Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Children Right, Welfare Principle, Private Law Orders, Children Act 1989
Introduction
introduced the concept of parental responsibility (PR), which balances duties
and responsibilities against rights, powers and authority
Ex. a parent has the duty to ensure that their child is properly educated,
while they have the power to decide whether that education is to be provided
by a public or private sector school or home education; they have the
responsibility to provide a home, but have the right to decide where that
home is to be.
the Children Act marked a change in the emphasis of the law -- it moved from
the idea that children were their parents' possessions and towards the idea
that children had rights of their own
the act designated who automatically has PR and how other may acquire it. It
provides that PR may be shared between a number of people as well as
shared with a local authority
s. 8 provides a range of orders to resolve PR disputes
a child is defined (except for certain maintenance purposes) in s 105 as a
person under 18 years of age
s. 91 states that s. 8 orders last only until a child is 16, though s. 9(6) allows a
court to make orders for older children in exceptional circumstances
The Rights of the Child
In the past children were believed to be incapable of having rights and their
parents, in particular their father, would have had complete control to make
decisions about them and to administer corporal punishment.
the idea of children rights emerged in the middle of the nineteenth century
The Children Act is an example of the change in attitude. When the Bill was
being considered in Parliament, Lord Mackay said:
Your Lordships will have noted a change in terminology..[t]he fundamental
concept in this area of law no longer to be expressed variously in terms of
rights, duties, authority or even powers of parents, but simple as 'parental
responsibility'. The phrase..emphasises that the days when a child should be
regarded as a possession of his parent-- indeed when in the past they had a
right to his services and to sue on their loss-- are now buried forever. The
overwhelming purpose of parenthood is the responsibility for caring for and
raising the child to be a properly developed adult both physically and morally.
Key Developments in Children's Rights
Children under 16, of sufficient age and
understanding 'Gillick competent', could
be prescribed contraceptive advice and
treatment without knowledge or
permission of their parents
UN Convention of the Rights of the Child The views of the child should be taken in
-- Article 12
to account in any decision made by
adults which affects them. The weight
given to those views will depend upon
the age and maturity of the child
Gillick
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The Children Act 1989
Court order
A father can apply to the court for a PR order s. 4(1)(c) Children Act 1989
An order must be made in favour of a father if he granted a residence order in
respect of a child. Even if the father does not specifically apply for PR when
he applies for residence the court must grant PR--s. 12(1) Children Act 1989
similar provision apply to a second female parent where a child is born
following IVF treatment-- s. 4ZA; s. 12 (1A) Children Act 1989
In deciding whether to order PR under s. 4(1)(c) Children Act 1989 to a
father, the court will take into account:
o the degree of commitment shown towards the child;
o the degree of attachment between the child and the father ; and
o the father's reasons for applying
See Re H (Minors) (Parental Responsibility) (No 3) (1991)
the views of the child will be taken into account if they are of sufficient age
and understanding, and also if it is clearly distressing to the child.
In Re G (a Child) (Domestic Violence: Direct Contact) (2001)
a 4-year old became very upset at any mention of the father: PR was not
granted
Special guardians and adoptive parent acquire PR when the special
guardianship or adoption order is made; a guardian appointed by the court, by
the mother, or by another guardian acquires PR when they are appointed.
Sharing Parental Responsibility
More than one person can have PR in respect of a child at any one time; for
example, separated married parent each retain PR for their child. They can
agree how PR is to be exercised. If they cannot agree on this, either can apply
to the court for a s. 8 order to decide the issue.
Even if a person has PR for the child, they cannot act in a way which would be
incompatible with any order made under the 1989 Act in respect of the child-s. 2(8)
While a care order is in force, a local authority controls the extent to which
parents and other can exercise their PR. However, the local authority's PR is
itself limited. For example, it cannot change the child's religion, nor consent
to adoption--s. 33
Delegated Parental Responsibility
A person who does not have PR, but has care of the child, may do what is
reasonable in the circumstances to safeguard and promote the child's
welfare-- s. 3(5)
This would include school teachers, foster parents, a baby sitter and a parent
hosting a party for a number of their own child's friends.
Ex. if a child was injured while in the care of such a person, that person would
have the right (and responsibility) to act as a parent in seeking medical
assistance, administering first aid, consoling the child and so on.
Under the Children and Families Bill residence and contact orders under s. 8
will be replaced with 'child arrangements orders'. These will regulate
'arrangements relating to (a) with whom the child is to live, spend time, or
otherwise have contact with, and (b) when a child is to live, spend time or
otherwise have contact with any person'
Residence Order
an order setting the arrangements as to the person with who the child is to
live-- s. 8(1)
NOTE:
Under s. 12(1) and 12(2), if a court makes a residence order in favour of a father
who does not already have PR, it must make a separate PR order in his favour.
If anyone who is not a parent has a residence order in their favour, the residence
order itself confers PR. The difference is to ensure that PR for non-parents ends if
residence ends, whereas a father retains it unless it is specifically revoked by a
court
In the Matter of G (a child) (2008), Ward LJ underlined the changed approach
brought about by the Children Act: 'The whole purpose of the Act is getting rid of
the concept pf custody and accessall of that should have been swept away, so
that you have an order which conveys no right but simply regulated a factual state
of affairs.'
Shared Residence
A residence order may be made in favour of more than one person and the
'order may specify the periods during which the child is to live in the different
households concerned'-- s. 11(4) Children Act 1989
Despite the wording of this provision, which clearly points to the possibility of
the child's residence being shared between the parties, for many years the
courts seemed to be firmly against the idea of shared residence orders.
In Av A (minors) (Shared Residence Order) (1994) - it was held that a shared
order should only be made if there was something unusual about the case. A
residence order to one parent with generous contact with the other was to be
preferred.
The approach of the courts have changed considerably:
Re AR (Relocation) [2010]
Mostin J held that ' A shared residence order is nowadays the rule rather than the
exception, even where the quantum of care undertaken by each parent is decidedly
unequal..' Also, 'If one were to draw up a hierarchy of human rights protected by the
ECHR, near the top would be the right of the child, while he or she is growing, up to
have a meaningful participation by both of his parents in his upbringing
T v T [2010]
It was held (contradicting Re AR) that a shared residence order was not 'the rule
rather than the exception'. The paramount consideration is what is in the best
interests of the child . Equal time with each parent, and cooperation and goodwill
between the adults, is not a pre-requisite for shared residence
If the parents live together continuously for 6 months, a residence order will
lapse--s. 11 (5)(b) Children Act 1989
Children Act 1989 - S. 1(4)(a) the circumstances are that (a)the court is
considering whether to make, vary or discharge a section 8 order, and the making,
variation or discharge of the order is opposed by any party to the proceedings
Old/Original regime under CA 1989
new range of private law orders, aka s.8 orders
o residence (RO) (supplanted custody)
an order settling arrangements to be made as to the person with
whom a child is to
live
o contact (CO) (supplanted access)
an order requiring the person with whom a child lives, or is to live, to
allow the child to
visit or stay with the person named in the order, or
for that person and the child
otherwise to have contact with each
other
o prohibited steps order (PSO) [wardship]
o specific issue order (SIO) [wardship]
Current regime under CA 1989, as amended by the Children and Families Act
2014
S. 8 Child arrangements orders & other orders with respect to children
(1) In this Act child arrangements order means an order regulating
arrangements relating to any of the following
(a) with whom a child is to live, spend time or otherwise have contact, and
(b) when a child is to live, spent time or otherwise have contact with any person;
[Nb. enacted April 22, 2014.]
'Child Arrangement Orders' Concerning Contact - Formerly 'Contact Orders'
this is an order requiring the person with whom the child lives or is to live,
allow the child to visit or stay with the person named in the order or for that
person and the child otherwise to have contact with each other
contact may be:
o direct - the child meet face to face
o staying - overnight stay
o indirect - letters, emails, phone calls, skype, facetime
child arrangements orders - S. 8 Children Act 1989
Inserted by s.12 Children and Family Act 2014
Recommended by the Family Justice Review as a move away from loaded
terms contact and residence,
o i.e., winner gets residence, loser gets contact (or worse, nothing ) CA 1989 had not removed winner/loser mindset?
o In the light of the consultation responses we propose that a broader,
new order should be developed that would encompass all
arrangements for childrens care in private law. This could be
termed a child arrangements order, which would set out the
arrangements for the upbringing of the child. It would focus all
discussions on resolving issues related to their care, rather than on
labels such as residence and contact. It would of course, be necessary
either in a Parenting Agreement or a court order to provide clarity on
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where a child would normally live and with whom a child would spend
time.
-Family Justice Review Final Report, Nov 2011, para 4.60, on BB
The general Approach of the courts to contact is:
1. Where possible a child should know his estranged parent unless there are
good reasons for denying contact
o In Re F (Minors) (Denied of Contact) (1993), a father was refused
contact where the child had strong objections to it. The older the child,
the greater the weight that will be given to their views
2. The court should not deprive a child of contact unless it is wholly satisfied
that it is in the interests of the child that contact should cease, a conclusion a
court should be extremely slow to arrive at
o Article 9 of the UN Convention on The Rights of the Child, which
provides that children should not be separated from their parents
unless to do so would be in the best interests of the child
3. It is the normal assumption that a child would benefit from continued contact
with a natural parent
o However, where there is implacable opposition on the part of the
resident parent, or extreme hostility between the parties, it may prove
impossible to make a contact order that will be in the child's interests.
o Even if contact would otherwise be ordered, it may then be refused.
This is more likely if it is unavoidable that the parties will have to meet
or speak to each other in the course of arranging contact or putting
arrangements into effect
o In Re D (A Minor: Mother's Hostility) (1993), there was extreme
hostility on the part of the mother towards the father. Contact was
refused.
4. Evidence of domestic violence will not necessarily preclude contact if it can
be arranged safely
o In Re L, V M & H, the courts established guidelines for cases where
domestic violence is an issue.
Contact Activity directions and conditions
If a court makes or varies a contact order it can add contact activity
conditions and directions to the order-- s 11C-s. 11G
the activity directions or conditions would require a party to take part in
activity to promote contact with the child, such as
o programmes, classes, and counselling or guidance sessions to assist
establishing, maintaining or improving contact; or which may, by
addressing a person's violent behaviour, enable or facilitate contact
Specific Issue Order
a specific issue order means an order giving directions for the purpose of
determining a specific question which has arisen, or which may arise, in connection
with any aspect of parental responsibility for a child.
Something old, something new? The MMR debate see Re C (Welfare of Child:
immunisation) [2003] EWHC 1376 (Fam), upheld on appeal [2003] EWCA Civ 1148
mothers opposition
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In 2013: F and F [2013] EWHC 2683 (Fam)
-Father wanting vaccination
-Mother & both girls opposed, L = 15yrs, M = 11 yrs
-F now says he was reluctant participant in joint decision not to inoculate when
younger
-Why the delay? Increasingly concerned re their lack of protection, recent outbreak
of measles in Wales sharpened his focus
-c/f s.1(3) CA 1989 ascertainable wishes?
-Both opposed, L = vegan and concerned re animal content of vaccination, L also
has anxiety issues, & receiving counselling.
-L & M: charming, intelligent, articulate and thoughtful
o BUT, lack of balance of information?
o Concern re mothers overt anxiety on this issue?
Outcome
-Ct: in the best interests of BOTH L & M to have the MMR vaccination (by 11 Oct
2013)
-See para [22-23]
Lacking maturity? Nave?
Lack of balance re wider picture
Influenced by mothers views
Emotional needs/outcome ~ parents making decisions for children to meet
their welfare needs ~ what parenting is about ~ consequences of the
Cts decision to be managed in a responsible way.
The medical advice = have the vaccine, despite accepted risks of
side effects
Education: Re G [2012] EWCA Civ 1233
RO and SIO F sought SRO
5 children, 3 girls, 2 boys.
M & F both from Hassidic community of ultra Orthodox Jews; arranged
marriage, irretrievably broken down after 10 years.
very religious with specific observations determining their way of life,
including education
Single sex schools only permitted
M no longer wanted to be member of Hassidic community, but still considered
self an Orthodox Jew.
Lower Ct:
o M awarded RO with extensive contact for F, plus children to attend
schools of Ms choice
CA: judge not plainly wrong re SRO, therefore that aspect of appeal denied.
Education = key element
Contd. (per Munby LJ)
In 2012 what is the task of the reasonable parent? What is the task of a
judge, acting as a judicial reasonable parent? [79]
Educational opportunity judge plainly entitled to take view that Ms
schools would provide superior opportunities, fuller and wider education,
greater job opportunities.
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12
Where a court is considering whether or not to make one or more
orders under this Act with respect to a child, it shall not make the order
unless it considers that doing so would be better for the
child than making no order at all.
the no unnecessary order principle? (Bainham)
o
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authority's consent before they can apply for leave unless they are a relative
of the child or the child has been living with them for the last year.
Before the child can be granted leave, the court must be satisfied that they
have sufficient understanding to make the application, that is to say, they are
Gillick competent.
Entitled to apply for any s. 8 Order
parent
Guardian appointed under s. 5
Special guardian appointed under s. 14A
s.10(2) Children Act 1989
(2) The court may also make a section 8 order with respect to any child on the
application of a person who
(a) is entitled to apply for a section 8 order with respect to the child; or
(b) has obtained the leave of the court to make the application.
(2) The court may also make a section 8 order with respect to any child on the
application of a person who
(a) is entitled to apply for a section 8 order with respect to the child; or
(b) has obtained the leave of the court to make the application.
Applicants for s.8 orders
Persons entitled as of right for ANY order s.10(4)
o Parents, guardians, special guardians, (some)step-parents, those with a
child arrangements order where they are named as a person with
whom the child is to live
For child arrangements orders only (CAO): (s.10(5))
o Party to marriage/CP (whether or not subsisting) where child is child of
the family;
o person with whom child has lived for 3yrs+;
o Where there is a CAO in place regarding where/with whom the child
should live any person who has the consent of each person named in
the order as a person with whom the child is to live
o or if child in care, with consent of LA;
o or if has consent of each of those if any with parental responsibility
for child in Q
o Any person who has PR via s.12(2A) PR via CAO, for contact only Ct
MAY make PR order in absence of residence
CAO only:
o LA Foster parents, RO only, if child living there 1yr+ s.10(5A)
o Relatives, RO only, if child living there 1yr+ (5B)
Power of court to make section 8 orders - s.10(1) CA 1989
In any family proceedings in which a question arises with respect to the
welfare of any child, the court may make a section 8 order with respect to the
child if
(a) an application for the order has been made by a person who
(i) is entitled to apply for a section 8 order with respect to the child; or
(ii) has obtained the leave of the court to make the application; or
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(b) the court considers that the order should be made even though no such
application has been made.
Section 10(9) will not apply if it is the child who is seeking leave to apply.
However, the court must be sure the child is of sufficient age and
understanding to make the application--s. 10(8).
Leave will usually be granted if it is in the child's best interest to do so.
Children (s.10(8)): sufficient understanding
o the court may only grant leave if it is satisfied that he has
sufficient understanding to make the proposed application for
the section 8 order.
May be applying re themselves, or re another child, eg
younger sibling
Practice Direction Children Act Applications by
Children [1993] 1 FLR 668: must be heard in HC
See Re SC (A Minor) (Leave to seek s8 orders) [1994] 1
FLR 96 granted
BUT, leave not granted for RO to live with friend and
family & SIO re holiday to Bulgaria for 15yr old, in Re C
[1995] 1 FLR 927.
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Court cannot use PSO or SIO to achieve same result as a CAO (s.9(5))
LAs cannot apply for CAO (s.9(2))
o i.e. to ensure they use care proceedings under public law element of
CA 1989, and not these private law proceedings instead