeirow, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Chester Markel, Frietjes, Muon, MerlIwBot, Wbm1058, Ssinghwiki, MusikAnimal,
Pooh20240, Anbu121, Mrt3366, G1VaE, Zenibus, YiFeiBot, Gbmhunter, AddWittyNameHere, Ppannuto and Anonymous: 240
Dierential signaling Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_signaling?oldid=674657420 Contributors: Heron, CesarB, Lee
M, Omegatron, Robbot, DavidCary, BenFrantzDale, Utcursch, RevRagnarok, D6, Wordie, Matt Britt, Mac Davis, Wtshymanski, Alai,
Palica, Strake, Neonil~enwiki, Arnero, Dbollard99, Guerberj, Jeh, Museo8bits, Kle0012, SmackBot, Charlierichmond, Bluebot, Keegan,
Freewol, Brian Gunderson, Ckatz, Kvng, Circuit dreamer, MeekMark, No1lakersfan, Jwilkinson, Christian75, Jim.henderson, Yintan, Lixuesong, Jfromcanada, Binksternet, 718 Bot, Addbot, Mathieu Perrin, Mortense, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, GrouchoBot, Some
standardized rigour, Jpathanna, Reaper Eternal, GoingBatty, Eda eng, Hoeksas, Matthiaspaul, Linear77, BattyBot, Jan.didden and Anonymous: 52
RS-422 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-422?oldid=669438128 Contributors: SimonP, CesarB, HPA, Dysprosia, David Gerard, Giftlite, Markus Kuhn, Mboverload, Bobblewik, Skarg, Xezbeth, CanisRufus, Femto, M7, Denniss, Wtshymanski, Garzo, Bsadowski1, Isnow, Mandarax, Yuriybrisk, Haikupoet, Brolin Empey, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, BjKa, Chobot, YurikBot, Shaddack, Tony1, Nelson50,
Linkminer, SmackBot, Unyoyega, Bluebot, Jerome Charles Potts, Hongooi, Ged UK, J Crow, Iridescent, Robinhw, CmdrObot, Anthony
Bradbury, Joeyhagedorn, Reportingsjr, Andrew sh, DirkHelgemo, J Clear, Sciams, Robijn, Dorftrottel, VolkovBot, Triesault, Kbrose,
SieBot, Ronaldesmith, This, that and the other, Crm123, Fahidka, Jonverve, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, Fightin' Phillie, GrouchoBot, Fpsasm, Thehelpfulbot, Thaas00, WikitanvirBot, Dewritech, MaGa, Ksliech, DieSwartzPunkt, Martyhascak, JordoCo, Paulino 2, EE JRW, I
am One of Many, NekoKatsun and Anonymous: 55
RS-485 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-485?oldid=679895291 Contributors: Smack, Arteitle, Royce, Radiojon, UtherSRG,
Giftlite, DavidCary, Fleminra, Funvill, MementoVivere, Mjuarez, CanisRufus, Femto, Frodet, M7, Lectonar, Wdfarmer, Marianocecowski, Velella, Wtshymanski, Gene Nygaard, Isnow, LinkTiger, FlaBot, Homo stannous, Chobot, Bgwhite, Roboto de Ajvol, Wavelength, DMahalko, Armistej, Chris Capoccia, Shaddack, RussNelson, Voidxor, Zwobot, Jeh, Deville, Jzap, Back ache, Kevin, Nelson50,
ViperSnake151, SmackBot, Commander Keane bot, Elronxenu, Charlierichmond, Sfxtd, Chris the speller, Bluebot, EncMstr, Yozi66,
MaxSem, Frap, AlexBadea, Adamarthurryan, Littleman TAMU, SlayerK, Dicklyon, Petr Matas, Ronaldvd, CmdrObot, Wsmarz, Gogo
Dodo, Alaibot, Mtpaley, Electron9, Andrew sh, Tom dl, JAnDbot, The Tarnz, SEREGA784, Rhdv, MagicBobert, Dbrunner, J.delanoy,
Molly-in-md, STBotD, Deor, VolkovBot, Oshwah, Intchanter, Gri6507, Jhawkinson, Biscuittin, Ronaldesmith, Fahidka, OsamaBinLogin,
Lightmouse, Fratrep, Frappucino, CiudadanoGlobal, Foxj, Jacques.boudreau, Arjayay, Dekisugi, Jonverve, Joel Saks, XLinkBot, Addbot,
Mortense, Cst17, Download, Rchard2scout, Lightbot, Vanuan, Yobot, Nallimbot, Birdy1982~enwiki, AnomieBOT, 4k05, Kristen Eriksen, Pyrrhus16, JoshuaJohnston, LilHelpa, Helothm, Lionblue, Bon21, GrouchoBot, Kyng, I2so4, Thaas00, Teuxe, Trappist the monk,
Thrownshadows, ZroBot, Wagner, Freetoseetheworld, Electron18, Dmlmax, RonWessels, Stndle, ClueBot NG, Cybercluster, BG19bot,
Nagilum15, Hmpeople, , EE JRW, 331dot, Bad Dryer and Anonymous: 163
Physical layer Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_layer?oldid=677757993 Contributors: Amillar, Europrobe, MartinHarper,
Alo, Looxix~enwiki, EdH, Emperorbma, Andrewman327, Dtgm, SatyrTN, Grendelkhan, Itai, Robbot, Tomchiukc, Jredmond, Yacht,
Giftlite, Harp, Itpastorn, Tagishsimon, Kevin Rector, Ta bu shi da yu, DcoetzeeBot~enwiki, Sietse Snel, Giraedata, Guy Harris, Marianocecowski, Rick Sidwell, Alai, CONFIQ, ScottDavis, Scootey, BD2412, Phoenix-forgotten, Welsley, DeadlyAssassin, Amire80, Vegaswikian, FlaBot, Arnero, RexNL, BjKa, Lmatt, Amaurea, Borgx, Hede2000, Yyy, Grafen, Arastcp, BertK, Hosterweis, Deville, Extraordinary, Crost, Rwwww, Linkminer, Bouquet, SmackBot, John Silvestri, AGruntsJaggon, KelleyCook, Carl.bunderson, Grassynoel,
Nbarth, Mosca, UU, Ibarrere, Acdx, Butko, Dicklyon, Doczilla, Dominio~enwiki, Kvng, Phantasee, Hetar, Dkovacs, Eastlaw, IntrigueBlue,
Luckyherb, Clovis Sangrail, Underpants, Epbr123, Kubanczyk, Kaaveh Ahangar~enwiki, WinBot, Widefox, James smith2, ImpossibleEcho, JAnDbot, CosineKitty, Enjoi4586, VoABot II, Stdazi, DerHexer, Gary63, Chriscandy, RockMFR, Mange01, Violask81976, Brest,
Tsuite, Harobikes34, Inomyabcs, Inwind, Mlewis000, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Pepsi Lite, Kremso, PaulTanenbaum, Kbrose, SieBot, Nubiatech, Shashiranjan18, Marketsnipers, Fahidka, EnOreg, Iain99, Digisus, Martarius, ClueBot, NyAp, Lawrence Cohen, Johnuniq, Dgtsyb,
Addbot, Jafeluv, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jaczuk, CarsracBot, Kisbesbot, TaBOT-zerem, Gerixau, 1exec1, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Mhby87, TimothyJKeller, Savannah Kaylee, IMC Networks, Itusg15q4user, Slamminheads, Pinethicket, HRoestBot, Drieken,
TobeBot, SchreyP, Alph Bot, Salvio giuliano, Slon02, EmausBot, RA0808, CannonR, Gcharsle, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Henry Stanley,
Lord Chamberlain, the Renowned, Wbm1058, Green8907, MusikAnimal, CitationCleanerBot, Group9 tele, Afoo5, Triestsun, Ginsuloft,
Dastoger Bashar, User26954344524345, Goodreasontobemad and Anonymous: 133
Ethernet physical layer Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet_physical_layer?oldid=682545997 Contributors: Leandrod, Conti,
Mrand, Giftlite, Antandrus, Guy Harris, Rd232, Stephan Leeds, RJFJR, Boscobiscotti, Woohookitty, Armando, MarcoTolo, Rjwilmsi,
DougBurbidge, Mancini, Intgr, Lmatt, Celebere, Rosenbluh, Petri Krohn, SmackBot, Sam8, KelleyCook, Thumperward, Adamantios,
Radagast83, Zac67, Gobonobo, Bezenek, The emm, Kvng, Lee Carre, Raysonho, Electron9, Alphachimpbot, Slidersv, SolarWind, Arch
dude, VoABot II, Think outside the box, JaGa, GermanX, Bobby the Lordd, Mange01, Peter Chastain, Peppergrower, Rwessel, Philip Trueman, Gareth8118, Mikachu42, Neophyrigian, Nitrooreo, Fahidka, Masgatotkaca, Editore99, Engineerism, ImageRemovalBot, Martarius,
ClueBot, Iandiver, PolarYukon, Sun Creator, Rswarbrick, Addbot, Tothwolf, Sawao, Jekader, Yobot, Jordsan, Crispmuncher, AnomieBOT,
HistPhd, GrouchoBot, FaTony, W Nowicki, StandardsNettle, Btilm, Conachlmrs09, Miracle Pen, RjwilmsiBot, Alph Bot, Dewritech,
Wbenton, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, 336, Like Budda, BattyBot, Aeroid and Anonymous: 50

17.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

65

10BASE2 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10BASE2?oldid=671378137 Contributors: The Anome, Stephen Gilbert, B4hand, Roybadami, Mbecker, Edward, Emperorbma, Itai, Indefatigable, David.Monniaux, Rossumcapek, Merovingian, Dock, Alvestrand, Pritch,
Zondor, Guanabot, Pak21, Xezbeth, Alistair1978, Plugwash, Dennis Brown, Matt Britt, Guy Harris, Arthena, Zippanova, RoySmith,
Mswer, Cburnett, Markaci, Btornado, Smoke, Woohookitty, Ch'marr, Graham87, FlaBot, Srleer, Borgx, Retodon8, RussBot, Gunmetal, Vlad, Jeh, TransUtopian, Zzuuzz, Ninly, Allens, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Pgk, PDD, Bryanm, Thumperward, Fuhghettaboutit, Kntrabssi, M jurrens, Zac67, Nagle, Kvng, Ndvornk, Djg2006, Gorthus, Electron9, SupaDane, Cpl Syx, Alan U. Kennington, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Anna Lincoln, Ocolon, Andy Dingley, Haseo9999, Vitz-RS, Yintan, ClueBot, Liekmudkipz, Flightsoancy,
Finndo, ChrisHodgesUK, Thingg, SilvonenBot, Addbot, Mortense, Kimmymarie24, Tothwolf, Ronhjones, Suwa, Yobot, Dylansm21, Materialscientist, Minnesota Mike, Almabot, Recognizance, Unixstu, Merlion444, John of Reading, TuHan-Bot, Gmdoan, ClueBot NG,
Izkhandar, MadGuy7023, Briancarlton, Dacut and Anonymous: 80
Fast Ethernet Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Ethernet?oldid=674716855 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Robert Merkel,
The Anome, Aldie, Ellmist, Edward, Baylink, Crissov, Oakad, Mrand, Ed g2s, Ktims, Chealer, Giftlite, Fudoreaper, Lupin, EJDyksen,
Onco p53, Plugwash, Pilatus, Femto, Rjamorim, Guy Harris, Wtshymanski, Cburnett, Gene Nygaard, Armando, Andybryant, Mendaliv,
Rjwilmsi, Intgr, Srleer, Borgx, NTBot~enwiki, Bachrach44, Voidxor, Pok148, Petri Krohn, SmackBot, Cavenba, MeiStone, KelleyCook, MonteChristof, Frap, Ultra-Loser, Adamantios, UU, Ryan Roos, A5b, Zac67, ThurnerRupert, Cychoi, Kvng, Lee Carre, Kthemank, Requestion, T23c, Spoxox, ST47, Epbr123, Electron9, James086, NocNokNeo, Bluedustmite, Nicolaasuni, Plamoa, VoABot II,
JamesBWatson, Gary63, Kmwiki, Conquerist, MartinBot, Lhbts~enwiki, Gurchzilla, A aberdeen, STBotD, Idioma-bot, Philip Trueman,
Rednectar.chris, Soccerman58, Pjoef, AlleborgoBot, VVVBot, Lightmouse, Engineerism, Svick, Anchor Link Bot, Grazfather, Martarius, Wysprgr2005, WarKosign, MystBot, Dsimic, Addbot, SamatBot, Konryd, Ettrig, Peizo, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, DynamoDegsy, SassoBot, W Nowicki, HRoestBot, MastiBot, Megya, Ripchip Bot, AngieZou, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Mz7, ZroBot, Mikhail
Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Widr, JJohnston2, Helpful Pixie Bot, Johnny C. Morse, Lowercase sigmabot, Graphium, BurritoBazooka, Redeyed demon, Ugog Nizdast, TB Rich and Anonymous: 107
Ethernet over twisted pair Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet_over_twisted_pair?oldid=671882488 Contributors: The
Anome, Stephen Gilbert, Amillar, B4hand, Roybadami, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Mac, Julesd, Crissov, Wikiborg, Timc, Itai, Indefatigable,
Chealer, Jakohn, Merovingian, Zxmaster, Lzur, Giftlite, DavidCary, Mintleaf~enwiki, Karn, ZeroJanvier, Dock, Justzisguy, PenguiN42,
Hilarleo, R, Alistair1978, Billatq, Plugwash, Dpotter, Kop, El C, Sietse Snel, Lunaverse, Afed, Giraedata, Friviere, Guy Harris, RoySmith, Sligocki, Benhutchings, Wtshymanski, SteinbDJ, Boscobiscotti, Armando, CannibalSmith, Graham87, FreplySpang, Rjwilmsi,
Zbxgscqf, Dcsutherland, FlaBot, AttishOculus, Guanxi, Roboto de Ajvol, EdStau, Baccala@freesoft.org, Herbertxu, Bachrach44, Styrofoamcup, Voidxor, Yonidebest, Ninly, SmackBot, Gigglesworth, Royalguard11, HalfShadow, Apple2, Toddintr, Talinus, Snori, SeanWillard, E946, Frap, Rhodesh, UNHchabo, MitchellShnier, UU, Uldoon, Zac67, Slakr, Dicklyon, Kvng, Lee Carre, Chetvorno, Pumbaa80, Thundt, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, RichardBennett, Electron9, Ethernetextender, Sln3412, Ebeili, Jheiv, Piezocuttlesh, Jim.henderson,
Sephers, Carre, Algotr, Ken g6, 28bytes, TXiKiBoT, Rednectar.chris, Tfdb, SteinAlive, Drtimmcguinness, Masgatotkaca, Lightmouse,
ClueBot, Binksternet, Aashish.59, Mild Bill Hiccup, Atlaslin, MarkJL, Sarsaparilla, Bjdehut, Thatguyint, Addbot, Tothwolf, Adrian
1001, Hwsknudsen, Ka Faraq Gatri, Download, LaaknorBot, CarsracBot, , Krano, Yobot, OrgasGirl, TaBOT-zerem,
AnomieBOT, ncel Acar, FrescoBot, Transmission 1000, W Nowicki, Tranletuhan, Geek2003, Marcel van b, Novajeeper, I dream of
horses, CraigMatthews, Saayiit, Usemyname3times, Brucew702, TuHan-Bot, Fages, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058,
Pritishp333, Pcslc, Jmediate88, TheSurak and Anonymous: 129
Ethernet Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet?oldid=681436110 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Mav, The Anome, Amillar,
Dachshund, JeLuF, Aldie, PierreAbbat, Paul~enwiki, Maury Markowitz, Heron, B4hand, Branko, Roybadami, Tedernst, JohnOwens,
Michael Hardy, Norm, Mahjongg, Nixdorf, Minesweeper, CamTarn, CesarB, Egil, Ahoerstemeier, Haakon, Angela, Setu, Salsa Shark,
Glenn, Cstanners, Harvester, Schneelocke, Ehn, Crissov, Wikiborg, Oakad, Colin Marquardt, The quark, Wik, Zoicon5, Judzillah, Tpbradbury, Mrand, Furrykef, Itai, Khalad, Thue, Indefatigable, Cluth, Lumos3, Phil Boswell, TimBovee, Robbot, Chealer, Sander123,
TomPhil, Tonsofpcs, Jakohn, Fredrik, Boy b, Scott McNay, RedWolf, Modulatum, Rholton, Steeev, Hadal, Chaosgate, ElBenevolente, Blutrot, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Laudaka, Fudoreaper, Karn, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Carlo.Ierna, Jason Quinn,
AlistairMcMillan, Alvestrand, Bobblewik, Wmahan, Chowbok, Pgan002, Mendel, Ebear422, CryptoDerk, OverlordQ, WhiteDragon,
Quarl, MacGyverMagic, Bumm13, Mozzerati, Sam Hocevar, Rlcantwell, Biot, Tooki, Creidieki, Joyous!, Ukexpat, Vijaykumar~enwiki,
Now3d, Chmod007, Abdull, Adashiel, Moxfyre, EagleOne, Generica, Corti, Mike Rosoft, Frankchn, Urvabara, Econrad, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Pmsyyz, Wk muriithi, ArnoldReinhold, Wefa, Irq, Nvj, Kbh3rd, Goplat, Limbo socrates, Plugwash,
Sharkford, Oneocean, Kwamikagami, Mwanner, Pilatus, Tverbeek, Shanes, Sietse Snel, Dennis Brown, Bookofjude, Rufus210, Femto,
Vdm, Flxmghvgvk, Cmdrjameson, Ricsi, Kjkolb, Digitalsushi, HCelik, Wrs1864, Helix84, Xenium, Nsaa, Wayfarer, ClementSeveillac,
Knucmo2, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Nroets, Guy Harris, Corwin8, RoySmith, Sligocki, Wtshymanski, Rick Sidwell, Cburnett, Stephan Leeds,
Suruena, Dtcdthingy, NJM, CloudNine, Boscobiscotti, Matt.farina, Algocu, Voxadam, Adrian.benko, Dennis Bratland, Kbolino, Tunnie,
Firsfron, Vashti, OwenX, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, RHaworth, Tyz, Percy Snoodle, Steven Luo, Armando, Ruud Koot, WadeSimMiser,
Jhartmann, Alecv, Drak2, Andybryant, Marudubshinki, Graham87, Bilbo1507, BD2412, Jemichel, Casey Abell, Rjwilmsi, Tizio, Isaac
Rabinovitch, Johnblade, Bruce1ee, HappyCamper, Ligulem, Mbutts, ScottJ, Mikm, Hungrymouse, Fred Bradstadt, Aapo Laitinen, Utuado, Lotu, JamesEG, Silenceisfoo, FlaBot, Ewlyahoocom, Intgr, Fresheneesz, TheMoog, King of Hearts, Guanxi, Chobot, Tas50, DVdm,
121a0012, WriterHound, Vmenkov, YurikBot, Wavelength, Sceptre, Charles Gaudette, Michael Slone, Jtkiefer, RadioFan, Stephenb, Yyy,
Lavenderbunny, Rsrikanth05, Ibc111, Bovineone, Markjx, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Vanished user kjdioejh329io3rksdkj, Gosub, DavidH, Dogcow, Leotohill, Bota47, Yudiweb, Bdmcmahon, Closedmouth, Iambk, KGasso, LordJumper, Back ache, QmunkE, Nelson50, Davehard,
David Biddulph, Rwwww, GrinBot~enwiki, Selmo, Veinor, SmackBot, FocalPoint, Zhangyue~enwiki, Unschool, Brian Patrie, Reedy,
KnowledgeOfSelf, McGeddon, Unyoyega, Praetor alpha, Betbest1, WillAndrews, Bomac, KocjoBot~enwiki, Fulldecent, Pkirlin, Monz,
KelleyCook, BiT, Mhare, Eloil, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Betacommand, Skizzik, K45671, El Cubano, Fetofs, Stuart P. Bentley, Amatulic,
Lovecz, KaragouniS, Snori, DHN-bot~enwiki, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Frap, Vidmes, JonHarder, SundarBot, UU, Cybercobra,
Martijn Hoekstra, Akriasas, Drphilharmonic, Bidabadi~enwiki, Zac67, Ohconfucius, Evert Mouw, Pjbrockmann, ThurnerRupert, The
undertow, Spiritia, SashatoBot, Anss123, Nishkid64, Zero10one, Kuru, Rait, Evil genius, DavidBailey, Gobonobo, Ksn, Minna Sora no
Shita, JohnWittle, N TRoPY, Eivind F yangen, Jec, Hvn0413, Aeluwas, Dicklyon, Arkrishna, Lped999, Peyre, Kvng, Lee Carre, Iridescent, Paul Koning, Kate.woodcroft, Igoldste, Finest1, Tawkerbot2, Ghaly, MightyWarrior, Hobophobe, CRGreathouse, CmdrObot,
Ale jrb, Raysonho, Causantin, Makeemlighter, Requestion, MrFish, Danrok, Mblumber, UncleBubba, Gogo Dodo, Wa2ise, BlueAg09,
Corpx, Chasingsol, Tawkerbot4, Juansempere, SpamBilly, Ameliorate!, Branclem, Viridae, Trev M, Epbr123, Daa89563, RichardBennett,
Electron9, Fenrisulfr, Wmasterj, Wikifranz~enwiki, Solveforce, Eleuther, Yuvalnod, Luna Santin, Quintote, Prolog, Bbachrac, Azaghal
of Belegost, Peck123~enwiki, Dcorzine, Spencer, Myanw, Golgofrinchian, Bigjimr, JAnDbot, Deective, Harryzilber, MER-C, Nthep,
Wootery, Arch dude, John a s, TAnthony, Kerotan, Greylion, LittleOldMe, Nicolaasuni, Enjoi4586, Andreas Toth, Plamoa, Magioladitis,

66

CHAPTER 17. LIST OF NETWORK BUSES

Ramurf, JamesBWatson, SHCarter, Kakomu, Willy on Wheels over Ethernet, Nyttend, Nikevich, Recurring dreams, CS46, Catgut, Elinruby, Cpl Syx, Dharmadhyaksha, Kgeischmann, Calltech, 0612, Lockg, Hdt83, MartinBot, BetBot~enwiki, ARC Gritt, Jim.henderson,
Rettetast, Keith D, Pekaje, Gah4, Artaxiad, J.delanoy, Trusilver, MoussePad, Grandsonofmaaden, Andareed, Plasticup, GTAKIllerEric,
NewEnglandYankee, Juliancolton, Useight, Alyssapvr, Melvinvon, VolkovBot, Mrh30, Leebo, VasilievVV, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT,
Wingnutamj, Rednectar.chris, Jackfork, BotKung, Milan Kerlger, Iamzemasterraf, Andy Dingley, Lamro, Altermike, Turgan, LittleBenW, Nightraider0, Hughey, Kbrose, The Random Editor, SieBot, Nubiatech, Caltas, Yintan, Angusmca, 4a6f656c, Flyer22, Herberthuber, Cjdaniel, Oxymoron83, Gopher23, Lightmouse, Fratrep, Engineerism, Gyanlakhwani, Svick, Rapaporta, Xnatedawgx, Tiny
plastic Grey Knight, C0nanPayne, Martarius, ClueBot, Bootleggingly mcbootleg, The Thing That Should Not Be, H0serdude, EoGuy,
Nnemo, Mightyms, Excirial, Eeekster, Thingg, 7, Versus22, Sobelbob, Johnuniq, SoxBot III, SF007, Diskdoc, Stickee, Rror, Pgallert,
Kevmcs, Facts707, Weitzhandler, Zodon, 1stJahman, Dsimic, Kbdankbot, Bookbrad, Addbot, Applemacintosh10, Mortense, DOI bot,
Gnalk, Tothwolf, EjsBot, Amore proprio, Fieldday-sunday, CanadianLinuxUser, Cst17, MrOllie, Download, SoSaysChappy, Swapdisk,
LinkFA-Bot, Manish soni, Tide rolls, AtomEdge, Lightbot, Krano, Mmiszka, Legobot, Publicly Visible, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Crispmuncher,
Peter Flass, Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT, Bctwriter, EEgirl18, Efa, Jim1138, NeaNita, Royote, Gascreed, Piano non troppo, Shieldforyoureyes, AdjustShift, Tom87020, Wasisnt, Ulric1313, Flewis, Citation bot, Aneah, Packetslinger, LilHelpa, Idkyididthis, Capricorn42,
J04n, Stratocracy, Jangirke, Shadowjams, WaysToEscape, Gnuish, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Transmission 1000, Lukith, W Nowicki,
Thaas00, Itusg15q4user, Geek2003, Typo47, ZenerV, Kwiki, SeaChanger, Citation bot 1, Gekkoblaster, Lallolu, Biker Biker, Jschnur,
Btilm, TobeBot, Rarmy, Sincoskie, WikiJaZon, Carminowe of Hendra, Grgan, RjwilmsiBot, Rw4nd4, Andyhodapp, Becritical, DASHBot, Ajraddatz, Joseph507357, RA0808, Michael Thomas Sullivan, Wbenton, Palmer1973, Solarra, Swarnabhra, Wikipelli, 1lovegal,
ZroBot, Hussein 95, Elektrik Shoos, Davidch12, G4wsz, MessiFCB, DASHBotAV, 28bot, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Nimiew, Donnieleefarrow, Manubot, Satellizer, Buy P%E%P%S%I, Bigboymcgee, WillLord, Pluma, Helpful Pixie Bot, Johnnyboyshoots, HMSSolent,
Wbm1058, DarkSlayer516, Northamerica1000, Metaprinter, Test35965, PinkMonkeys, Glacialfox, Lolpack, Mavieira, BattyBot, Wattlesmorse, Tmontalv, StarryGrandma, DarafshBot, ChrisGualtieri, Jags707, Dexbot, Kasabax, Frosty, Graphium, Faizan, DBhavsar709,
Oztuck, Bakerdaft, Tankman98, Someones Moving Castle, Semsi Paco Virchow, Pcpded, Imran771, Jmars180, Monkbot, Thetrollface5,
MoLtO95, YOOOOOOOOLO, Unician, Badmonkey717, The Last Arietta, TheMagikCow, Multiprecision, Dq2win, A.witmer2, Andy
butcher, KasparBot and Anonymous: 757
Category 5 cable Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_5_cable?oldid=682103336 Contributors: The Anome, Amillar, Aldie,
Maury Markowitz, Heron, BryceHarrington, Mtmsmile, Norm, Ee79, Pagingmrherman, Ahoerstemeier, Darkwind, Julesd, Grin, Samw,
Crissov, Fuzheado, Radiojon, Wernher, Indefatigable, Finlay McWalter, Robbot, Chealer, Tonsofpcs, Misterrick, Auric, Caknuck, Kd4ttc,
Giftlite, Johnjosephbachir, DocWatson42, DavidCary, Fudoreaper, Lethe, Fo0bar, AJim, Bobblewik, Neilc, Chowbok, Utcursch, Pgan002,
Plp~enwiki, Ctachme, Salasks, WhiteDragon, Elembis, Mysidia, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, Zombiejesus, ArnoldReinhold, Vinko,
Mwm126, Nharmon, Plugwash, Billlion, Dpotter, Purplefeltangel, Alereon, Defsac, Giraedata, Jerryseinfeld, Kjkolb, Slambo, Jason
One, Alansohn, T4bits, Jhertel, Interiot, RobertStar20, Wtshymanski, Rick Sidwell, Stephan Leeds, Luspari, Voxadam, Dismas, Brycen,
Boothy443, Mindmatrix, Easyas12c, Jhartmann, Meneth, Wayward, A3r0, Miken32, GrundyCamellia, G-RaZoR, Snaekid, Casey Abell,
Rjwilmsi, Tammojan, Koavf, XP1, X1011, Bubba73, Brighterorange, Krash, Makru, FlaBot, Digital Prophet, Lmatt, Gwernol, Hairy
Dude, Woseph, Adjensen, SpuriousQ, Pvasiliadis, Daniel15, Dugosz, Howcheng, Dureo, Voidxor, Kenguest, Jonas Viper, Super Rad!,
Ninly, KGasso, Museo8bits, Mike1024, Azrael81, PaulWright, Otheus, SmackBot, Gigs, Roofus, Matthuxtable, KelleyCook, Zephyris,
Gilliam, Skizzik, Hlovdal, Ghost.scream, Oli Filth, EncMstr, Dustimagic, Farry, Kostmo, A. B., Random5, AussieLegend, Jsmethers,
JonHarder, GeorgeMoney, Addshore, Fuhghettaboutit, Nakon, Valenciano, Aditsu, Drphilharmonic, Harryboyles, BorisFromStockdale,
Xandi, Dark Lazer, BasementTrix, IronGargoyle, XP528, Infofarmer, Peter Horn, Kvng, Akaase~enwiki, DouglasCalvert, White Ash,
Ilikefox34, CapitalR, Guardianangelz, AdemarReis, FatalError, Tiny green, Hamish2k, Raysonho, Randalllin, Shandris, MetalGearLiquid,
Neelix, Samuell, Wa2ise, Stuston, DJSnuggles, Electron9, Nick Number, Sean William, Dawnseeker2000, Edokter, Peipei, Electrickery,
Leuqarte, Golgofrinchian, Harryzilber, IJMacD, TheOtherSiguy, Ccrrccrr, Andreas Toth, Gersam, Cookieman123, Email4mobile, BrianGV, Esanchez7587, MartinBot, MichaelClair, FIGATT, Verdatum, Tgeairn, Tomcritchlow, J.delanoy, Ibjoe, Derlay, Adrian M. H.,
Bushcarrot, Cowplopmorris, Acjihlanfeldt, Mlewis000, Faithfullyclever, Phasma Felis, TimmyGUNZ, DoorsAjar, The Original Wildbear, Whaledad, Larry2rock, Dragana666, Jamelan, Jhawkinson, Ghostofhendrix, SalomonCeb, 2pintsno1fan, Judgeice, Deconstructhis, Tuphace, Caltas, Thehornet, Cb77305, Rukt, Editore99, Lightmouse, Freerink, ClueBot, Avenged Eightfold, Lockoom, TinyMark,
Wysprgr2005, Ressy, Arakunem, Jmn100, Danair, Kitsunegami, Grundig, Cochise7969, Ryan Albrey, IamNotU, Andrewcrawford, Apparition11, Ordoon, Itconsultantmia, XLinkBot, LeaW, Nepenthes, Edgar25, Mifter, Jonisagoodeditor, Addbot, Mortense, Download,
LaaknorBot, Flareback, , Semiwiki, Tide rolls, Lightbot, MuZemike, Yobot, Pradeep pn, Crispmuncher, Doulosquinn,
Mattventura, Jaromir Adamek, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, AnomieBOT, Killiondude, Crystal whacker, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Installerone, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Creativesoul8, Ched, Thankful21&3, Fightin' Phillie, INT03h, Hifriends9989, Feneeth of
Borg, W Nowicki, Wb8erj, Calmer Waters, Btilm, Jrosdahl, Lotje, Coer22, Simplejacktard, Soundchaser78, Videoguy601, Theo10011,
Canuckian89, Suusion of Yellow, Katkins84, Hudsonja05, The Utahraptor, Ufomartin, Phlegat, Dwvisser, EmausBot, ChaCho92, Enviromet, Markellse, Tommy2010, John Erdman, Marcseman, Timsellars1027, L Kensington, Ramanbme, Anthony Di Leonardo, Kf6olq,
Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Oboroten by, Nantasatria, DoubleDiamond76, Widr, Sgeeves, HMSSolent, DBigXray, Darkzy43, Betomendoza, Eleanor1975, Peytonrottie, MusikAnimal, IluvatarBot, SoSmugItHurts, Caduon, The Polish, OceanEngineerRI, Aliwal2012,
Skyboy m2002, RenewableBob, Makecat-bot, Cerabot~enwiki, B.ware86, TwoTwoHello, Little green rosetta, Greatuser, I am One of
Many, Sjrct, UnTrueOrUnSimplied, Emdioh, Jimgerbig, Lagoset, LoveKurtI, Rickett151, SSolheim and Anonymous: 498
Category 6 cable Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_6_cable?oldid=681480811 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, The Anome,
Head, Wernher, Pstudier, Sarexpert, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Wrolf, Inter, Fudoreaper, Karn, Rchandra, Bobblewik, Christopherlin, Mysidia, EagleOne, NightMonkey, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Magic5ball, Mecanismo, ArnoldReinhold, Alistair1978, Nharmon, Dpotter, Alereon, Erik456, Davidsmind, Alansohn, RobertStar20, Movax~enwiki, Cburnett, Stephan Leeds, NantonosAedui, Mindmatrix,
Miken32, Mandarax, Cuvtixo, Buxtehude, Snaekid, Sjakkalle, XP1, Leithp, AJR, Phantomsteve, Steeltoe, Dunerat, Wiki alf, Dwarfpower, InformationalAnarchist, DavidMarsh, Dogcow, Voidxor, CLW, Fsiler, SmackBot, Imsaguy, KelleyCook, Yamaguchi , Gilliam,
Bluebot, Flurry, EncMstr, Kimero, Nbarth, A. B., Mexcellent, Alphathon, Jsmethers, JonHarder, RedHillian, Pemu, Drphilharmonic,
Brian Gunderson, Kvng, Akaase~enwiki, HelloAnnyong, Bsdmanual, Tiny green, Hamish2k, Raysonho, Pumbaa80, Randall311, Lenilucho, Dr Zak, W.F.Galway, Cuhlik, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, DJSnuggles, NorwegianBlue, AntiVandalBot, Jonathan Williams, Mercury543210,
Markthemac, Kirrages, Thomas.Hedden, Brownout, Nrvn93, Email4mobile, Roastytoast, Tomcritchlow, J.delanoy, Dbacompany, Ibjoe,
Bigdumbdinosaur, ILoveFuturama, STBotD, Jdcarpe, Num1dgen, Jbond00747, Kkemp, Dwisecup, Redrey, Judgeice, Jdpf, SieBot,
Svtdave87, CultureDrone, Denisarona, ClueBot, GrandDrake, The Thing That Should Not Be, Jikdor, Grundig, Alexbot, Cochise7969,
Flashnolan, JulienDanjou, Frongle, Andrewcrawford, Kubek15, Scatter22, XLinkBot, Kurienmathew, Nepenthes, MichaelsProgramming,
Starlite528, Nickhoare, Addbot, Mortense, Fieldday-sunday, Jchap1590, Drhowarddrne, Swiveler, Cst17, LaaknorBot, MauriceTrainer,
Tide rolls, Yobot, Pradeep pn, AnomieBOT, Kristen Eriksen, IRP, Kingpin13, Dr.Drug.Dealer, Materialscientist, Installerone, Diego

17.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

67

Queiroz, Creativesoul8, Frosted14, Enduserx, Brayan Jaimes, Feneeth of Borg, Notveryhere, W Nowicki, Darr247, HamburgerRadio,
MJ94, Btilm, White Shadows, Golgot1, Coer22, Simplejacktard, Soundchaser78, Gardrek, Katkins84, X2a, WikitanvirBot, Profek,
RenamedUser01302013, Enviromet, Mccomfort, Andyjg13, Wozniak1337, Hanji, Amanisdude, Ocaasi, Tolly4bolly, Arman Cagle,
Bomazi, NatNapoletano, Socialservice, Athikalaker, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Gman546416,
Gijs007~enwiki, Luhaine, Furley85, Winston Chuen-Shih Yang, MahdiBot, Arcandam, Slick231, Db48026, Faizan, Tankman98, Someone
not using his real name, Monkbot, Ondes Nissa, Chrisblitz357 and Anonymous: 257
List of network buses Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_network_buses?oldid=650251775 Contributors: DougEngland,
TastyPoutine, Nhumfrey, Electron9, Widefox, Beefstu, R'n'B, Dmillimono, Andy Dingley, Lightmouse, Arizavi, TonyBallioni, Avoided,
Addbot, Lightbot, Crispmuncher, Anna Frodesiak, FrescoBot, Betsytimmer, Yoshi24517 and Anonymous: 13

17.4.2

Images

File:10Base5transcievers.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/10Base5transcievers.jpg License: CC


BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Robert.Harker at en.wikipedia
File:10base2_cable.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/10base2_cable.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Dock at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by
Zcraysh at en.wikipedia.
File:10base2_t-piece.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/10base2_t-piece.png License: Public domain
Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Dock at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by
Zcraysh at en.wikipedia.
File:10base2_terminator.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/10base2_terminator.png License: Public
domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Dock at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded
by Zcraysh at en.wikipedia.
File:10baseT_cable.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/10baseT_cable.jpeg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:10baseT_jack.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/10baseT_jack.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Note it is not the jack as implied by its le name, but a plug which inserts into a
jack. Original artist: Dock at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Zcraysh at en.wikipedia.
File:3Com_3c905-tx_NIC.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/3Com_3c905-tx_NIC.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Rjamorim at English Wikipedia
File:AAUI_examples.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/AAUI_examples.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia
Original artist: Flightsoancy (talk). Original uploader was Flightsoancy at en.wikipedia
File:An_Intel_82574L_Gigabit_Ethernet_NIC,_PCI_Express_x1_card.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/2/24/An_Intel_82574L_Gigabit_Ethernet_NIC%2C_PCI_Express_x1_card.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Dsimic
File:Bus_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Bus_icon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:CAT-5E-Wall_Outlet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/CAT-5E-Wall_Outlet.jpg License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: en.wikipedia Original artist: GLec
File:CAT5e_Cable.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/CAT5e_Cable.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Richard Wheeler (Zephyris) at en.wikipedia).
File:Cat_5.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Cat_5.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Fo0bar
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Coreswitch_(2634205113).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Coreswitch_%282634205113%29.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: New toy at work Original artist: Dave Fischer
File:DB25_Diagram.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/DB25_Diagram.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:DiffSignaling.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/DiffSignaling.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Linear77
File:Differential_Signaling.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1c/Differential_Signaling.png License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Ead-outlet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Ead-outlet.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:EthernetCableBlue2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/EthernetCableBlue2.jpg License: CC0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Raysonho @ Open Grid Scheduler / Grid Engine
File:EthernetCableGreen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/EthernetCableGreen.jpg License: CC0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Raysonho @ Open Grid Scheduler / Grid Engine
File:EthernetCableYellow3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/EthernetCableYellow3.jpg License:
CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Raysonho @ Open Grid Scheduler / Grid Engine
File:Ethernet_Connection.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Ethernet_Connection.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Template:Revathi Original artist: Someones Moving Castle

68

CHAPTER 17. LIST OF NETWORK BUSES

File:FTDI_USB_SERIAL.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/FTDI_USB_SERIAL.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (enwiki) Original artist: Kilowattradio
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Four-port_serial_card_with_an_octopus_cable.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Four-port_
serial_card_with_an_octopus_cable.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dsimic
File:FullDuplex.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/FullDuplex.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Greggreggreg at en.wikipedia
File:HalfDuplex.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/HalfDuplex.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Greggreggreg at en.wikipedia
File:Intel_Pro-100_82558_PCI_NIC.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Intel_Pro-100_82558_PCI_
NIC.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Liftarn using
CommonsHelper.
Original artist: ktims (talk). Original uploader was Ktims at en.wikipedia
File:Internet_map_1024.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg License: CC BY
2.5 Contributors: Originally from the English Wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: The Opte Project
File:Mac_lc_printer_modem_ports.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Mac_lc_printer_modem_
ports.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Caroline Ford
File:Network_card.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Network_card.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Network_switches.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Network_switches.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ShakataGaNai
File:Phone_icon_rotated.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Phone_icon_rotated.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Originally uploaded on en.wikipedia Original artist: Originally uploaded by Beao (Transferred by varnent)
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:RS-422_CableLength-DataRate.png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/RS-422_
CableLength-DataRate.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: EE JRW
File:RS-485_3_wire_connection.png Source:
cense: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/RS-485_3_wire_connection.png Li-

File:RS-485_waveform.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/RS-485_waveform.svg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Roy Vegard Ovesen (Royvegard at en.wikipedia)
File:RS232-UART_Oscilloscope_Screenshot.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/RS232-UART_
Oscilloscope_Screenshot.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Haji akhundov
File:RS232_PCI-E.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/RS232_PCI-E.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia, transfer was stated to be made by GreyCat. Original artist: Original version: Towel401. Later
version: Kbh3rd.
File:Rj45plug-8p8c.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Rj45plug-8p8c.png License: Public domain
Contributors: Gutza, based on File:Uncrimped rj-45 connector close-up.jpg Original artist: Gutza, Mike1024
File:Rs232_oscilloscope_trace.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Rs232_oscilloscope_trace.svg License: CC SA 1.0 Contributors:
Rs232_oscilloscope_trace.jpg Original artist: Rs232_oscilloscope_trace.jpg: Ktnbn
File:Rs485-bias-termination.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Rs485-bias-termination.svg License:
CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Stndle
File:SMSC_LAN91C110_ethernet_chip.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/SMSC_LAN91C110_
ethernet_chip.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nixdorf
File:Serial_port.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Serial_port.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Duncan Lithgow
File:Simplex.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Simplex.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: SImedioP
File:TatungTWN5213RS232.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/TatungTWN5213RS232.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: PeterEasthope
File:Telecom-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_
with_red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg
from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham)

17.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

69

File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.


svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wire_blue.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Wire_blue.svg License: GPL Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wire_brown.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Wire_brown.svg License: GPL Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Wire_green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Wire_green.svg License: GPL Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wire_orange.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Wire_orange.svg License: GPL Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Wire_white_blue_stripe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Wire_white_blue_stripe.svg License:
GPL Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wire_white_brown_stripe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Wire_white_brown_stripe.svg License: GPL Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wire_white_green_stripe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Wire_white_green_stripe.svg License: GPL Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wire_white_orange_stripe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wire_white_orange_stripe.svg License: GPL Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

17.4.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

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