Analytical Chemistry|| CHEM 3111 || Yong Liu || SI 4112 2-3:15

Exam 1

Chapter 1 - What is Analytical Chemistry?

Reading Assignment: Read the entire chapter with the exception of Feature 1-1, pp. 12-17.

Problem Assignment: Chapter problems are assigned to emphasize points of the chapter and to provide examples of testable problems.
Chapter problems are not graded.
No assigned problems
Learning Objectives: Testable material for in-class examinations.
a.

Distinguish between, and be able to give chemical examples for, the following terms:
quantitative - qualitative (analysis classification)
gravimetric - volumetric - instrumental (analysis techniques)
selectivity - sensitivity

b.
c.
d.
e.

Know a minimum of five general factors which go into the selection of an analytical technique.
Identify the importance of sampling to analytical chemistry.
Define replicate samples and explain their use in analytical chemistry.
Outline the purpose of a blank sample used in quantitative analysis. Indicate why distilled water is often a poor choice for a blank
sample.
Define an interference in the analysis of an unknown sample.

f.

Chapter 3 - Important Chemical Concepts: Expressing Quantities and Concentrations

Reading Assignment: Read the entire chapter.

This chapter is mostly a review of significant figure, stoichiometry and solution concentration units from general chemistry. Parts-per-million
may be a new concentration concept and will be discussed in lecture.
Chapter 3 Calculations Used in Analytical Chemistry
SI Units
International System of Units - 7 fundamental base units
o 1) Mass 2) Length 3) Time 4) Temperature 5) Amount of a substance 6) Electric current 7)
Luminous intensity
Use prefixes to multiply by various powers of 10
o The angstrom is a non-SI unit of length used to describe wavelength
We determine the amount of a chemical species from mass measurements
o Kilograms, grams, milligrams, micrograms
Volumes of liquids liters, milliliters, microliters, nanoliters
o The SI unit of Volume is the Liter, which is defined exactly as 10-3 m3
1 cm3 = 1 mL
The Difference Between Mass and Weight
Mass is an invariant measure of the quantity of matter in an object
Weight is the force of attraction between an object and its surroundings (the earth)
o Gravitational attraction varies with geographic location
w = mg

weight = mass

acceleration due to gravity

Chemical analysis is always based on mass

o Results do not depend on location
The verb to weight means the act of determining the mass of an object
The Mole
The mole is the SI unit for the amount of a chemical substance
Particles, ions, electrons, atoms, molecules
o It is the amount of the specified substance that contains the [same number of particles as the number of carbon atoms in 12 grams
of 12C]

Avogadros Number NA = 6.022

1023

We calculate molar mass by [summing all of the atomic masses of the atoms that appear in the chemical formula]
Relationship between mass units, moles, and grams - Unified atomic mass units (u) = daltons (Da)
The Millimole
Some calculations are easier using the millimole (mmol)
1000 millimole = 1 mole

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------EXAMPLE
PROBLEM--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Find the number of moles and millimoles of benzoic acid (M = 122.1 g/mol) that are contained in 2.00 g of the pure acid.
To find moles

Amount HBz=nHBz =2.00 g HBz

To find millimoles

Amount HBz=nHBz =2.00 g HBz

1 mol HBz
=0.0164 mol HBz
122.1 g HBz
1 mol HBz 1000 mmol

=16.4 mmol HBz

122.1 g HBz
1 mol

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------EXAMPLE PROBLEM - Factor Label Approach (dimensional

analysis)----------------------------------------------------------------------------------What is the mass in grams of Na+ (M = 22.99 g/mol) in 25.0 g of Na 2SO4 (142.0g/mol)?

+
1 mol Na+=8.10 g Na
Na+
22.99 g

Na+
2 mol

1mol Na2 SO 4
1 mol Na2 SO 4
Na+ =25.0 g Na2 SO 4

142.0 g Na2 SO 4
+=n
Amount Na

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Problem Assignment: Chapter problems are assigned to emphasize points of the chapter and to provide examples of testable problems.
Chapter problems are not graded.
5, 7a, 9a, 11c, 13 (a, c), 15(a, e), 18(a, g), 21(all), 23(all), 29a, 33, 39 (all).

Learning Objectives: Testable material for in-class examinations.

a.

Distinguish between, and be able to give chemical examples for, the following terms:
millimole - mole
solute - solution
analytical concentration - equilibrium concentration (including symbolism)
parts-per-million (gases) - parts-per-million (aqueous solution)
volume - weight - weight/volume (% concentration expressions)
density - specific gravity

b.

Know the SI nomenclature and symbolism for volume, length, time, mass, and temperature. Know the prefix multipliers for 10 15 to 10+6 in
increments of 103. See Tables 3-1 and 3-2.
Define the p-function used in chemistry to express concentrations. Briefly explain the utility of the p-function solution concentrations.
Know how to work numerical problems involving concentration units of molarity, M; parts-per-million, ppm; and pX (p-function).
Know how to apply the proper number of significant figures to calculations involving addition and subtraction, multiplication and division,
and logarithms and anti-logarithms.
Know the rounding conventions involving chemical calculations.

c.
d.
e.
f.

Chapter 4 - The Basic Approach to Chemical Equilibrium

Reading Assignment: Read the entire chapter, including the Spreadsheet Exercise, Using Excel to Iterate, p. 99-100.
This chapter is mostly a review of stoichiometry and chemical equilibrium from general chemistry. Problem solving techniques will be
reviewed in lecture, including simplification of mathematics through chemical assumptions and use of the quadratic equation.

Chapter 4 Chemical Equilibrium

Aqueous solution chemistry chemical equilibrium
Water is the most plentiful solvent on Earth easy to purify, not toxic
Classifying solutions of Electrolytes
o Electrolytes are substances which, when dissolved in water, break up into cations (plus-charged ions) and anions (minus-charged
ions)

Solutions conduct electricity

o Strong Electrolyte ionize completely
There are three categories of strong electrolytes: strong acids, strong bases, and salts
Inorganic acids
HNO3
HClO4
H2SO4
HCl HI HBr
HClO3
HBrO3
Alkali and alkaline-earth hydroxides
Alkali hydroxide Group 1A
o LiOH
o NaOH
o KOH
o RbOH
o CsOH
Alkaline-earth hydroxide
o Be(OH)2
o Mg(OH)2
o Ca(OH)2
o Sr(OH)2
o Ba(OH)2
Salts
NaCl
KBr
MgCl2
o Weak Electrolyte ionize partially
Inorganic acids
H2CO3

H3BO3
H3PO4
H2S
H2SO3
Organic acids
Ammonia(NH3)
Organic bases
Halides - F Cl I At
Cyanides (CN)
Thiocyanates (SCN)
Hg(SCN)2
Zn(SCN)2
Cd(SCN)2
There are two main categories of weak electrolytes weak acids and weak bases
Acids and bases
o Bronsted-Lowry acid/base behavior theory
Acid is a proton donor
A substance only acts as an acid in the presence of a base
Base is a proton acceptor
A substance only acts as a base in the presence of an acid
o Conjugate acid/bas pair (conjugate pair)
o Neutralization reaction reaction proceeds to an extent that depends on the relative tendencies of the [two bases to accept a
proton]/[the two acids to donate a proton)

base1 + acid2

Acid1 + base2

Many solvents are proton donors OR proton acceptors and thus can induce basic or acidic behavior in solutes dissolved in
them

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Problem Assignment: Chapter problems are assigned to emphasize points of the chapter and to provide examples of testable problems.
Chapter problems are not graded.
4c, 7ae. 10c, 13b, 15c, 20ace, 21ac at 20% and 200%
Learning Objectives: Testable material for in-class examinations.
a.

Distinguish between, and be able to give chemical examples for, the following terms:
weak - strong - non (classification of electrolytes)
amphiprotic - differentiating - leveling (classification of solvents)
acid/base - conjugate acid/base - conjugate pair

b.

Write an equilibrium constant expression for a given equilibrium expression. Explain and be able to apply LeChteliers principle.

c.

Define an acid and a base using the Brnsted-Lowry convention. Be able to identify acids and bases in aqueous equilibrium reactions.

d.

Know the list of common strong acids and strong bases, as presented in lecture.

e.

Use the autoprotolysis constant, Kw, to relate concentrations of hydronium, H3O+, and hydroxyl ions, OH, in water. Use the Kw constant to
relate Ka and Kb constants.

f.

Predict the numerical answer for problems before carrying out the mathematical solution.

g.

Work acid-base equilibria problems using Ka, Kb and Kw equilibrium constants.

h.

Understand solution conditions under which it is acceptable to simplify the K a equilibrium expression by assuming [H3O+] is << CHA. Be
able to utilize the quadratic formula when the simplification is invalid.

i.

Work aqueous solubility and common ion solubility problems using Ksp.

EXAM 2

Quiz Questions

Homework Problems

Chapter 5 - Errors in Chemical Analyses: Assessing the Quality of Results

Reading Assignment: Read the entire chapter. Include in the reading the Spreadsheet Exercise, A Mean Calculation, pp. 112-115.
This chapter is an introduction to error analysis and statistical treatment of data. The chapter also introduces the use of Excels built in
functions and formula generation.
Class Notes: Chapter 5 Errors in Chemical Analysis: Assessing the quality of Results where errors come from and how they arise
Errors are unavoidable
o The best we can do is try to minimize errors to acceptable levels
Mean (average) is [the sum of the measured values] divided by [the number of measured values]
o Each individual data point is represented by [xi]

The mean is a measure of central tendency the central/typical value for a probability distribution
The mean can be used to represent a group of data with a single number
o The mean gives each data point equal weight
Median is the middle number in a set of measurements
o Arrange the data lowest to highest
If there is an odd number of data points, the middle data point is the median
If there is an even number of data points, the median is the average of the two central values
Mode is the most common result in a set of replicates
o Is not used very often in analytical chemistry
o

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------EXAMPLE
PROBLEM--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The data set contains 5 replicates of the same measurement:
5.23 g, 5.15 g, 5.62 g, 5.26 g, 5.10 g
What is the average?

x =

5.23 g+5.15 g+5.62 g +5.26 g +5.10 g

=5.272=5.27
5

What is the median?

In increasing order, the points are

5.10 g, 5.15 g, 5.23 g, 5.26 g, 5.62 g

And the middle point is 5.23 g

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The true value = accepted/expected value = the ideal value we are trying to reach

We can never know the true value

Always the possibility of error
o In lab, the true value usually isnt known
However, if we take many replicates (measurements) and eliminate everything but random errors, we can assume that
the average is close to the true value
Precision is a measure of the variability in a data set shows how close the data points are relative to each other relationship of data
to itself
o when a sample is analyzed multiple times, the individual results are rarely the same the data is randomly scattered around some
value
o The absolute mathematical expression of precision is the deviation from the mean = the absolute value of [the difference
of the individual measurement from the mean]
o

Range is the difference between the highest and lowest data points

Standard deviation
o is used for a population (large data set)
o s is used for a sample (small data set)
Variance is the square of the standard deviation
o 2 is used for a population (large data set)
o s2 is used for a sample (small data set)
The relative mathematical expression of precision accounts for the size and spread with respect to the size of the
measured values
o Relative deviation from the mean

o The Coefficient of Variance (CV)

Tight precision is a good indicator of good accuracy but not always
When precision is poor (wide spread of data points) accuracy is very low
o Poor precision means that your bad at taking data
Accuracy is a measure of how close a data point is to the true value (expected, accepted)
o The difference between the true value and the actual value is called error
o The absolute mathematical expression of accuracy is Absolute error =

The relative mathematical expression of accuracy is Relative error =

The goal of analytical chemistry is accuracy

A large number of replicates is required to reliably determine the true value
Classification of errors
o Random (indeterminate error)
Are unavoidable
Are scattered on both sides of the true value symmetric
Therefore the mean of data tends to be close to the true value
The amount of random error is reflected by [the degree of the scattering pattern] precision
o Systematic (determinate error)
are avoidable if discovered
tend to be skewed in one direction relative to the true value because of an error made in making the measurement
o all measurements are too high
o all measurements are too low
the average of this data set does not approximate the true value
How systematic error s occur
Instrument errors: problems with a measure device/instrument
Calibration removes this type of error
o Examples
A pipet calibrated for 25C used on a solution that isnt 25C
Pipet mark is in the incorrect location
The calibration of a balance wasnt performed
The circuit in an instrument is dusty and is slow to respond
Method errors: caused by non-ideal chemical physical behavior of the set up used
o Slow reaction time
o Incomplete reaction
o Unstable species
o Side reactions
o Incomplete solubility
Personal errors: carelessness, personal limitations, or inattention
o Measurements require judgment
Estimating the last digit of a reading
Deciding when a reaction is complete
linin
o Gross error
Tends to deviate in a large way from the rest of the data outliers
Statistics can be used to determine whether a measurement is an outlier that can be left out of future data calculations
o
o

Problem Assignment: Chapter problems are assigned to emphasize points of the chapter and to provide examples of testable problems.

Chapter problems are not graded.

2, 5, 7a, 9a, 10a (calculator or spreadsheet)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
2--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
5--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
7a-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
9a-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
10a----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Learning Objectives: Testable material for in-class examinations.

a

Distinguish between, and be able to give chemical examples for, the following terms:
precision - accuracy
mean - median
random - systematic - gross (types of errors)
constant - proportional (types of errors)
absolute - relative (calculation of errors)

Explain why analytical measurements are never free of error.

Be able to calculate the arithmetic mean and median for a set of analytical results. Know various terms that are interchangeable for
arithmetic mean.

Explain, and be able to give examples for, systematic errors of an instrumental, method, or personal nature.

Describe the importance of analyzing standard samples and using an independent analytical method for maintenance of quality control in
the analytical laboratory.

Explain the use of an analytical blank determination. Explain what types of errors are corrected by using an analytical blank.

Chapter 6 - Random Error: How Certain Can We Be?

Reading Assignment:
Read the entire chapter with the exception of Feature 6-2, How Do You Calculate Those Areas Under a Curve, pp. 124-125. Include in the
reading the Spreadsheet Exercise, Computing the Standard Deviation, pp. 128-133.
This chapter concentrates on how statistics are used to treat random, or indeterminate, errors. The chapter emphasizes the spreadsheet
calculation of standard deviation, variance, and coefcient of variation. Students will be expected to perform the same calculations in class
using a scientific calculator with a statistical package.
Chapter 6 Random Error: Sources and Effects
Random (indeterminate) errors are present in every measurement
o Sources of random errors
Determine their magnitude
Their effect on computed results of chemical analyses
o Significant figure convention
The Nature of Random Errors
Random errors cannot be positively identified
o Even if we identify the source of the error, it is impossible to detect/measure the error because they are so small
Gaussian curve (normal error curve) bell shaped curve that shows the symmetrical distribution of data around the mean of an infinite
set of data
A spread of data results from an accumulation of random uncertainties in an experiment
o A spread in a set of replicated measurements is the difference between the highest and lowest result
A histogram is a bar graph
Small errors tend to cancel each out and have a minimal effect on the mean value
o When errors occur in the same direction, they produce a large positive/negative net error
Sources of random uncertainties
o Visual judgments
The level of the water
o Variations in the drainage time
o Temperature fluctuations
Affects the volume and viscosity of the liquid
o The performance of the balance
The cumulative influence of these variables is the observed scatter of results around the mean
Statistical treatment of random errors
We base statistical analyses on the assumption that random errors in analytical results follow a Gaussian distribution
o Rule of thumb: if we have more than 30 results and the data is not heavily skewed, we can use the Gaussian distribution
Samples and Populations
o
A population (universe) is a collection of all measurements of interest to the experimenter
can be [finite and real] OR [ hypothetical and conceptual in nature]
o A sample is a subset of measurements selected from the population
In a study, we infer information about a population from observations made on a sample
o EXAMPLE: The production of multivitamin tablets produces hundreds of thousands of tablets

 The population is fininte, but we dont have the time or resources to test every single tablet for quality control
Instead, we select a sample of tablets (according to statiscial sampling principles)
We can infer the characteristics of the population from those of the sample
Statistical sample vs analytical sample
o Analytical sample - ______ number of samples taken from a population
o Statistical sample the [group of analytical samples] make up a single statistical sample
Properties of Gaussian Curves
Gaussian curves can be described by an equation with two parameters

(1) the population mean

(2) the population standard deviation

A parameter is a quantity used to define a population or distribution

Data values are variable
The term statistic refers to an estimate of a parameter that is made from a sample of data
Population Mean vs. Sample mean

Problem Assignment: Chapter problems are assigned to emphasize points of the chapter and to provide examples of testable problems.
Chapter problems are not graded.
5e, 7ace, and 9a(1st sample set)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
5e-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
7a-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
7c-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
7e-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
9a-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Learning Objectives: Testable material for in-class examinations.
a.

Distinguish between, and be able to give chemical examples for, the following terms:
sample (analysis) - sample (statistics)
sample - population (statistics)
degrees of freedom - number of replicate samples
sample standard deviation (s) - population standard deviation ()

standard deviation - variance - coefcient of variation (measures of precision)

b.

Explain the conditions under which the mean can be considered the true value, .

c.

Know how to calculate mean, standard deviation (sample and population), and variance for a set of replicate results using the statistical
package in your scientific calculator.

Chapter 7 - Statistical Analysis: Evaluating the Data

Reading Assignment: Read the entire chapter.
Students will not be expected to perform least-squares calculation or to graph x-y data in lecture as part of an in-class examinations.
Problem Assignment: Chapter problems are assigned to emphasize points of the chapter and to provide examples of testable problems.
Chapter problems are not graded.
1e, 2a, 3a, 4c, 10a, 16ab, 19abcd
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
1e-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
2a-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
3a-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
4c------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
10a-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
16a-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
16b-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
19a-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
19b-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
19c-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
19d----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Learning Objectives: Testable material for in-class examinations.
a. Distinguish between, and be able to give chemical examples for, the following terms:
population - infinite number of replicate measurements
confidence interval - confidence limit - confidence level
t - z (statistical values measured in units of standard deviation)
- s (types of standard deviation)
b. Explain the meaning of a confidence interval for statistical treatment of data.
c. Use Table of Student t values to calculate confidence intervals for a given confidence level.

d. Briefly explain (qualitatively and quantitatively) how the use of replicate samples increases confidence in the data results.
e. Apply t-Test to determine whether two experimental means are significantly different.
f.

Define outlier data. Apply Q-Test to reject outlier data.

Chapter 8 - Gravimetric Methods of Analysis

Reading Assignment: Skim (not read) the entire chapter with the exception of Section 8D, Applications of Gravimetric Methods, pp. 194-198.
All testable material will be covered in lecture.
Problem Assignment: Chapter problems are assigned to emphasize points of the chapter and to provide examples of testable problems.
Chapter problems are not graded.
5, 9aeg, 12, 18, 22
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
5--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
9a-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
9e-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
9g-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
10------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
12------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
18------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
22-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
23------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
21-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Learning Objectives: Testable material for in-class examinations.

a.

Distinguish between, and be able to give chemical examples for, the following terms:
precipitation - volatilization (types of gravimetric analysis)
colloidal - cyrstalline (types of precipitates)
coagulation - peptization

b.

Define colloidal precipitates in terms of physical properties. Briefly explain why colloidal precipitates hinder gravimetric analysis
techniques.

c.

Identify the three major types of coprecipitation: surface adsorption, mixed-crystal, and occlusion. Briefly explain how each type of
coprecipitation can be avoided or minimized.

d.

Briefly explain how digestion of precipitate and precipitation from homogeneous solution can be used to increase purity and growth of
precipitate crystals.

e.

Use mass measurement and stoichiometry to calculate gravimetric analysis problems.

Chapter 9 - Electrolyte Effects: Activity or Concentration

Reading Assignment:Skim (not read) the entire chapter. This is a short but important chapter. Chemistry majors will expand the discussion of
activity in physical chemistry. All testable material will be covered in lecture.
The Spreadsheet Exercise, Using Circular References for Iteratively Solving Equations, is a powerful tool for solving equilibrium equations.
Problem Assignment: Chapter problems are assigned to emphasize points of the chapter and to provide examples of testable problems.
Chapter problems are not graded.
5, 7a, 8a, 11a
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
5--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
7a-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
8a------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEM
11a-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Learning Objectives: Testable material for in-class examinations.

a. Distinguish between, and be able to give chemical examples for, the following terms:
activity - activity coefcient
thermodynamic-based - concentration-based (equilibrium constants)
b. Know what is meant by the term limiting law.
c. Be able to qualitatively describe the term ionic strength and be able to quantitatively calculate the ionic strength, , for a solution of inert
electrolyte(s).
d. Use the Debye-Hckel equation to solve for activity coefcients. Describe the simplified Debye-Hckel Limiting Law.
e. Apply activity coefcients to equilibrium calculations.
f.

Define the conditions under which effects of electrolytes can be neglected and the use of concentration results in minimal error when using
mass-action law equilibrium calculations.