Engine

Specs-At-A-Glance

Revamp of a

North Dakota

Recip Compressor Targets Flaring

December 2014

WWW.COMPRESSORTECH2.com/subscribe/

Compressor Demand
May Have Peaked
Exterrans Highly
Configurable Packages
Replaceable Seat Plate
For CPI Valve

CTDecCover.indd 1

11/20/14 8:32 AM

Customer:

Challenge:

Result:

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Build a world-scale olefin plant to
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The new

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Discover whats new at www.arielcorp.com

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Page

CT2 Founder ........................... Joseph M. Kane

COMPRESSOR

A Member of the Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications Group

PUBLICATION STAFF

Publisher ..................................... Brent Haight

Associate Publisher ...............Roberto Chellini
Editor ...........................................Patrick Crow
Executive Editor ............................... DJ Slater
Deputy Editor .............................. Mark Thayer
Senior Editor .................. Michael J. Brezonick
Senior Editor .............................. Mike Rhodes
Associate Editor ................................ Jack Burke
Associate Editor .............................Chad Elmore
Associate Editor ....................................Art Aiello
Copy Editor ................................ Jerry Karpowicz
Digital Content Manager............Catrina Boettner
Advertising Manager .................... Sarah Yildiz
Circulation Manager ...................Sheila Lizdas
Production Manager ............. Marisa J. Roberts
Graphic Artist ........................Brenda L. Burbach
Graphic Artist .............................Carla D. Lemke
Graphic Artist ........................... Amanda J. Ryan
Graphic Artist ................................ Alyssa Loope

PUBLICATION HEADQUARTERS
20855 Watertown Road, Suite 220
Waukesha, Wisconsin 53186-1873

Telephone: (262) 754-4100 Fax: (262) 754-4175

CONTRIBUTING EDITORS

Norm Shade - Cambridge, Ohio

Mauro Belo Schneider - Rio Grande du Sul, Brazil

HOUSTON, U.S.A.

Brent Haight, Publisher

Patrick Crow, Editor
Mike Rhodes, Senior Editor
Mark Thayer, Deputy Editor
12777 Jones Road, Suite 225
Houston, Texas 77070
Telephone: (281) 890-5310 Fax: (281) 890-4805

GERMANY

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73760 Ostfildern, Germany
Telephone: +49 711 3416 74 0 Fax: +49 711 3416 74 74

UNITED KINGDOM

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40 Premier Avenue
Ashbourne, Derbyshire,
DE6 1LH, United Kingdom
Telephone: +44 20 31 79 29 79 Fax: +44 20 31 79 29 70

ITALY

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44, Via Delle Forbici
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Via Fitta, 21a
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Telephone: +39 0464 014421 Fax: +39 0464 244529

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JAPAN

Akiyoshi Ojima, Branch Manager

51-16-301 Honmoku Sannotani, Naka-ku
Yokohama, 231-0824 Japan
Telephone: +81 45 624 3502 Fax: +81 45 624 3503

CHINA

S.H. Mok, Branch Manager

Rm 1903A, 19/F, Sunbeam Commercial Building
469-471 Nathan Road
Kowloon, Hong Kong
Telephone: +852 31187930 Fax : +852 23321565

KOREA

Myung-Shin Lee, Sales Manager

191-1, Pyungchang-dong, Chongno-ku
Seoul, Korea 100-648
Telephone: +82 2 391 4254 Fax: +82 2 391 4255

Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications

Russian Gas Brings

China Relief, Potentially
Pains The West

ussia has broken ground on

the Power of Siberia, a 2465
mi. (3968 km) pipeline that
will link gas fields in eastern Siberia to
China. The project is part of a US$400
billion deal inked in May between Russias Gazprom and the Chinese National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC).
China will begin construction of its section of the pipeline early next year.
Under the first phase of the 30-year
contract, Russia will supply China 1.3
Tcf (38 x 109 m3) per year of natural
gas starting in 2018. Future phases
could increase this volume to as much
as 2.1 Tcf (60 x 109 m3) per year.
When complete, the Power of Siberia will be the largest fuel network
in the world, linking the Chayandinskoye and Kovyktinskoye gas fields in
eastern Siberia with Khabarovsk and
Vladivostok on Russias Pacific coast.
Spurs will be drawn to China at Blagoveshchensk and Dalnerechensk,
and an LNG terminal will be built in
Vladivostok. Russian President Vladimir Putin and Chinas Vice Premier
Zhang Gaoli have called the venture
the worlds largest construction project, as investment from both countries
will be more than US$70 billion.
This contract is Gazproms biggest
to date and is viewed as a win/win for
each country as China struggles to
meet its energy demands and Russia
faces growing sanctions from the west
due to the ongoing situation in Ukraine.
Chinas natural gas demand has
been growing as the government
seeks to move away from coal in favor
of cleaner fuels. Last year, China consumed about 6 Tcf (170 x 109 m3) of
natural gas and expects to consume
14 Tcf (420 x 109 m3) per year by
2020. Chinas northern and eastern
provinces have growing natural gas
demands that cannot be met by existing pipelines or imported LNG. Be-

ginning in 2019, the Power of Siberia

will pump gas from Siberia to Chinas
populous northeast region.
For Russia, the deal will lessen its
dependence on European buyers that
have imposed economic sanctions
because of the Ukraine crisis. Europe
still remains Russias largest energy
market, buying more than 5.6 Tcf (160
x 109 m3) of Russian natural gas in
2013, but countries within the European Union do not mask their frustration
with Russia and their desire to break
free from Russias energy monopoly.
What remains to be seen is the impact the pipeline will have on natural
gas prices and availability worldwide.
While specific pricing details of the
Russia/China deal have not been disclosed, some energy experts warn that
the deal could drive up prices for European gas consumers who are becoming increasingly dependent on Russia
and now face competition for supplies.
The planned LNG terminal could
pose a threat to LNG producers in Australia, Canada and Africa without contracts, and could undermine the U.S.s
LNG export efforts by offering better
pricing to LNG-addicted countries like
Japan, South Korea and India.
Taking it one step further, some
analysts warn that the impact of the
Russia/China deal in displacing Chinese LNG demand increases the
likelihood of LNG oversupply.
Much uncertainly remains. What is
clear is that Russian gas will remain
an influencing factor in the global
energy landscape, regardless of increased supplies and availability from
rising players around the world. CT2

Brent Haight, publisher

bhaight@dieselpub.com

President & CEO ..................... Michael J. Osenga

Executive Vice President .... Michael J. Brezonick

CT499.indd 1

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CPI.indd 1

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December 2014

Featured Articles
16 2014 Engine Specs-At-A-Glance
18 CPI Develops Compressor Valve With Replaceable Seat Plate
34 Exterran Offers Highly Configurable Compressor Package
36 Revamp Of A Reciprocating Compressor Unit
40 2014 Year In Review
48 Cozzanis Stepless Capacity Control Tested
54 GEA Gradually Expands Compression Range
Cover Designed By
Marisa Roberts

TECHcorner

Compressortech2 (ISSN 1085-2468)

Volume 19, No. 10 Published 10 issues/year
(January-February, March, April, May, June,
July, August-September, October, November,
December) by Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications,
20855 Watertown Road, Waukesha, WI 531861873, U.S.A. Subscription rates are $85.00 per
year/$10.00 per copy worldwide. Periodicals postage paid at Waukesha, WI 53186 and at additional mailing offices. Copyright 2014 Diesel &
Gas Turbine Publications. All Rights Reserved.
Materials protected by U.S. and international copyright laws and treaties. Unauthorized duplication
and publication is expressly prohibited.

20 Combustion Solutions For Achieving Low Exhaust Emissions

In Integral Gas Compressor Engines

Canadian Publication Mail Agreement # 40035419.

Return Undeliverable Canadian Addresses to: P.O.
Box 456, Niagara Falls, ON L2E 6V2, Canada. E-mail:
slizdas@dieselpub.com. POSTMASTER: Send address
changes to: Circulation Manager, Compressortech2,
20855 Watertown Road, Suite 220, Waukesha, WI
53186-1873 U.S.A.

12 About The Business Ebbing Oil Prices Erode Gas

Compressor Demand

www.compressortech2.com
Follow Us @Compressortech2

Departments
4 Page 4 Russian Gas Brings China Relief, Potentially
Pains The West
8 Global Perspective Gazprom, Ukraine Agree On Gas Sales
10 Meetings & Events

14 Monitoring Government North Dakotas Flares Begin To Flicker

47 Prime Movers
56 Recent Orders
58 Featured Products
59 Literature
60 Scheduled Downtime

MEMBER OF

61 Marketplace
62 Advertisers Index
64 Cornerstones Of Compression Breaking The Ice For
Mechanical Refrigeration

MEMBER OF BPA WORLDWIDE

PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.

CT2_Dec_TOC.indd 1

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A 1,000 HP ENGINE GENERATES

332,000 CU. FT. OF EXHAUST
EVERY HOUR.

AND THATS NOT JUST HOT AIR.

Industrial engines rarely rest, pumping out power hour after hour.
That 1,000 hp engine would have filled the USS Macon airship of
1933 with 6 1/2 million cubic feet of helium in just 20 hours.
But of course power isnt the only thing these engines put out. To handle the resulting
emissions demands a catalyst of equal durability, one that can remove 6 tons of Carbon
Monoxide and Oxides of Nitrogen every 1000 hours.
It is not surprising, then, that more and more companies are turning to the global leader in
the research, design, engineering and manufacturing of advanced emission
control technologies: DCL International. And thats not just hot air either.
877.897.9759 dcl-inc.com
D a l l a s

DCL_HotAir_WW.indd 1

H o u s t o n

l o s

a n g e l e s

o k l a H o m a

C i t y

1/24/13 9:13 AM

Global Perspective

BY ROBERTO CHELLINI
ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER

Gazprom, Ukraine Agree On

deal ensures
Gas Sales > EC-brokered
winter supplies for Europe

uch has been said about Russia shutting off pipeline shipments of natural gas to Ukraine and Europe
to counteract the U.S. and European sanctions.
But in reality nobody has an interest in altering the status quo. Russia needs the money Gazprom collects for gas
sales. Europe is its major customer. Ukraine, on the edge of
bankruptcy, has problems paying Gazproms invoices from
last winter. So at the end of the day, the parties needed to
sit at a table and try to resolve their problems and that is
what happened.
Russia and Ukraine have finalized an agreement that will
see the resumption of natural gas supplies to Ukraine. The
gas price was negotiated at US$378/1000 m3 until the end
of the year, then US$365 until the end of next March. Beyond that, no secure deal is in place.
The accord is also dependent on Ukraine paying the first
tranche of its gas arrears US$1.45 billion before supplies are restarted. The European Commission acted as a
third party signatory, guaranteeing both sides would fulfill
the obligations of the document, essentially ensuring Russia will receive payment.
The agreement should eradicate fears of gas shortages
in Europe this winter, particularly in the central and southeastern European nations that are dependent on Ukraine
as a transit route for gas deliveries. The deal also comes
just in time for the start of the winter heating season, when
countries begin to draw down on gas storage.
The deal is crucial for Russia and Gazprom, which have
been impacted by lower revenues from the loss of the
Ukrainian gas market over the summer, compounding the
impact of European Union and U.S. sanctions on the ability
of oil and gas companies to borrow money.
Gazproms profits fell in the first half of 2014 due to the
lower prices it charged Ukraine over the winter just
US$285/1000 m3. Gazprom cut supplies to Ukraine comDECEMBER 2014

CT490.indd 1

pletely last June, and Business Monitor International (BMI)

expects its third quarter 2014 earnings to be poor.
In 2013, Ukraine was Russias third largest gas customer,
importing over 882 Bcf (25 x 109 m3) of gas for domestic
use. BMI predicts a significant reduction in natural gas consumption in Ukraine due to higher prices curbing demand
and the government-implemented gas savings plan. The
government has introduced measures aimed at cutting gas
use, including a 30% cut in consumption from the manufacturing and municipal sectors and a 10% cut by schools
and hospitals.
Due to its size, the long-term loss of the Ukrainian market would not be in Russias interest. The increase of gas
prices from US$285 to US$365 will also mitigate any loss
in revenues from reduced consumption in Ukraine. Regaining such a large market at an improved sales price
will be a boon to Gazprom, and the Russian government
especially, at a time when European gas consumption is
dwindling and gas deliveries to China are still some four
years from realization.
BMIs outlook for the European gas market remains
bleak, considering weak industrial growth and poor pricing dynamics for power generation. Currently, one cannot see anything that would change forecasts that European gas consumption will be lower in 2023 than it was
in 2006. Russias market share will also be challenged
by Azerbaijani gas, which is expected to be flowing into
southern Europe by 2019, and by increased European
LNG import capabilities.
Securing the return of gas sales to Ukraine, backed by
a European Commission guarantee, will be an important
source of revenue for Gazprom. This will help the company
support investments in its other major projects, particularly
those in the Far East targeting a diversification of gas sales
to China. CT2
8

COMPRESSORtech2

11/19/14 8:39 AM

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a direct replacement sized to an existing valve,
the SF valve delivers performance improvements
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sf valve

module technology

straight flowpath

Replaceable modules with straight gas flow

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Worldwide patents pending

...take a step in a new direction...

visit www.zahroofvalves.com

redefining the compressor valve

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E m
im p

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www.hoerbiger.com

Meetings & Events

Hoerbiger.indd 1

11/13/14 8:58 AM

*Indicates shows and conferences in which COMPRESSORtech2 is participating

DECEMBER

Dec. 4-6
Shanghai International Petroleum
Petrochemical Natural Gas Technology
Equipment Exhibition Shanghai
Tel: +86 21 6592 9965
Web: www.sippe.org.cn/en

Tel: +1 (713) 963-6283

Web: www.offshorewestafrica.com
Jan. 26-28
Offshore Middle East Doha, Qatar
Tel: +44 1992 656 629
Web: www.offshoremiddleeast.com

Dec. 4-7
Basra Oil & Gas Conference and
Exhibition Basra, Iraq
Tel: +90 21 23 56 0056
Web: www.basraoilgas.com

FEBRUARY

Dec. 9-11
*Power-Gen International
Orlando, Florida
Tel: +1 (918) 831-9160
Web: www.power-gen.com

Feb. 18-19
*Gas/Electric Partnership
Conference Cypress, Texas
Tel: +1 (713) 529-3216
Web: www.gaselectricpartnership.com

Dec. 10-12
International Petroleum Technology
Conference Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Tel: +971 4 457 5800
Web: www.iptcnet.org/2014/
kualalumpur

Feb. 22-25
Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning
Conference Norman, Oklahoma
Tel: +1 (405) 325-3891
Web: www.ou.edu/outreach/engr/
lrgcc_home.html

JANUARY 2015

MARCH
March 11-13
Australasian Oil & Gas Conference

Jan. 20-22
Offshore West Africa Lagos, Nigeria

DECEMBER 2014

CT_Dec_M&E.indd 1

Feb.15-18
*Middle East Turbomachinery
Symposium Doha, Qatar
Tel: +1 (979) 845-7417
Web: middleeastturbo.tamu.edu

10

Perth, Western Australia

Tel: +61 3 9261 4500
Web: www.aogexpo.com.au
March 16-19
Nigeria Oil & Gas Conference
Abuja, Nigeria
Tel: +234 706 911 7347
Web: www.cwcnog.com
March 18-19
Turkish International Oil and
Gas Conference 2015
Ankara, Turkey
Tel: + (44) 020 7596 5000
Web: www.turoge.com
March 22-26
*Sour Oil & Gas Advanced
Technology 2015
Abu Dhabi, U.A.E.
Tel: +971 2 674 4040
Web: www.sogat.org
March 23-24
*European Gas Transport &
Storage Summit Munich
Tel: +44 20 7202 7690
Web: www.gtsevent.com

COMPRESSORtech2

11/19/14 8:44 AM

E mission
m possible.
XperSEAL - the unique pressure packing
for reciprocating compressors offers you:
Compliance with environmental legislation
Increased reliability
Reduced operating costs

Hoerbiger.indd 2

11/13/14 8:58 AM

For a complete listing of upcoming events, please visit our website at www.compressortech2.com/events/
March 25-27
*Offshore Mediterranean
Conference Ravenna, Italy
Tel: +39 0544 219418
Web: www.omc.it
March 25-26
Georgian International Oil, Gas,
Infrastructure & Energy Conference
Tbilisi, Georgia
Tel: +44 207 596 5000
Web: www.giogie.com
March 26-28
*China International Offshore Oil &
Gas Exhibition Beijing
Tel: +86 10 5823 6555
Web: www.ciooe.com.cn/2014/en
March 31-April 2
Offshore Asia Conference & Exhibition
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Tel: +44 (0) 1992 656 651
Web: 10times.com/offshore-asia

APRIL

April 12-15
*Gas Processors Association

DECEMBER 2014

CT_Dec_M&E.indd 2

Annual Convention San Antonio

Tel: +1 (918) 493-3872
Web: www.gpaglobal.org
April 20-22
*Gas Compressor Association Expo
& Conference Galveston, Texas
Tel: +1 (972) 518-0019
Web: www.gascompressor.org
April 27-30
*Gulf South Rotating
Machinery Symposium
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Tel: +1 (225) 578-4853
Web: www.gsrms.org
April 28-30
*Gas Compressor Institute
Liberal, Kansas
Tel: +1 (620) 417-1170
Web: www.gascompressor.info

MAY

May 4-7
*Offshore Technology Conference
Houston
Tel: +1 (972) 952-9494
Web: www.otcnet.org

11

May 12-14
*Eastern Gas Compression
Roundtable Moon Township,
Pennsylvania
Tel: +1 (412) 372-4301
Web: www.egcr.org
May 12-14
Oil & Gas Uzbekistan
Tashkent, Uzbekistan
Tel: +44 207 596 5144
Web: www.oguzbekistan.com
May 19-21
*Sensor+Test
Nuremberg, Germany
Tel: +49 5033 9639-0
Web: www.sensor-test.de

JUNE

June 2-5
Caspian Oil & Gas Baku, Azerbaijan
Tel: +44 207 596 5000
Web: www.caspianoil-gas.com
June 9-11
*Power-Gen Europe Amsterdam
Tel: +44 1992 656 617
Web: www.powergeneurope.com

COMPRESSORtech2

11/19/14 8:51 AM

About The Business

By Norm shade

Ebbing Oil Prices

Erode Gas Compressor
indicate equipment orders
Demand > Signals
may have peaked

or the past four years, while natural gas prices stagnated, strong oil and gas liquids prices have fueled
growth in domestic shale development. That has
driven exceptional demand for compressors, especially for
gas lift, gathering and processing applications, as well as
for vapor recovery.
The Energy Information Administration (EIA) reported that
U.S. oil production in October was at the highest level since
the 1980s. It expects that U.S. shale oil production in December will increase by 125,000 bbl/d from November. Almost all
of this growth will come from the Permian Basin, Bakken and
Eagle Ford plays. The Eagle Ford alone has grown 42% in
the past year. The long-term growth outlook remains bullish,
and Platts recently projected that the U.S. could soon surpass Saudi Arabia as the top global oil producer.
Meanwhile, despite less than spectacular prices, natural gas production has also grown, led by the Appalachian
Basin. EIA expects the Marcellus Shale flow to reach 16.04
Bcfd (4.5 x 108 m3/d) in December, with the Utica Shale
adding 1.67 Bcfd (0.47 x 108 m3/d).
This record gas production has pushed prices from above
US$4.50/Mcf in the first half of 2014, down to the US$3.80
to US$4 range since August. By mid-November, New York
Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) prices appeared to be drifting even lower.
Sooner or later, just like the natural gas industry, oil had
to recoil from its booming success. Production growth has
exceeded demand, causing oil and gas liquids prices to
plummet. Since early August, NYMEX West Texas Intermediate crude oil prices have fallen steadily from above
US$100/bbl to below US$80/bbl by early November. Gas
liquids prices have suffered similar declines.
As oil prices have fallen, the obvious question is: At
what price does shale oil become uneconomic to produce?
Some believe it begins at US$80/bbl; others see it as low
as US$50/bbl because shale oil extraction is getting more
efficient. According to the EIA, production per rig has in-

Norm Shade is senior consultant and president emeritus of ACI

Services Inc. of Cambridge, Ohio. A 44-year veteran of the gas
compression industry, he has written numerous papers and is
active in the major industry associations.

creased by more than 300% over the past four years. The
International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that about
98% of crude oil and condensate production in the U.S.
has a break-even price of below US$80 and 82% has a
break-even price of US$60 or lower. That may only temper
the shutdown of drilling operations but it will certainly put a
damper on expansion plans.
For the first time since 2010, domestic oil output is expected to grow at a slower rate than the year before. Some
producers, including Continental Resources, ConocoPhillips and Pioneer Natural Resources, have already announced postponements of their 2015 expansion plans.
Major oil companies, such as Chevron, ExxonMobil and
Shell, are also deferring expansions and scrapping operations that have narrow profit margins, according to The Wall
Street Journal.
Halliburton Chairman, President and CEO Dave Lesar
opined that the crude oil market should correct itself next
year. He said that shale operations are more responsive
to market signals than is conventional oil production, so an
oversupply can be erased more quickly. He also indicated
that demand is creeping up, albeit at a lower rate.
Some Marcellus gas producers are also re-evaluating
their operations because the surge in their output, which
has exceeded pipeline capacity, is driving gas prices lower.
For example, Cabot Oil & Gas intends to finish its pipeline
projects in the Marcellus Shale and then transfer investments to other fields until additional pipeline capacity becomes available in 2017.
As it did last year, the intensity of the winter will determine the near-term pricing levels for gas. Storage levels
were depleted last winter and their replenishment has
helped hold prices up in some regions. EIA reported that
working gas storage at the end of October was still 6.2%
less than a year ago and 6.8% below the five-year average, despite a record summer injection of 2749 Bcf (7.8
x 1010 m3).
All the signals suggest that compressor demand has
probably peaked already, and at least a temporary retreat
is a certainty for 2015. How steep and how long the decline
will be depends on whether oil and gas prices begin to recover without significant production cuts. CT2

december 2014 12
Compressortech2

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1

11/10/14
AM
07.11.149:35
15:55

Monitoring Government

North Dakotas
Flares Begin To
begins for burning
Flicker > Phasedown
of wellhead gas
BY PATRICK CROW

The state has estimated that more than a third of flared

gas results from the lack of gathering pipelines. The largest
challenge there, according to the NDIC, is securing landowner permissions, which can delay projects half a year or
longer. Other obstacles include zoning and permitting delays, harsh weather and labor shortages.
The remaining two-thirds of flared gas is due to the challenges of altering existing infrastructure, such as the need
for additional pressure on gathering lines to offset the higher pressure from newly drilled wells and increased pipeline
capacity from high-pressure wells.
Another challenge is the necessity to strip more liquids
from the wet gas before it enters trunk lines. EIA said by
the end of the year, new gas processing plants in the state
would boost capacity to 1.454 Bcfd (41.1 x 106 m3/d), or
440 MMcfd (12.5 x 106 m3/d) more than last year. There
are plans to build another 400 MMcfd (11.3 x 106 m3/d) of
processing capacity by the end of 2016.
Even that wont be enough. As the Bakken oil wells mature,
they will yield less crude but proportionately more liquids-rich
gas. The state has estimated the gas processing need may
grow to 2.5 Bcfd (70.8 x 106 m3/d) within 10 to 15 years.
NDIC said the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation home
to the Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara tribes is a major part
of the gas-flaring problem. Last August, 35.5% of gas produced on the reservation was burned. The rate peaked at
64% in 2011.
The reservation produces roughly a third of North Dakotas oil. Last August the flow was more than 333,000 bbl/d,
of which 134,000 bbl/d was from tribal lands and 199,000
bbl/d from private lands. If the reservation were a separate
state, it would be the nations seventh largest oil producer.
The Three Affiliated Tribes organization has said that
construction of gathering lines, processing plants and trunk
lines has been complicated by the overlap of governmental rules. State regulators insist that their flaring regulations
apply even on tribal lands. The tribes are developing their
own approach, and the U.S. Department of the Interior is
drafting its own flaring rule for federally managed lands. CT2

orth Dakotas push to slash gas flaring finally is

in motion.
The surge in Bakken Shale oil production, which
jumped from more than 230,000 bbl/d in January 2010 to
more than 1.1 million bbl/d last August, has opened a floodgate of associated gas. However, gas pipelines in the oilprone Williston Basin are often full or far apart. Long lead
times are needed to build pipeline infrastructure (see COMPRESSORtech2, July 2013, p. 14).
The only way for producers to sell their crude has been
to burn the gas. Thats become increasingly unacceptable,
most of all for a state government witnessing prospective
gas royalties go up in smoke.
For the compression sector, the anti-flaring movement in
the Williston Basin will create opportunities to sell packages to
move the gas from the wellhead to the gathering line and on to
the processing plant, which will need compression yet again.
According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration
(EIA), a third of the natural gas produced in North Dakota in
recent years has been flared. At times, the rate has hit 36%.
The gas is burned, rather than vented to the atmosphere,
because pure methane has a much higher global warming
potential than carbon dioxide, the main component of combusted gas. The state bans gas venting.
The North Dakota Industrial Commission (NDIC) has reported that nearly 28% of gas output was flared last August,
or 375 MMcfd (10.6 x 106 m3/d) out of a total production of
1340 MMcfd (38 x 106 m3/d). The other 72% was either sold
or used at the production site.
NDIC has established goals to decrease flaring over
coming years. It set a target of 26% for the fourth quarter of
this year, phasing down to 10% by 2020.
In its July 1 order, the commission pledged to reduce flaring even if it had to restrict the oil flow from major sources
such as the Bakken Shale and the Three Forks formation.
However, NDIC said it recognized the difficult economics
that companies face from rapidly declining oil and gas production curves at newly drilled wells and that it would consider exemptions on a case-by-case basis.
DECEMBER 2014

CT493.indd 1

14

COMPRESSORtech2

11/19/14 8:59 AM

THINK GERMAN,
ACT LOCAL.
DO YOU FEEL THE "HEARTBEAT"
OF YOUR COMPRESSOR?

BLUESTROKE
COMPRESSOR
SERVICE

ALSO COMPRESSORS NEED HEALTH CHECKS!

For your compressor health check come to NEAC
Compressor Service. We have the know-how and
specialists to verify the machine capability through
pV analysis and a vibration survey. Our health checks go
beyond. We make in depth measurements and review
valve performance, piston ring and packing conditions,
gas composition and possible pressure pulsations.
This all has one target: No surprises.

NEAC Compressor Service Ltd.

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www.neac.net
Contact me for South East Asia:
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Senior Technical Service Engineer
teerawat.kijsawas@neac.co.th
Direct Phone: +66-38-923713

NEA GROUP Headquarters in Germany

NeumanEsser.indd 1

11/14/14 8:27 AM

2014 ENGINE
Diesel or Heavy Fuel

Dual Fuel
20,000

19,000

18,000

17,000

16,000

15,000

14,000

13,000

12,000

11,000

10,000

9000

8000

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1900

1800

1700

1600

1500

1400

1000 to 5200
1000 to 2670

Caterpillar Global
Petroleum

31 to 16,226

Caterpillar Marine
Power Systems

8 to 16,000

Cummins

37 to 3281

Daihatsu

1300

1200

1100

ABC
Anglo Belgian Corp.

1000

KILOWATTS

Gaseous Fuel

71 to 6100

41 to 6729

172 to 2000

66 to 6600
66 to 6600

170 to 1465

Dresser-Rand

150 to 1350
288 to 768

Electro-Motive
Diesel (EMD)
Fairbanks Morse
GE Power & Water,
Distributed Power
Guangzhou
H. Ceglielski
Poznan S.A.
Hyundai Heavy
Industries

1249 to 3729

750 to 23,850
1255 to 18,000

120 to 9500

660 to 4400
660 to 1080

500 to 30,000

575 to 10,000

15,000 to 25,000

455 to 880

2880 to 9600
2880 to 4320

Jinan

10 to 6300
400 to 1000

December 2014

CT501_Specs.indd 1

16

Compressortech2

11/19/14 10:33 AM

SPECS-AT-A-GLANCE
Diesel or Heavy Fuel

Dual Fuel
20,000

19,000

18,000

17,000

16,000

15,000

14,000

13,000

12,000

11,000

10,000

9000

8000

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1900

1800

1700

1600

1500

1400

1300

1200

1100

1000

KILOWATTS

Gaseous Fuel

450 to 87,220

MAN Diesel & Turbo

1740 to 87,220
1740 to 87,220

Maschinenbau
Halberstadt

30 to 4000

Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries Marine
Machinery & Engine

1350 to 35,520
1350 to 35,520

Mitsubishi Power
Systems Americas
Moteurs Baudouin
MTU
Friedrichshafen GmbH

MWM

3760 to 15,400
3650 to 5500

60 to 883

75 to 10,000
200 to 2530

548 to 2061
400 to 4300

Niigata

500 to 13,768

Perkins

4 to 2000

1007 to 6032

322 to 1042

1685 to 12,000

Rolls-Royce

1425 to 9620

800 to 4224

Rumo

800 to 1045
800 to 1000

2700 to 80,080

Wrtsil

4320 to 19,260
4050 to 17,550

Yanmar

250 to 3530
300 to 2000

December 2014 17
Compressortech2

CT501_Specs.indd 2

11/19/14 10:34 AM

CPI Develops Compressor

Valve With Replaceable
for critical operations, remote/
Seat Plate > Designed
hazardous environments

n CPI developed this replaceable seat compressor valve to simplify overhauls.

ompressor Products International (CPI) has developed a

compressor valve with a replaceable seat plate for quick reconditioning in critical operations or in remote/hazardous environments.
The Hi-Flo RS valve is a refinement of the companys Hi-Flo R and
V valves.
CPI noted that unscheduled reciprocating compressor shutdowns can
lead to costly production losses.
Compressor valves have many
active parts and are responsible for
more unscheduled shutdowns than
any other compressor component.

When a valve fails, it not only reduces

efficiency and capacity but also can
result in secondary damage to other
parts of the compressor.
CPI said its Hi-Flo R radius valves
have performed reliably in the oil, gas
petrochemical and air separation industries worldwide.
The radiused profile of the valve

n Figure 2: This is a finite element analysis of

the new seat plate in PEEK.

n Figure 1: This drawing shows the

profile for the Hi-Flo R valve.
December 2014

CT487.indd 1

rings (Figure 1), which control and seal

the process gas as it flows into and
from the compressor cylinder, provides
several important characteristics.
The main advantage is that the
Hi-Flo R valves provide very long
running times, typically up to three
years between planned maintenance
and overhauls. This is an advantage
when service or reconditioning requiring specialized skills, equipment
and facilities are needed for compressors that are operating in remote
or difficult environments.
When an overhaul is needed,
valves are shipped to a CPI facility or
an approved workshop, resulting in
downtime that costs time and money.
CPI developed the Hi-Flo RS valve
at the request of a customer who operated compressors using Hi-Flo V and
R valves on offshore production platforms, floating production, storage and
offloading vessels and other facilities
far from properly equipped maintenance workshops.
The Hi-Flo RS has a replaceable
seat plate that is integrated into the
valve seat housing. Over time, any
normal wear will be on the seat plate
rather than on the valve seat itself.

18

Compressortech2

11/19/14 9:00 AM

Recognized
Leader

n Figure 3: This clean valve came

from a third-stage gas lift compressor in service offshore.
When valve efficiency begins to decline, the seat plate
can be popped out and a new seat plate can be snapped
into place.
Because the new seat plate has the same dimensions
as the original, there is no need for complicated depth and
clearance adjustments, using shims and gaskets, when reinstalling the valve.
The seat plate is made of polyetheretherketone (PEEK),
the same rugged and durable material used to manufacture
the rings. The difference in the strength of the replaceable
PEEK seat plate compared to a traditional seat is negligible,
as proven by engineering studies (Figure 2) and field tests.
CPI said the Hi-Flo RS valve performs extremely well under severe operating conditions and for processing of gases
that contain liquid slugs and debris. Figure 3 shows the good
condition of a valve removed preventively after 13 months of
operation on a gas lift three-stage compressor offshore.
Total E&P Congo, equipped all stages of its PAC4 compressors with this technology in 2012 and is preparing to
equip a General Electric Nuovo-Pignone 6HM3 with the
technology by the end of 2014.
The CPI Hi-Flo RS is the response to our problems. We
dont need to re-machine or use special tooling for maintenance, a Total E&P representative said.
Furthermore, we dont need to keep complete valves in
stock only rebuild kits. We have also reduced the unscheduled shutdown time and some valves installed two
years ago are still running.
The company said the new valve could be completely
reconditioned on location without specialized tools, re-machining, presses or other equipment. The rebuild kit includes
the replaceable plate, new valve rings, springs and buttons.
CPI said since there is no reduction in valve seat thickness, no adjustments are needed if unloader forks are fitted
on the suction valves. CT2

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December 2014 19
Compressortech2
ReynoldsFrench.indd 1
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7/8/13 2:07 PM
11/19/14 9:01 AM

Combustion Solutions For Achieving

Low Exhaust Emissions In Integral Gas
prechamber, dual-stage
Compressor Engines > Passive
prechamber methods explored

corner

TECH

By David Lepley, Luigi Tozzi

and Emmanuella Sotiropoulou

ogy (patent pending). Both combinations have achieved incremental reduction in exhaust emissions with large-bore,
slow-speed natural gas engines. The engine results of both
of these combinations have been previously published [7].
In this paper, the continuation of the technology validation of
the combination of the high-energy ignition and the dual-stage
prechamber technology will be presented in terms of the complete engine test on an integral gas compressor engine.
While the dual-stage prechamber technology described
in this paper was tested on a legacy integral gas compressor engine, the concept is also believed to be applicable to
newer, high brake mean effective pressure (BMEP), large
bore two-stroke or four-stroke engines. The paper merely
intends to present the potential of this technology and calls
for the next step of generating specific production solutions
to address the industrys needs.
The information in the following section has been published previously [7] and is presented to provide an adequate
foundation for the new results presented later in this paper.

perators of lean-burn natural gas engines are constantly striving to meet emissions requirements in
the most cost effective way possible. More specifically, the conversions of legacy large-bore (greater than 9.8
in. [250 mm]) natural gas engines can easily reach in excess of US$100,000.
This approach still provides some cost savings over a
new engine installation, but is no longer necessary thanks
to recent breakthroughs in high-energy ignition systems
and the design of passive prechamber plugs via the use of
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) [1-6].
This paper provides a summary of the advancements made
in the past year by coupling emerging technologies such as
the high-energy ignition and passive prechamber spark plug
technologies and applying them to large-bore gas engines.
Two different configurations are covered. The first is the
combination of the high-energy ignition technology with the
passive prechamber spark plug in an open-engine combustion chamber configuration. The second is the same
combination but this time the passive prechamber spark
plug is located inside a fuel-fed precombustion chamber
and referred to as the dual-stage prechamber technol-

Engine system configuration

The authors decided to model and test the solutions
proposed in this paper on a representative large-bore gas
engine residing at the Engines and Energy Conversion
Laboratory at Colorado State University. It is a four-cylinder
Cooper Bessemer GMV-4TF with in-cylinder fuel injection.
Figure 1 shows the engine installation. Table 1 contains the
specifications of the engine as tested.
Each cylinder of this engine can be configured in two ways.
One way is to use two spark plugs per cylinder. The other
way is to use a precombustion chamber, which has its own
separate fuel line. The fuel admission into the precombustion
chamber is controlled by a mechanical check valve. For the
purposes of the test, an electronic fuel control valve (ePCC [8],
Figure 2) was installed, which is able to control the admission timing and fuel amount in the precombustion chamber.
This electronic fuel-control valve allows to deliver the fuel in
the under sonic conditions.
continued on page 22

David Lepley has a bachelors degree in electrical engineering from Youngstown State University. He is Product Manager
Ignition Systems for Altronic, with responsibility for developing and promoting advanced ignition technologies for gas
engines. Luigi Tozzi has a doctorate in mechanical engineering
from the University of Naples, Italy. His emphasis has been on
lean burn gas engine combustion since the early 1980s. As
president of Prometheus Applied Technologies, he leads the
development and commercialization of precombustion chamber systems for large lean burn gas engines. Emmanuella Sotiropoulou has a masters in electrical engineering from Colorado
State University. As vice president at Prometheus Applied
Technologies, she is in charge of the development of precombustion chamber systems for large lean burn gas engines.
This paper was presented at the Gas Machinery Research
Conference in Albuquerque, New Mexico, in October of 2013.

December 2014

CT471.indd 1

20

Compressortech2

11/20/14 9:17 aM

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advantages resulting from using this ignition system compared to a conventional system are the subject of a previous publication [10].
Combustion pressure transducers are installed in all four
cylinders, allowing for high-speed combustion pressure
measurements via a high-speed data acquisition system
(HSDA). The HSDA was controlled by a National Instruments PXI-1002 system.
The software computed combustion parameters such as
peak cylinder pressure and location, heat release rate, indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) and cycle-to-cycle
variations. It was possible to monitor exhaust gas emissions of the entire engine.
The five-gas analyzer used for the test was a Rosemount
five-gas emissions analyzer that measures CO, CO2, THC,
NOx and O2 concentrations. Both measuring systems are
shown in Figure 3.

n Figure 1. The Cooper Bessemer GMV-4TF at the EECL-CSU.

RPM

300

n Table 1. The Cooper Bes-

Bore (mm)

356

Stroke (mm)

356

semer GMV-4TF as tested at

the EECL-CSU.

CR

10

The specific advantages resulting from using an electronic fuel control valve compared to a mechanical check valve
have been discussed in a previous publication [9] and are
not addressed in this paper. However, the need to use this
type of fuel delivery system in this study was mainly to control the fuel amount delivered independently of the cylinder
pressure during the time of admission.

n Figure 3. The data-acquisition equipment (left) and the gasanalyzer rack.

The engine air-fuel ratio is controlled by independently
setting the air mass flow rate and the fuel mass flow rate.
The engine is configured to maintain a constant differential
pressure of 17.2 kPa (2.5 psi) between intake and exhaust.
The air mass flow rate is controlled by adjusting the backpressure. A variable-speed Roots blower is used to supply
air to the engine and a variable-exhaust restriction is used
to control the backpressure and to simulate a turbocharger.

n Figure 2. The ePCC electronic fuel control valve and CPU-XL

ignition system on engine installation.

Passive prechamber spark plugs for open chamber

configuration
In the first combination of the high-energy ignition system
and prechamber plugs, the two conventional spark plugs in the
open chamber engine configuration are replaced with passive
prechamber spark plugs. The plugs are located in the 0 location and the -45 location as shown in the model of Figure 4.
CFD analysis indicated that a relatively large variation in
the mixture distribution is to be expected in the two locations with a lambda of 1.75 (f = 0.571) in the 0 location
continued on page 24

The engine is outfitted with the latest available ignition

system technology as shown in Figure 2. A tunable, highenergy ignition system able to assure reliable ignition with
lean air-fuel mixtures, while maintaining long plug life, was
selected for this test [1].
This system was chosen because it allows the user the
flexibility in selecting a spark waveform profile based on the
flow velocity at the spark plug gap, which is determined with
the help of CFD for a particular application. The specific
December 2014

CT471.indd 2

22

Compressortech2

11/19/14 9:09 AM

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conventional spark plug (left) and the prechamber plug (right).

Comparison of initial flame development from two different
spark locations (isothermal surface at 1500K) [7]. The flame
is represented as an isothermal surface at 1500 K, seen in
red. These results indicate that the use of the prechamber
plugs on engine will improve engine stability and, hence, extend the lean flammability limit. This was later confirmed by
the engine test at a constant load of 500 hp (372 kW).

n Figure 4. The relative location of the

two spark plugs is
shown.

and a lambda of 2.35 (f = 0.426) in the -45 location. This

was observed at the time of spark of 5 crank angle degrees
(CAD) before top dead center (BTDC). The results are
shown in Figure 5.

n Figure 5. The lambda distribution of the two spark plug locations [7].
Due to the large variation in lambda distribution observed
in the CFD results, the two designs shown in Figure 6 were
developed. The prechamber plug designs were able to successfully trap some fuel during the direct injection event to
provide a richer environment than the conventional spark
plug for the initial flame development.

n Figure 8. The conventional spark plug (left) and the prechamber

plug (right). Comparison of initial flame development from two different spark locations (isothermal surface at 1500K) [7].
The results indicated that the bullet prechamber plug design provided the most stable operation as seen in Figure
9. The engine stability, measured as the coefficient of variation of indicated mean effective pressure (COV of IMEP)
versus NOx emissions is improved by more than a factor of
2 at less than 2 g/bhp-hr operating conditions.
Further improvements in the stability at lean operating
points are made by the use of the high-energy ignition system. In conclusion, these results indicate that the combination of passive prechamber spark plugs and the high-energy,
tunable, ignition system provide the most robust solution
for the 500 mg/Nm3 (1 g/bhp-hr) operation for large-bore
natural gas engines.

n Figure 6. These are the two passive prechamber plug designs.

The CFD results of the prechamber plug designs are
shown in Figure 7 as compared to the open spark plug
(J-gap type). The mixture at the gap of the open spark
plug is 1.55 (f = 0.645) while that of the prechamber plug
is 1.25 (f = 0.800) with an even richer mixture surrounding
it (l=1.15, f = 0.870) to ensure strong flame jet formation.

n Figure 7. The lambda comparison at the electrode gap region

between the two spark plugs [7].
n Figure 9. The COV of IMEP vs NOx and excess air ratio (l=1/f) for
the three configurations [7].
continued on page 26

The results of the initial flame development initiated from

two different spark locations for both the conventional open
plug and the prechamber plug are shown in Figure 8. The
December 2014

CT471.indd 3

24

Compressortech2

11/19/14 9:16 AM

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Dual-stage precombustion chamber concept

In order to improve the efficiency and emissions trade-off
obtained by the standard precombustion chamber, a second
concept was developed. Here, the reduction in emissions is
obtained by reducing the fuel present in the precombustion
chamber. To ensure consistent flame propagation within the
now lean, homogenous precombustion chamber, flame jet
ignition must be utilized.
To address this problem, the dual-stage prechamber approach was created and is currently patent pending. Here,
the combination of a smaller, fuel-rich prechamber (first
stage) inside a larger, fuel-lean prechamber (second stage),
are used to initiate the combustion in the main chamber.
This combination leads to a reduction in the NOx pro
duction compared to the conventional configuration. To
achieve the desired distribution in the dual-stage prechamber and appropriate flame jet penetration in the main chamber, a new design had to be developed for the second stage
(Figure 10) to be coupled with a passive prechamber spark
plug that served as the first stage. In addition, the fueling
of the prechamber was controlled by an electronically actuated sonic valve as opposed to a mechanical check valve.

which receives its fresh air-fuel mixture during compression

from the first stage. The ensuing flame jets from the passive
prechamber spark plug initiate combustion in the fuel-fed
second stage, which in turn initiates combustion in the main
chamber. The combustion simulation of Figure 12 demonstrates this combustion sequence.

n Figure 12. The dual-stage prechamber/flame jet development

(isothermal surface at 1500K) [7].
Dual-stage precombustion chamber concept
full engine test
The first step for proving this technology was to perform an
engine test in which one of the four cylinders of the Cooper
Bessemer GMV-4TF was outfitted with the new dual-stage
prechamber approach. The results from this test were published in a previous publication [7]. Due to the promising results
of the single cylinder test, a full engine test was performed.
The baseline (conventional configuration) used the mechanical check valve for the fuel admission in the precombustion chamber. In the case of the dual-stage prechamber,
as described previously, all prechamber fuel lines were installed with electronic fuel control valves.
This was done as an expediency to proving out the dualstage prechamber technology. The fuel admission by these
valves was kept under sonic conditions throughout the duration of the test. Future plans include the development and
application of the dual-stage prechamber with the use of a
mechanical check valve.
The test was performed at two different load conditions to
gain an understanding of the behavior of the new technology under different engine power ratings; 500 hp (373 kW)
and 350 hp (260 kW). The spark timing selected for the
baseline is the optimum timing for this engine configuration
and is set to 3 CAD BTDC.
To better characterize the performance of the dual-stage
prechamber concept, three different spark timings were investigated during the test: 3, 5 and 8 CAD BTDC. For each
timing, the air manifold pressure was increased to reduce
the fuel injected in the main chamber and achieve leaner
in-cylinder conditions. No attempt was made to optimize the
timing of the electronic fuel admission valve of the second
stage. Following are the comparative results of the baseline
and the dual-stage prechamber concept (DS).
continued on page 28

n Figure 10. The original

precombustion cham
ber hardware compared
to the new design of the
dual-stage prechamber
technology.
It is important to note that the use of the timed fuel delivery was done to prove the ability of this approach to reduce
emissions while increasing efficiency. Once this technology
proves sound, a development process will be necessary
to fit this approach in meeting different application needs,
such as the combination of the dual-stage prechamber with
the use of a mechanical check valve.
Comparative CFD analysis of the baseline conventional
configuration (fuel-fed precombustion chamber with conventional spark plug) and the new dual-stage prechamber
approach is shown in Figure 11. As expected, the conventional configuration is overly rich at approximately l=0.85 (f=
1.18) while the dual-stage prechamber has a lambda of 1.5
in the second stage and 1.2 in the first stage.

n Figure 11. The lambda distribution in the conventional prechamber (left) and dual-stage prechamber (right) [7].
Ignition is initiated in the passive prechamber spark plug,
December 2014

CT471.indd 4

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Compressortech2

11/19/14 9:21 AM

The compressor improvements you need productivity,

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The most comprehensive picture of the combustion results is shown in Figure 13 in terms of the trade-off between
brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and brake specific (BS) NOx
emissions at 500 hp. All spark timings of the dual-stage prechamber produce a higher BTE with lower NOx emissions
compared to the baseline.
At 0.75 g/bhp-hr of BS NOx emissions, the efficiency gain
ranges from approximately 0.5% points to 1.5% points. It
was expected that the dual-stage prechamber would require
more advance timing than the baseline due to the leaner second stage and to the time delay introduced by the first stage.
The dual-stage prechamber achieves a BTE range between 30.6 and 31.8% at 0.5 g/bhp-hr. It was not possible to
obtain any data points at leaner than 0.35 g/bhp-hr because
the engine had reached the airflow limit.

n Figure 14. The 500 hp combustion stability comparison.

prechamber improves the COV of IMEP from 4.75 to 2.2%.
A comparison of the combustion pressure for the two points
indicated in Figure 13 is provided in Figure 15 for all four
cylinders. These two points were selected at similar COV of
IMEP and have approximately 1% point difference in BTE.
It is easy to see the difference in manifold air pressure as
indicated by the two black arrows. Even though the dualstage prechamber is running at leaner conditions, it is able to
produce higher peak pressures leading to higher efficiency.

n Figure 13. The 500 hp BTE/NOx trade-off comparison of the conventional precombustion chamber (baseline) and the dual-stage
prechamber.
The improved trade-off between BTE and NOx emissions
can be attributed mostly to the leaner conditions occurring inside the second stage and to the enhanced flame propagation
resulting from the flame jet ignition of the rich first stage. It
can be further confirmed by comparing the mass of fuel in the
second stage at 4.85 mg per injection to that of the baseline
at 20.2 mg per injection (approximately 76% reduction in fuel).
Another contributing factor for this gain in efficiency is the
increased engine stability due to the more efficient design
of the second stage producing three flame jets instead of
one (Figure 10), increasing the main chamber turbulence
and, therefore, flame propagation. The engine stability is
measured in terms of the coefficient of variation of indicated
mean effective pressure (COV of IMEP). A comparison between the baseline and the dual stage is shown in Figure
14. The results indicate that the baseline has an acceptable
COV of IMEP of less than 5% at NOx levels higher than 0.75
g/bhp-hr. In contrast, the dual-stage prechamber is able to
operate at a comparable COV of IMEP of less than 5% at
a NOx level of less than 0.4 g/bhp-hr and is limited by the
engines airflow limit. Another observation can be made at
the same emissions of 0.75 g/bhp-hr, where the dual-stage
December 2014

CT471.indd 5

n Figure 15. The 500 hp combustion pressure comparison for

baseline (dotted line) and dual-stage prechamber(solid).
Taking a look at the BTE/NOx trade-off of the 350 hp power
rating, shown in Figure 16, one can see that the dual-stage
prechamber technology offers more stable operation at 0.5 g/
bhp-hr of NOx emissions with approximately 1.0% point in efficiency gain. Further insight into the engine stability is shown in
Figure 17 where the baseline maintains an acceptable operation (COV of IMEP < 5%) at a NOx emissions level of approximately 0.6 g/bhp-hr, while the dual-stage prechamber achieves
the same at a NOx emissions level of less than 0.3 g/bhp-hr.
These results confirm that the benefits of the dual-stage prechamber are maintained at lower engine power ratings.
continued on page 30
28

Compressortech2

11/19/14 9:23 AM

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gas cooling not merely by meeting the customers needs, but by exceeding customer
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Combustion of the leaner mixture inside the second stage

is initiated by flame jets produced by the first rich stage.
In this paper, a full engine test is performed to determine
the merit of this new technology. The engine used is a Cooper Bessemer GMV-4TF with four cylinders that are all instrumented. The results of the test validate the expectations set
forth by a previously published single cylinder test, showing
a reduction in NOx emissions much below 0.5 g/bhp-hr while
gaining 1.5% points in BTE at a 500 hp engine rating. Furthermore, this approach demonstrated great improvements
in combustion stability at lower engine ratings (350 hp).
Both approaches presented in this paper provide a flexibility of choice to the operator in meeting emissions requirements in a more cost effective way. The dual-stage prechamber approach has demonstrated large gains over the present
state of the art, warranting the continuation of developing
application specific solutions. The immediate next step is the
development of an optimized dual-stage prechamber configuration that allows retrofitting of integral compressor natural
gas engines that use precombustion chamber fuel admission
systems with subsonic check valves. This development will
be the subject of a subsequent publication. CT2

n Figure 16. The 350 hp BTE/NOx trade-off comparison.

References
[1] Lepley, J. M., et al, A New Technology Electronic Ignition Which Eliminates the Limitations of Traditional Ignition
Systems, CIMAC Congress 2010, Bergen, Paper No. 173.
[2] Yasueda, S., et al, Predicting Autoignition caused by
Lubricating Oil in Gas Engines, CIMAC Congress 2013,
Shanghai, Paper No. 37.
[3] Sotiropoulou, E., et al, A Method for Predicting Knock
in Gas Engines by means of Chemical Precursors from Detailed Chemistry CFD, Proceedings of the Eighth Dessau
Gas Engine Conference, 2013.
[4] Tozzi, L., et al, Passive prechamber spark plugs:
Then and now, Proceedings of the Seventh Dessau Gas
Engine Conference, 2011, pp. 157-168.
[5] Martinez-Morett, D., et al, A Reduced Chemical Kinetic Mechanism for CFD Simulations of High BMEP, LeanBurn Natural Gas Engines, Proceedings of the ASME
Internal Combustion Engine Division Spring Technical Conference, 2012, ICES2012-81109
[6] Convergent Science Inc. website: http://convergecfd.
com/.
[7] Sotiropoulou, E., et al, Solutions for Meeting Low
Emission Requirements in Large Bore Natural Gas Engines, CIMAC Congress 2013, Shanghai, Paper No. 278.
[8] Altronic Inc., website: http://www.altronicinc.com/pdf/
HVT Sales Sheets/ePCC_6-12.pdf.
[9] Lepley, D.T., et al, Development and Performance
Analysis of an Advanced Combustion Control System on a
Fuel-Admitted High-Speed Natural Gas Engine, Gas Machinery Conference, 2012.
[10] Bell, D.E., et al, Field Validation of a Directed Energy Ignition System on Large Bore Natural Gas-Fueled
Reciprocating Engines, Gas Machinery Conference, 2012.

n Figure 17. The 350 hp combustion stability comparison.

Conclusions and next steps
This paper is a continuation of a previous study published
in the 2013 CIMAC congress. The study was possible
thanks to recent significant advancements in CFD combustion technology and high-energy ignition system technology. Two cost-effective approaches are investigated for
their ability to reduce emissions in large-bore natural gas
engines (greater than 250 mm).
The first is the use of two passive prechamber spark
plugs in place of the conventional spark plugs (J-gap type)
in an open chamber engine configuration. This approach
was able to reduce the NOx emissions level to 1 g/bhp-hr
while maintaining good combustion stability (COV of IMEP
less than 5%).
To provide further improvements to the efficiency and
emissions trade-off of engines configured to use a fuel-fed
precombustion chamber, the second approach investigated
is the use of a dual-stage prechamber (patent pending).
Here, the existing, fuel-rich conventional precombustion
chamber and spark plug are replaced with the combination
of a small fuel-rich prechamber (first stage) inside a larger,
leaner prechamber forming the dual-stage prechamber.
Both stages are especially designed to function together.
December 2014

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CTSS_ChristmasHouseAd.indd 1

11/20/14 9:31 AM

KB_Delta_Spreads.indd 1

11/13/14 9:23 AM

KB_Delta_Spreads.indd 2

11/13/14 9:24 AM

n One of the first C-Series

3516 packages sits in an Exterran assembly bay.

Exterran Offers Highly Configurable

3516 units have
Compressor Package > C-Series
10- to 14-week delivery
By Patrick Crow

xterran has launched its C-

Series 3516 line of compressor packages to provide
customers with both customization
options and speedy delivery.
By using a tool on Exterrans web
page, customers can designate the
features for compression packages
that precisely meet their operational
needs. The pre-engineered C-Series
3516 offers more than 60 basic options.
Exterrans goal is to respond to
the customer with a proposal within
48 hours. It can send the production

december 2014

CT492.indd 1

drawings (with dimensions, weights

and connection points) within two or
three business days. The package
typically would be delivered within 10
to 14 weeks from one of the two Exterran assembly plants in Houston.
The C-Series 3516 is available in
seven base models: in one-, twoand three-stage configurations and
a range of bore sizes. Exterran said
those choices, with others, create
a spectrum of more than 1000 possible configurations.
The series is available up to 1380
34

hp (1029 kW) and outfitted with a

Caterpillar 3516B lean-burn engine
and an Ariel JGT4 compressor. The
package is built on a heavy-duty,
12 ft. (3.65 m) wide skid suitable for
mounting on a compacted gravel pad
or concrete foundation.
Exterran said the C-Series packages could be used in a wide array
of natural gas applications generally
above 5 psi (0.35 bar) inlet pressure
and up to 1300 psi (90 bar) discharge
pressure. Typical applications would
include wellhead, gas gathering, flare
Compressortech2

11/20/14 9:58 AM

elimination, gas processing and plant

inlet and residue.
William Sayre, vice president, product lines and marketing at Exterran,
said the company interviewed its customers and its sales staff to determine
the crucial issues surrounding compression package purchases.
For a significant number of our customers, speed of delivery was critical
to their operations, Sayre said. We
also found that many times they had
to sacrifice or compromise some of
their technical preferences in order to
get the packages delivered faster. Our
customers would buy available stock
packages but say they wished those
had certain options that would make
them better fits.
Exterran responded with the C (for
configurable) Series, which has the
dual goals of flexibility and fast delivery. Sayre said ordering a C-Series
package essentially is similar to a
consumer ordering a computer on the
internet, selecting the basic machine
and its key components to fill a particular need.

This method allows our customers

to designate exactly the composition
they want and get it manufactured and
delivered very quickly, Sayre said.
Exterran launched the C-Series
3516 last January and formally introduced it about a month ago.
Since January, weve experienced
higher market demand for this product
that we had predicted, Sayre said.
The reaction has been extremely
positive. Were going strong with the
product and have delivered dozens to
the field at this point.
Even if customers dont necessarily need fast delivery, Sayre said the
flexibility to customize a package is
a major advantage for them, as is
the units simple assembly and commissioning.
We have competitors who offer
many ranges, sizes and configurations of compressors and drivers,
he said. But because of long engine
and compressor lead times, they often assemble standard or speculative packages that are not tailored
to a specific end use. And if theyre

building a customized package, that

can take a long time.
Sayre said Exterran collaborated
with the managers of its more than
4 million hp (2980 MW) contract
fleet, the largest in the industry, on
the design of the C-Series. It has
become the new standard package
for the fleet.
Some of the options for the C-Series
3516 line include the quiet Harsco/
Air-X-Changers fin fan cooler, Hotstart system and Murphy Centurion
Plus control panel.
Standard safety features include
automatic shutdown controls and
checker-plated, skid-resistant work
surfaces. Safety is enhanced because all local instrument gas vents
are collected, manifolded and routed
to connections at the skid edge. The
design facilitates air emissions compliance with a catalyst housing and
NPT sampling ports.
Selectable safety options include
exhaust insulation, caged ladders, and
Occupational Safety and Health Administration-compliant work platforms. CT2

www.aciservicesinc.com
740-435-0240
december 2014 35
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5/22/14 11:24
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AM

Revamp Of A Reciprocating
study details work for
Compressor Unit > Case
Eastern European refinery
By Andreas Hahn
This verifies that the compressor ful
fills the designated process conditions
without deviations and avoids general
mechanical or performance problems.
Following this, a calculation is made
with new operating conditions.
In a first step, a pre-check is made in
order to see if an adaptation of the com
pressor for the new operating condi
tions is possible in principle. The modifi
cation of both the compressor itself and
the surrounding accessories needs to
be considered. If the pre-check result
is positive, a revamp project is realistic.

n NEA delivered recips to a refinery in

Eastern Europe in 2003. Recently NEA installed new compressor crankshafts with
an increased stroke to fulfill the changed
hydrogen gas demand.

ustomers are requesting com

pressor adaptations due to
new or extended process re
quirements. Reciprocating compres
sors are always tailor-made and
designed for a specific operating con
dition and for long lifetime. New devel
opments and requirements or product
specifications demand changes in op
erating conditions.
Thus, it makes sense to verify the
existing compressor equipment, to
see whether it can be modified or
revamped to make the new process
conditions or capacity feasible. The
procedure to handle revamp business
is presented based on a case study.
Introduction
In 2003, Neuman & Esser Group
delivered a reciprocating compres
sor size 2SZL320H to a refinery in
Eastern Europe for a desulfurization

Andreas Hahn is head of revamp and

modernization at Neuman & Esser in
bach-Palenberg, Germany.

DECEMBER 2014

CT488.indd 1

process, compressing hydrogen from

406 psi (28 bar) suction pressure up to
1232 psi (85 bar) discharge pressure.
The reciprocating compressor is
a two-crank, horizontal, two-cylinder
stage, double-acting, lubricated ser
vice machine and 121,000 lb (530 kN)
allowable rod load.
The compressor is directly driven
by a rigidly coupled electric motor
with a nominal driver power of 2280
hp (1700 kW). The original design ca
pacity was approximately 1.1 MMcfh
(33,000 Nm/hr).
The NEA scope for the compressor
unit as a whole included the pulsation
vessels, interstage cooler and inter
stage separator up to the last stage
check valve. After only five years of
successful operation, the hydrogen
gas demand increased approximately
15% due to clean fuel requirements.
Initially, the existing reciprocating
compressor is re-calculated accord
ing to the original or as-built situation
with the compressor design tool KO
(Compressor Optimization Version 3).
36

Compressor verification
The second step is the detailed veri
fication of a compressor revamp as an
engineering study. It starts with a ther
modynamics and compressor calcula
tion by incorporating the specific com
pressor details into KO. In order to be
able to run the thermodynamic calcu
lation, the gas analysis, suction pres
sure, suction temperature, discharge
pressure and required capacity must
be known for each process or case.
For this case study the conclu
sion was to install a new compressor
crankshaft with an increased stroke to
fulfill customer requirements within the
allowable compressor limits. The pis
ton rods and piston had to be replaced
due to the existing cylinders running
length. The advantage here is that the
cylinders are not changed; the general
compressor arrangement can remain.
Each variation in process conditions
of compressor properties has an im
pact on compressor valves. After the
detailed compressor layout calcula
tion, the valve design needs to be con
firmed. Since the valve dynamics exert
a major influence on compressor per
formance, valve checking is manda
tory to confirm the compressor layout.
After the thermodynamics and
valves are confirmed, the compressors
continued on page 38
Compressortech2

11/19/14 9:44 AM

fl e x i bi l i t y

c o m e s s ta n d a r d
More options, more choices, more control

M u r p h y s

c o n t r o l l e r

changing to meet your needs

Keep the simple configuration tool you want and add to it

rod load capability choice of displays expansion options

For those who prefer custom over configured, Centurion offers expandable I/O capabilities,
tailored operation programs, personalized rod load calcs, enhanced user interface and more.
Flexible standards can easily be customized to your needs.

Make the flexible choice.

Call 918-317-2620 or go to www.fwmurphy.com/centurionct2

1411534 10-14

Murphy_Centurion.indd 1

11/12/14 11:40 AM

n Figure 1. View of the elasto-hydrodynamic load situation

under (left) maximum tension load and (right) maximum
compression load calculated with KO.
mechanical properties must be verified. The safety relief valve
each stage are an important fact for compressor
layout for verification of the mechanical properties, because
the set pressures determine the maximum rod forces and
static design pressures.
Typically, the crosshead bearing is one of the most critical components in a reciprocating compressor. This bearing
can fail due to hydrodynamic oil pressure being too high,
minimum oil film thickness being too thin or rod load reversal being insufficient.
KO accommodates this fact by checking these three
scenarios individually. For this purpose, Dr. Klaus Hoff and
Egidius Steinbusch developed an elasto-hydrodynamic tool
(EHD) to assess bearing hydrodynamics. This EHD tool is
an integral part of KO. Figure 1 shows the elasto-hydrodynamic load situation of the crosshead bearing under maximum tension load and maximum compression load.
Increasing the stroke of a crankshaft apparently produces higher stress levels which need to be checked in
terms of fatigue strength. The crankshaft load is generally
dominated by bending and torsion. The fillets at the crank
webs are prospective critical locations. This verification
can be best quantified by utilizing finite element analysis
(FEA) models.
Once a sufficient number of FEA simulations have been
performed, their results can be used to identify and ad-

11/19/14
3:24 PMof
settings

E-Instruments.indd 1

ENGINES FOR GAS

COMPRESSION
Reliable heart for your unit
Power range: 40 -170 kW
Fuels: NG, Wellhead gas, LPG,
Biogas, CBM gas and others
Version for Zone 2 available
(II, 3G, T1 equipment)
info@tedomengines.com, +420 483 363 642

www.tedomengines.com

DECEMBER 2014 38
Compressortech2

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10/22/14 3:08 PM

11/19/14 3:25 PM

Ellwood.qxp

1/27/10

11:51 AM

Page 1

just analytical approaches which produce approximately

the same results as the FEA. That way, the individual
crankshaft strength for a given job can be verified most accurately and quickly in KO without the need for intensive
FEA studies.
Verification of accessories
The current API 618 Rev.5 for instance requires sufficient
motor power to cover all compressor operating cases and
up to the safety valve set pressure in all stages, plus a 5%
safety margin.
For directly coupled compressors it is mandatory to run
a new torsion analysis. Only new torsion analysis can verify
the components of the drive train and avoid torsion vibrations and compressor damage.
If there is an increase in capacity and power, the coolers
must be verified for the new operating conditions. These
detail checks must be conducted by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) for the heat exchangers. Furthermore, the piping and vessels are affected. The sizing
and ratings need to be confirmed for new flow or new operating conditions.
To avoid unallowable high pulsation, a damper check is
performed based on the existing vessel design and according to the limits of API 618. The damper check can be run
with the KO calculation also and considers the new compressor layout, overall processes and operating cases.
After that a pulsation and mechanical response study is
carried out. Changes in compressor design and thermodynamic operating conditions were communicated to the supplier to re-investigate and validate the compressor unit.

We Manufacture and
Remanufacture the
Worlds Largest
Crankshafts
Ellwood Crankshaft Group
Irvine, PA, USA 16329
Hermitage, PA, USA 16148
1-800-247-1326
or 724-347-0250
ecgsales@elwd.com
www.ellwoodcrankshaftgroup.com

MIRATECHs New
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Risk analysis
The NEA Group has generated a spark hazard analysis
and risk assessment for reciprocating compressor units. If
there is a substantial modification, the assessment is performed and measures are indicated.
Special management for product safety is necessary for
revamping and modernization. It must be assured by the
OEM or an expert authority that the considered revamp
measures are a safe solution and the means by which the
revamp is selected and designed.
Just as for new compressor design, the major revamp
jobs or modifications must comply with the advised product
process. This means use of a procedure for all scheduled
quality control instructions, for feasibility study, risk assessment design engineering and fabrication.
Revamp/modernization is a special product that needs
special handling. Due to the fact that large numbers of
reciprocating compressors operate over several decades
and can run far longer, it is a good opportunity to make
them fit for current technical specifications and process
conditions by revamping. With the right technical support
by a compressor OEM, the reciprocating compressor can
be prepared for long-term operation and to match the operating companys demands while remaining technically
safe and economically reasonable. CT2
DECEMBER 2014

CT488.indd 3

Field tested performance

UP TO 60 db(A)
attenuation.

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SCR DPF SERVICE TRAINING TURNKEY

39

Miratech.indd 1

COMPRESSORtech2

11/19/14 9:45 AM
11/13/14 1:33 PM

20
2 12
0
11
2010
2009
2008
7
200 6
0
20 05

20

13

04
200
3
2002
2001
2000

4
1

20

20

Year

In Review

Expansions abound
as the shale gas
boom continues

By

er

lat
JS

Theres no business like the oil and gas business right now. The shale gas
boom continued through 2014, with several manufacturers and packagers taking advantage in the form of acquisitions and mergers.
The biggest players were GE and Siemens. GE acquired Camerons reciprocating
compression business in early June, and then followed it up with plans to nab Alstoms Power and Grid
businesses. Siemens, meanwhile, inked deals to acquire Rolls-Royces power turbine and compressor
business, as well as Dresser-Rand.
The compressor rental and packaging sectors also saw a flurry of activity during 2014. Exterran
Partners acquired 334 compression units totaling 440,000 hp (328 MW) from MidCon Compression in
February, only to go back for 162 more in July. Enerflex Ltd. purchased Axip Energy Services international contract compression and processing operations, as well as its after-market services business.
In August, Compressco Partners boosted its fleet from 87,000 to 1,045,000 hp (65 to 780 MW) with the
purchase of Compressor Systems Inc. (CSI).
The year was not without its drawbacks, however. Compressor station protests were common throughout the year. In addition, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) announced plans in July to establish
energy efficiency standards for new natural gas compressors as part of a program to reduce methane
leaks from natural gas pipelines.
A slowdown in the boom, though, does not appear to be forthcoming. On Nov. 11, three more news
stories broke, all dealing with acquisitions and expansions. Motor-Services Hugo Stamp (MSHS) announced that it would expand its service facility in New Orleans, Louisiana. Rexnord Power Transmission
announced an agreement to acquire Euroflex Tranmissions (India) Pvt. Ltd. T.F. Hudgins also completed
its acquisition of Jamison Products on the same day.

November 2013
Nov. 5 India launches its first rocket to Mars, aiming to put a
satellite in orbit around the red planet. It began orbiting Mars
in September, searching for methane and signs of minerals.
Nov. 12 FS-Elliott Co. LLC, a manufacturer of oil-free centrifugal air and gas compressors, expands into the Southeast Asia region by establishing a new representative office in Selangor, Malaysia.
Nov. 12 Dresser-Rand joins Gaelectric, a renewable energy firm, in the development of its compressed air energy
storage (CAES) site near Larne, Northern Ireland. They also
form an alliance to develop other European CAES projects.
Nov. 14 EQT Corp., one of the largest producers in Appalachia, gives Valerus a contract to provide 15,000 hp (11.2
MW) of compression for two pipeline stations in southwestern Pennsylvania.
Nov. 21 Detechtion Technologies receives an undisclosed
investment by Element Partners, a growth equity fund focused on energy and industrial technology companies.
december 2014

CT496.indd 1

Concurrent with the investment, Chris Smith also joins the

company as president and CEO, with Gerry Conroy serving in the newly created role of senior vice president of
products and portfolio.
Nov. 21 Valerus receives a contract to provide engineering, procurement and construction for a natural gas conditioning and condensate stabilization facility in Venezuela.
Nov. 22 The U.S. House of Representatives approves a
bill to expedite the permitting of interstate gas pipelines,
but Senate action appeared unlikely due to the threat of a
Presidential veto.

December
Dec. 2 Siemens Energy improves its STC-SOL turbocompressor for coking industry applications by reducing the
number of casting components and using an impeller technology that improves compressor efficiency up to 15%.
Dec. 3 Rolls-Royce receives a US$28 million contract to
40

Compressortech2

11/19/14 11:46 Am

supply PetroChina with equipment and services to expand

the flow of natural gas through the Lunnan Tulufan branch
of the second West to East Pipeline Project (WEPP II).
Dec. 5 Nelson Mandela dies at age 95. South Africans
and world leaders pay tribute to Mandela, who led the
transition from white minority rule in South Africa. Mandela
spent 27 years in jail before becoming South Africas first
black president in 1994.
Dec. 5 Dresser-Rand successfully tests its small-scale
liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant, known as LNGo, and
expects to begin delivering the 6000 gpd (22,700 L/d)
units in 2014.

n The LNGo system

is shown with 3-D
CAD software created
by the development
team at Painted Post,
New York.

Dec. 9 GE unveils plans to build its Global Research Center in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. The 95,000 sq.ft. (8826
m2) center will focus on accelerating mid- to later-stage oil
and gas technologies developed in the companys labs,
such as production systems, well construction, water use
optimization, CO2 products, and energy systems.
Dec. 9 Valerus agrees to sell Valerus Field Solutions for
US$435 million to Kentz Corp. Ltd., the holding company
of the Kentz engineering and construction group.
Dec. 11 Flowserve Corp. acquires Innovative Mag-Drive,
LLC, or Innomag, a privately owned American manufacturer of sealless magnetic-drive centrifugal pumps used
primarily in the chemical and general industries.
Dec. 16 Wood Group GTS appoints Mike Fisher as
president of its U.S. oil, gas and industrial services
(OGIS) business.
Dec. 17 GE Oil & Gas signs a 12-year contractual service
agreement with Yara International ASA, a global chemical
company based in Oslo, Norway, to maintain an array of
GE rotating equipment at Yaras fertilizer complex in Sluiskil, in the province of Zeeland, Netherlands.
Dec. 18 Ronald Biggs dies. Involved in the Great Train
Robbery of 1963, he became one of the worlds most legendary criminals. He spent more than 30 years as a fugitive before turning himself in.
Dec. 19 Cuba lifts a ban on imported autos that it imposed
in 1963.

January 2014
Jan. 7 Ojibway Enclosures completes its move from its former Janesville, Wisconsin, production facilities and offices
into Universal Acoustic & Emission Technologies Center of

Excellence on the Ironworks campus in Beloit, Wisconsin.

Ojibway was acquired by Universal AET in July 2013.
Jan. 9 Harsco Corp., the parent of Harsco Air-X-Changers,
acquires Hammco Corp., an Owasso, Oklahoma-based
provider of process coolers for the natural gas and petrochemical processing industries.
Jan. 20 GE Oil & Gas agrees to acquire Camerons Reciprocating Compression division for US$550 million. The
division provides reciprocating compression equipment
and aftermarket parts and services for oil and gas production, gas processing, gas distribution and independent
power industries.
Jan. 24 Happy Birthday, Macintosh. On this day 30 years
ago, the Apple Macintosh, later known as the Macintosh
128, was released.
Jan. 28 Axip Energy Services becomes the new name
for Valerus Compression Services, which began operating
as a stand-alone company on Jan. 3 when Valerus Field
Solutions was sold to Kentz Corp. for US$435 million.
Jan. 29 Caterpillar Oil & Gas releases a low-emissions
upgrade kit for select G3516 LE petroleum engines used
in gas compression applications. The upgrade kit allows
operators to modify existing engines to a lower emission
configuration, enabling operation at 0.5 or 1.0 g/bhp-hr
NTE NOx levels.

n Caterpillar Oil & Gas upgrade kit for select G3516 LE

petroleum engines allows operators to modify existing engines to a lower emissions configuration.
Jan. 30 Valerus Field Solutions receives a US$62 million contract to provide engineering, procurement, construction and commissioning of two compressor stations
in Doddridge County, West Virginia, for Crestwood Midstream Partners.

February
Feb. 2 The Seattle Seahawks defeat the Denver Broncos 43-8 in Super Bowl XLVIII at MetLife Stadium in East
Rutherford, New Jersey. It was the first Super Bowl played
outdoors in a cold-weather city.
Feb. 3 GE launches a downstream technology solutions
(DTS) business to supply equipment and services more
efficiently to the US$10 billion refining, petrochemical, industrial and distributed gas segments.
Feb. 10 Film star Shirley Temple dies at 85.
Feb. 10 GE Oil & Gas makes the first Latin American sale
of its advanced ICL compressors to Total S.A., which will
continued on page 42

december 2014 41
Compressortech2

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11/20/14 10:20 AM

use two of the single-stage units at a new compressor station for the Incahuasi project in Bolivia.
Feb. 13 IMI Sensors (IMI), a division of PCB Piezotronics
Inc., receives CSA approval of its Echo Wireless Vibration
Monitoring System (model CS672A01) for vibration monitoring in Class 1 Division 2 Hazardous Area applications.

jing, loses contact with air traffic control less than hour after takeoff. No distress signal or message was sent and
the plane remains missing.
March 14 GE opens its newly expanded oil and gas facility in Ft, Hungary. The manufacturing plant was substantially enlarged with the addition of a new 86,111 sq.ft.
(8000 m2) manufacturing facility and a 32,292 sq.ft. (3000
m2) office building.
March 19 ICF International prepares a report for the INGAA Foundation and Americas Natural Gas Alliance. The
report states that the United States and Canada will require annual average midstream natural gas, crude oil and
natural gas liquids midstream infrastructure investment of
nearly US$30 billion per year, or US$641 billion (in 2012
dollars) from 2014 to 2035.
March 21 Despite the states efforts to limit flaring, the
North Dakota Department of Mineral Resources reports
that production of nonmarketed natural gas was 310
MMcfd (8.8 x 106 m3/d) in 2013, almost double the 160
MMcfd (4.5 x 106 m3/d) in 2011. Most nonmarketed natural
gas is flared into the atmosphere.
March 27 Kinder Morgan Energy Partners LP announces plans to build a 213 mile (343 km), 16 in. (400
mm) pipeline to move carbon dioxide (CO2) from the
St. Johns field in Apache County, Arizona, to its Cortez
Pipeline in Torrance County, New Mexico. The new Lobos pipeline will have an initial capacity of 300 MMcfd
(8500 m3/d).
March 31 Paris celebrates 125 years of the Eiffel Tower.
The wrought-iron lattice tower is one of the most iconic
structures in the world.

n The new certification

for IMI Sensors vibration
monitoring system contains the following approval: Class I, Div. 2, Groups
A, B, C and D, T4 (-20C <
Ta < 70C).
Feb. 24 The Board of Supervisors for the South Buffalo
(Pennsylvania) Township denies a request from XTO Energy to build a natural gas compressor station on the McIntyre Farm near Grandview Drive and Ford City Road.
About 60 residents attend the meeting, with concerns
ranging from the stations proximity to residential property
to the potential for noise and air pollution.
Feb. 25 Chromalloy renews a 10-year agreement with
Solar Turbines Inc. to provide component repairs and new
production support for the manufacturers power systems
in the oil, natural gas and power generation industries.
Feb. 26 Two days after denying a request from XTO
Energy to build a natural gas compressor station on the
McIntyre Farm in South Buffalo, Pennsylvania, township
officials approve a smaller proposal from Snyder Brothers.
The Snyder Brothers proposal has one compressor, compared with XTO Energys four, and would be built 2000 ft.
(610 m) from homes on Grandview Drive over a hill. XTOs
station would have been 500 to 1000 ft. (152 to 305 m)
from the homes.
Feb. 28 CDM Resource Management LLCs contract
compression fleet announces that it passed the 1 million
hp (745 MW) level late last year and since has grown to
1.2 million hp (895 MW).
Feb. 28 Exterran Partners announces that it is acquiring
334 compression units totaling 440,000 hp (328 MW) from
MidCon Compression LLC, a subsidiary of Chesapeake
Energy Corp., for US$360 million. The assets will provide
compression services to Access MLP Operating LLC, a
subsidiary of Access Midstream Partners LP.

April
April 3 MarkWest Energy Partners LP orders more than
70 Caterpillar G3600 engines. A combination of G3608 engines rated at 2370 hp (1.7 MW) and G3612 engines rated
at 3550 hp (2.6 MW) will be used to support gas gathering
operations across the Utica and Marcellus shale producing regions.
April 7 India begins its elections, one of the biggest voting events in the world. Some 814 million voters 100
million more than the last elections in 2009 are eligible
to cast ballots at 930,000 polling stations, up from 830,000
in 2009.
April 11 Cook Compression completes its move of its
Oklahoma City service center to 6836 Pat Ave. The new
facility offers complete cylinder and power repair services
for all major reciprocating compressors.
April 11 Shell indefinitely postpones a project to install
subsea compression at Ormen Lange field in the North
Sea due to rising costs in Norways offshore oil sector. The
company explained that compression was not time-critical
to the ultimate recovery from the field.
April 14 Enerflex Ltd., Calgary, names Marc Rossiter as
president of United States and Latin American operations
and Bradley Beebe as president of Canadian operations.
April 17 Gabriel Garcia Marquez, the Colombian novelist

March
March 3 Kinder Morgan orders two of Everest Sciences
Corp.s ECOChill units for its Uniondale Compressor station on the Tennessee Gas Pipeline near West Clifford,
Pennsylvania.
March 8 Malaysia Airlines Flight MH370, which departed
from Kuala Lumpur International Airport en route to Beidecember 2014

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42

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11/20/14 10:36 AM

May 16 Sulzer begins reorganizing its Pumps Equipment

division to make it more market focused and move the
service aspect of the pumps business into a combined
Rotating Equipment Services division. Rotating Equipment Services merges engineering services for large turbines, compressors, motors and generators. Sulzer also
creates a water-related business unit within the Pumps
Equipment division.
May 16 The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and Prime Minister Narendra Modis landslide win is celebrated throughout India. The party wins a majority in Parliament, giving
Modi the most decisive mandate for any leader since the
1984 assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi propelled her son to office. Since 1989, India has been governed by coalitions.

whose One Hundred Years of Solitude established him as

a giant of the 20th century literature, dies.
April 17 Sundyne announces that it is merging with Pressure Products Industries (PPI), a manufacturer of sealless
reciprocating diaphragm compressors for the refining,
petrochemical, chemical, liquefied natural gas and semiconductor markets.
April 22 Dresser-Rand launches its Magnum HammerHead valve, designed for high-molecular-weight applications at both low and high compressor speeds. The valve
can be used in all brands of reciprocating compressors.
April 25 Zahroof Valves Inc. moves to a larger facility in
Houston to improve compressor valve product turnaround,
optimize testing and R&D capabilities and add employees.
April 25 Chinas Shenhua Ningmei Coal Group places
a follow-up order with Siemens Energy for four identical
CO2 compressor trains. Each train consists of one STCGV integrally geared compressor driven by an SST-600
condensing steam turbine via an intermediate gear.

n The GTI Bi-Fuel system

is designed to allow diesel
engines to operate on a
blend of diesel and gaseous fuels.

n Siemens will deliver its largest CO2 compressors to a

coal liquefaction plant in Ningxia Province, China.

May 19 Altronics GTI Bi-Fuel product line receives aftermarket certification from the Air Resources Board of
the state of California Environmental Protection Agency
(CARB) for use on off-road compression-ignition engines in
stationary applications.

May
May 1 Exterran Holdings signs a 12-year compression services contract with the consortium BCAM-40 for its compressor station in Bahia, Brazil. Petroleo Brasileiro S.A. (Petrobras) will serve as the field operator for the project, which will
use 28,000 hp (20,880 kW) of compression equipment, as
well as associated natural gas production equipment.
May 7 Rolls-Royce announces that it is selling its energy gas turbine and compressor business to Siemens for
US$1.32 billion.
May 9 CDM Resource Management completes construction of a 16,000 sq.ft. (1486 m2) training facility in Houston
as part of its enhanced training program initiative. The facility has three classrooms, a conference room and 10,000
sq.ft. (930 m2) of space for instruction.
May 15 Audax Private Equity acquires Miratech Corp., augmenting it with the silencing business of another company
it owns, Phillips & Temro Industries (PTI). Tulsa, Oklahomabased Miratech was renamed Miratech Group LLC.
december 2014

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June
June 3 GE completes its US$550 million acquisition of
Camerons reciprocating compression business, which
was merged into the GE Oil & Gas Downstream Technology Solutions business. The new business unit was formed
to deliver products and services and packaged products
for the traditional downstream and unconventional oil and
gas markets.
June 4 The Canadian government announces mandatory
emissions standards for major industries, including the stationary engines used to drive gas compressors. The regulation also affects air pollution from boilers, heaters and
cement kilns. It brings Canadas air quality rules closer to
continued on page 44
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those issued by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

June 5-7 Commemoration events marking the 70th anniversary of the D-Day landings are held in Normandy, France.
June 12 Motortech opens a newly constructed training
center at its headquarters in Celle, Germany.
June 13 Sulzer, an independent service provider for
rotating equipment, completes an agreement to acquire
Grayson Armature Large Motor Division Inc. and Grayson
Armature Orange Texas Inc. Founded in 1980, Grayson
Armature offers electro-mechanical repair services (at an
in-house machine shop), remanufacturing, redesign, upgrades, modifications and other services.
June 15 In a rematch from the previous season, the San
Antonio Spurs avenge their 2013 NBA Finals loss by beating the Miami Heat 104-87 in Game 5 to win their fifth NBA
title. The Spurs take the series 4-1.
June 19 BP and the China National Offshore Oil Corp.
(CNOOC) agree to a deal for the supply of up to 1.7 million
tpy (1.5 million T/yr) of LNG over 20 years starting in 2019.
June 26 Industry companies form the Oil and Natural Gas
Information Sharing and Analysis Center (ONG-ISAC) to
protect infrastructure including gas compressor stations
from cyber attacks. The American Petroleum Institute
(API) helped launch the data hub, which will operate as
an independent organization. ONG-ISAC will facilitate the
exchange of information, help evaluate risks and provide
up-to-date security guidance to companies operating in
the U.S.
June 28 100 years ago, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand,
heir to the Austro-Hungarian crown, and his wife, the
Duchess of Hohenberg, were shot dead in Sarajevo by an
assassin. The killings ignited the First World War.
June 28 Theodore (Dutch) Van Kirk, the navigator and
last surviving crew member of the Enola Gay, the B-29
Superfortress that dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima
in the last days of World War II, dies at his home in Stone
Mountain, Georgia. He was 93.

n Corac Group has commissioned a dirty gas flow

loop at its Technology Centre.
July 17 Siemens announces that it is manufacturing
four large integrally geared compressors for the Shenhua
Ningmei Coal Group for installation at a 4.4 million tpy
(4 million T/yr) coal liquefaction plant in Ningxia Province.

n Siemens made this integrally geared turbocompressor for

CO2 applications.

July 21 The Alstom Board of Direction unanimously decides to recommend GEs offer to acquire its Power and
Grid businesses.
July 23 Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) receives a
US$1.8 million contract from the U.S. Department of Energy to develop, build and test a linear motor reciprocating
compressor (LMRC). The goal of the project is to increase
efficiency and reduce costs for hydrogen compression.
July 23 Compass Compression Services Ltd. and
Compass Compression Solutions Inc. break ground on
a 75,000 sq.ft. (6970 m2) plant in Calgarys Southeast
Frontier Industrial Park. When the building is completed
in the second quarter of 2015, Compass Compression
will have 125,000 sq.ft. (11,600 m2) of gas compression
fabrication capacity.

July
July 1 Enerflex Ltd. of Calgary completes its US$430 million purchase of Axip Energy Services international contract compression and processing operations, as well as
its aftermarket services business.
July 7 Kobelco Machinery do Brasil Ltda. begins marketing nonstandard compressors (custom-engineered process compressors) in South America from its headquarters in Sao Paulo.
July 13 Germany wins its fourth World Cup title by beating Argentina 1-0 at the Maracan in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The lone goal in the soccer game came in extra time
from Mario Gotze.
July 14 Exterran Partners acquires another 162 compression units, totaling 110,000 hp (82 MW), from MidCon
Compression for US$135 million.
July 17 Corac Group expands its test facility at its Technology Centre in Slough, England, with the commissioning
of a dirty gas flow loop.
december 2014

CT496.indd 5

n Compass Compression began constructing a 75,000 sq.ft.

(6970 m2) plant in July.

44

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11/20/14 10:52 AM

July 24 CDM Resource Management LLC announces

plans to expand its Greeley, Colorado, facilities to meet
growing demand for compression services in the Niobrara
Shale play of Colorado and Wyoming. The company will
add 2100 sq.ft. (195 m2) of office space at 1919 65th Ave.,
a few miles from its existing 5000 sq.ft. (464 m2) warehouse at 917 E 18th St. in Greeley.
July 24 U.S. natural gas exports to Mexico were a record
2.5 Bcfd (70.8 x 106 m3/d) on this day and averaged 2.3
Bcfd (65.1 x 106 m3/d) from June through August, more
than double the pipeline flow in 2010.
July 30 The U.S. Department of Energy announces plans
to establish energy efficiency standards for new natural
gas compressors as part of a program to reduce methane
leaks from natural gas pipelines.
July 31 ElectraTherm partners with ConocoPhillips to
capture waste heat from a compressor station at Cessford,
Alberta, and generate 90 kW of electricity. The companys
Green Machine generates power from low temperature
waste heat using the Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) and
patented technology.

of the Panama Canal, an engineering marvel that permanently changed world trade and still plays an essential role
in global commerce.
Aug. 18 Cameron announces that it is selling its centrifugal compression division to Ingersoll Rand for US$850
million as part of a long-term business strategy to focus on
its core markets.
Aug. 19 Festivities in Hungary mark the 25th anniversary
of the opening of its borders to the noncommunist West.
The open Hungarian border with Austria allowed thousands of people to leave communist Eastern Europe. The
decision paved the way for the fall of the Berlin Wall three
months later.
Aug. 29 A Morgan Stanley subsidiary applies to the U.S.
Department of Energy for a permit to export up to 60 Bfcy
(1.7 x 109 m3/y) of compressed natural gas (CNG) gas
from a proposed terminal near Freeport, Texas.

September
Sept. 3 The Atlas Copco Gas and Process Division introduces its single-shaft RT153 turbocompressor, which
provides flow volumes beyond 14.1 MMcfhr (400,000 m3/
hr) for large air separation units and fertilizer production.
Sept. 3 MAN Diesel & Turbo delivers two compression
modules designed for quick and easy integration into
a floating production, storage and offloading vessel for
Petrobras in offshore Brazil. Modec and Toyo Offshore
Productions Systems ordered the modules for the Cidade
de Mangaratiba MV24 FPSO.
Sept. 5 Sponsors of the Alaska LNG Project file with the
U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission to begin the
permitting process for construction of an 800 mi. (1300
km) gas pipeline from Prudhoe Bay field to a planned liquefaction plant at Nikiski on the Kenai Peninsula.
Sept. 10 GE gets an order for electric-motor-driven technology that will enable the Freeport LNG export project, on
the Gulf of Mexico south of Houston, to comply with local
air emissions standards.

July 31 After 46
years, Joe Kane, the
founder of COMPRESSORtech2, retires.

August
Aug. 4 Compressco Partners completes its previously announced purchase of Compressor Systems Inc. (CSI) from
Warren Equipment Co. for US$825 million. The purchase
boosts Compresscos fleet from 87,000 to 1,045,000 hp
(65 to 780 MW) allowing the company to offer an expanded range of compressor packages from 20 hp to 2370 hp
(15 to 1760 kW).
Aug. 5 100 years ago, the first electric traffic light was installed on a city street in Cleveland, Ohio, marking a milestone in traffic management.
Aug. 15 This day marks the centennial of the opening

Sept. 15 Anthony (Tony) Gioffredi

joins Zahroof Valves Inc., Houston,
as its CEO. Gioffredi spent 12 years
with EnPro Industries Inc. and
Compressor Products International.

Sept. 16 Siemens Energy receives an order from Chengdu Cryogenic Liquidation Equipment Co. Ltd. to provide
two compressor trains for an LNG project with an annual
capacity of 400,000 tonnes of LNG.
Sept. 22 Siemens announces that it will acquire DresserRand for US$7.6 billion, filling out its portfolio of compressors, steam turbines, gas turbines and engines.
Sept. 23 GE launches its 16.5 MW gas turbine (NovaLT16)
for compression and power generation applications in the
continued on page 46

n A tanker squeezes
through the Panama
Canal, which is undergoing a US$5.25
billion expansion.

december 2014

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45

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11/20/14 10:54 AM

oil and gas industry. The NovaLT16 is rated for 16.5 MW

and 7800 rpm.

n Two new 7000 hp (5220 kW) engine test cells are the latest
additions to SwRIs expanding large engine test and development facilities.

n GEs NovaLT16 gas turbine is suited for pipeline compression,

power generation and oil and gas plant compression applications.

to improve its engine research and evaluation services

to industries that use engines up to up to 7000 hp (5220
kW) for applications in transportation, pipelines and power generation.
Oct. 14 Exterran gets an order to provide equipment to
support 210 MMcfd (6 x 106 m3) of natural gas processing
capacity at the Woodford Express facility in Grady County,
South Central Oklahoma.
Oct. 21 Former Washington Post editor Ben Bradlee dies
at 93. He oversaw the papers coverage of the Watergate
scandal.
Oct. 27 A floating storage and regasification unit (FSRU)
The Independence arrives in Klaipeda, Lithuania. Its
arrival signals the end of Gazproms monopoly in several
Baltic nations. The terminal will have a send out capacity
of 71 to 106 Bcfy (2 to 3 x 109 m3/yr).
Oct. 29 Statoil says the worlds first subsea wet gas
compressor station is ready for final testing before being
installed next year at Gullfaks C field in the North Sea.
Subsea compression, combined with conventional lowpressure production in a later phase, will extend the productive life of the Brent crude reservoir. Output will grow
10%, or 22 million barrels of oil equivalent, to 73%.
Oct. 29 The San Francisco Giants defeat the Kansas
City Royals 3-2 at Kauffman Stadium in Kansas City,
Missouri, in Game 7 of the World Series. It was the Giants third world championship baseball title in the past
five seasons.
Oct. 31 BG Group selects the Trent 60 DLE industrial gas
turbine from Rolls-Royce as the driver for the main refrigeration compressors in the proposed Lake Charles LNG
export project in Louisiana.

Sept. 30 The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

authorizes Dominion to convert its Cove Point, Maryland,
liquefied natural gas import terminal on the Chesapeake
Bay into a 5.75 million Tpy (5.22 million T/yr) export facility.

October
Oct. 1 Scott Rowe becomes Camerons president and
chief operating officer.
Oct. 2 Hoerbiger Corp. of America Inc. hires John Metcalf
as its senior vice president and head of OEM Sales and
Engineering.
Oct. 2 Caterpillar Oil & Gas updates its natural gas fueled
G3600 engine line, offering customers expanded fuel flexibility, a 5.6% power increase and greater altitude and ambient temperature capabilities.

n Caterpillar Oil & Gass updated G3600 engine line comes with
the latest ADEM A4 engine control unit.

Oct. 2 H2scan Corp., a provider of process gas monitoring solutions for industrial markets, signs a long-term supply agreement with ABB.

n H2scan Corp. nets long-term supply agreement with ABB.

Oct. 6 Exterran launches its C-Series line of configurable
compression packages, pre-engineered with a wide range
of configuration options.
Oct. 7 Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) opens a
high-horsepower engine dynamometer facility, allowing it
december 2014

CT496.indd 7

n The Trent 60 DLE industrial gas turbine will serve as the

driver for the main refrigeration compressors in the proposed
Lake Charles LNG Export project in Louisiana.

46

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11/20/14 10:55 AM

PRIME
November
Nov. 3 The first Godzilla movie is released 60 years ago on this day in Japan. Titled Gojira, the filmmakers took
inspiration from various dinosaurs,
such as the tyrannosaurus rex, iguanodon, and stegosaurus, to shape
Godzillas final and iconic design.
Nov. 3 After receiving the required
approvals, Triton legally finalizes its
acquisition of GEA Heat Exchangers.
Triton says that the heat exchanger
business will be further developed
as part of an autonomous group under the aegis of the new investor.

Movers

USA Compression

USA Compression Partners (USAC)

has reported its fleet totaled 1.4 million
hp (1044 MW) on Sept. 30, up 24%
from the third quarter of 2013.
Part of that growth was from its
US$187 million acquisition of 138 million
hp (103 MW) from S&R Compression in
the fall of 2013. USAC said over the past
year, revenue-generating horsepower in-

creased 22% to 1.3 million (970 MW). As

of Sept. 30, its fleet utilization was 94%,
compared to 94.5% a year earlier.
The partnership spent US$320 million for new compression units over the
last year, mostly for large horsepower
equipment employed in fee-based midstream gathering applications. It has
continued on page 57

Nov. 5 Dean Glover is named the

CEO of Miratech Group, with Kevin
OSullivan moving from president
and CEO to chairman.
Nov. 11 Motor-Services Hugo
Stamp Inc. (MSHS) expands its service facility in New Orleans, Louisiana. MSHS, a turnkey supplier of
engine and auxiliary systems service, parts and overhauls, said the
expansion enhances its existing
New Orleans-based turbocharger
service facility with comprehensive
in-house and on-site engine service
and overhaul.
Nov. 11 Rexnord Power Transmission (RXN) enters into a definitive agreement to acquire Euroflex
Transmissions (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Nov. 11 T.F. Hudgins Inc. completes the acquisition of Jamison
Products, a Houston-based provider of engineered pipeline and
filtration products used in a wide
range of gas and fluid handling applications including strainers, separators, filter vessels, pig launchers
and closures. CT2
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10/21/14 2:17 PM

Cozzanis Stepless Capacity

VSD performances
Control Tested > FluxtoFlow,
compared on compressors
By A. Raggi and A. Giamp, Cozzani S.r.l.

n Figure 1. Slight signs are visible on the plate produced by the

fingers. They had no effect on regulation.

ew technologies and the cost

reduction of electronic components have enabled the development and diffusion of capacity regulation devices, which allow optimizing
both compressor energy consumption
and its global control.
The stepless capacity control of reciprocating compressors is generally
achieved by systems based on variablespeed drive (VSD), or on reverse flow
regulation, which acts on the suction
valve opening timing.
Cozzani reecently developed a stepless capacity control system, named
FluxtoFlow, which allows adjusting
the capacity through the reverse flow
method. The company said it was innovative because it is the first to be
operated only by electric current in
order to control the closing of the compressor suction valves at each compression cycle. Thanks to this method,
the compressor processes the exact
capacity required by the end user.
The new system was applied to a
new compressor installed in 2013 in
parallel with an identical unit operating

december 2014

CT489.indd 1

in the same plant, but equipped with a

conventional control system. After the
new compressor was installed, its control system was measured to analyze
its behavior at the different set points
required by the production plant. Significant parameters, such as pressure
trends, PV diagrams, regulation range,
repetitiveness of the actuator positions,
etc., were kept under control over time.
At Rosignano, Italy, Ineos has
produced high-density polyethylene
(HDPE) through a hexane slurry process since the 1960s.
It recently revamped the ethylene
recovery plant at a cost of nearly 2
million. The surplus of ethylene that
doesnt react with other raw materials in the polymerization reactors has
to be recovered and properly treated
to be used again, so as to reduce
the polymer production costs. The
recovery plant is therefore essential
to assure the minimization of production costs that would become unbearable in case it malfunctioned. In fact,
the cost of ethylene represents more
than 80% of the final sale value of the
48

product and the efficiency of the recovery system is fundamental to ensure competitiveness.
The unreacted gas coming from the
reactors is conveyed at a pressure
of about 4.3 psi (0.3 bar) to a group
of reciprocating compressors that, in
three subsequent compression and
cooling phases, allow the recovery of
hexane and butene in liquid form. The
ethylene compressed to about 435 psi
(30 bar) is then delivered to other final treatment columns to obtain a gas
that can be used again in the reaction.
The object of the revamping at the
compression and interstage condensing plant consisted of three Termomeccanica balanced/opposed reciprocating compressors working in parallel,
with a capacity of 31.8 Mcfh (900 Nm3/
hr) each. Two of these compressors
allowed a variable gas flow rate from
zero to about 49.4 Mcfh (1400 Nm3/
hr), while the third is a backup.
All compressors run at a constant
speed, and one of them has been
equipped with the FluxtoFlow electric stepless capacity control system,
controlled by DCS on the basis of the
suction pressure setpoint that must be
kept constant. In addition, the system
was equipped with a bypass between
the first and third stages with a manual
valve used only during the plant startup, before the treated gas reaches the
minimum flow rate for the activation of
the capacity control system.
The Cozzani system continuously
performs diagnostic functions on
each actuator. If a fault is detected,
the electromechanic actuator is disabled and the system continues operating with the other actuators. The
end user can also disable an actuator
by acting on the software. If in a system, for whatever reason, there are
disabled actuators, the system adopts
continued on page 50
Compressortech2

11/19/14 9:49 AM

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n Figure 2. The new compression and interstage condensing plant is

shown after the revamp of August 2013.

the strategies studied for that specific

compressor and makes it possible to
control the capacity through the available actuators.
The system has been running for
a year, controlling the compressor
capacity required by the plant. After
about 8000 running hours (equivalent
to 235.2 million cycles of actuations
on the suction valves and consequently actuator rod displacements),
valves and actuators were inspected.
All inspected parts showed very slight
wear and the system was controlling
correctly (Figure 1) before the compressor was shut down.
New compressors
Ineos has installed two new compressors (Figure 2). The three-stage
compressors have three double-acting cylinders and compress ethylene
up to a pressure of 435 psi (30 bar).
Each compressor has a nominal power of 476 hp (355 kW) and a capacity
of 64 Mcfh (1800 Nm3/hr).
Both machines need a capacity control system. Ineos chose the Cozzani
capacity control system for one compressor and the VSD method for the
other. The two compressors have been
equipped with taps for cylinder pressure acquisition in order to allow the
installation of a data acquisition system
used to analyze and to optimize the

behavior of the system and to evaluate

the global behavior of the compressors.
Both machines are monitored by
the control room, which generates
outputs for each of the two capacity control systems, in order to keep
the first-stage suction pressure constant (Figure 3). The compressors are
equipped with bypass valves: One is
automatic and can be controlled from
the control room either with the inverter or with reverse flow capacity control system and the other is handled
manually by the local staff.
Experiences
The Cozzani control system exchanges compressor signals for
management and monitoring with the
control room and receives the reference signal to control the capacity.
The compressor is controlled from the

control room by implementing a logic

that generates the reference signal for
the reverse flow capacity control system and for the bypass valve.
Ineos has developed its own logic
for the plant start-up: The compressor
is started when the bypass valve is
closed and the capacity control system switches between the minimum
capacity and the idle condition, as
long as the discharge pressure reaches 145 psi (10 bar). After that, the
control logic changes and the stepless capacity control regulation drives
the process up to the steady working
condition of 435 psi (30 bar).
The compressor is controlled, to
keep the suction pressure constant,
through a PI controller.
If the suction pressure drops down
under the reference value, the regulation system reacts by increasing the
delay in suction valve closing (this reduces the capacity).
If, on the other hand, the suction
pressure increases, the regulation
system reacts by decreasing the suction valve closing delay (this increases the capacity).
The control logic manages both the
reverse flow capacity system and the
automatic bypass valve. In order to
guarantee minimum energy consumption, the bypass is closed from the
rated capacity up to the lowest one
allowed by the reverse flow control
system; only if the required capacity is
lower than this value, the control logic
starts to open the automatic bypass.
A VSD-controlled compressor
The control room regulates the compressor flow rate by means of a reference signal for the VSD to change the

n Figure 3. This is a control

room screenshot of the compressor with the reverse flow
capacity control system.

december 2014 50
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11/20/14 11:07 AM

n Figure 4. Cylinder pressures with reverse flow system.

compressor speed, or by means of

the actuators which command the unloading of part of the cylinders acting
on the automatic bypass valve.
The compressor is started running
at 50% of its maximum speed with the
bypass valve kept closed and only one
cylinder end loaded for each stage. In
this condition, if the first-stage suction pressure decreases, the bypass
valve is opened. On the contrary, if the
pressure increases, the bypass valve
is kept closed and the compressor
speed is increased.
When the speed reaches a defined
threshold, the control room sets the
compressor to work with both ends of
each stage loaded. This produces an
instantaneous gas flow doubling that
introduces a discontinuity in the compressor capacity.
The nonlinearity is managed controlling the first-stage suction pressure. If the pressure increases, the
speed is reduced and the bypass
valve opened (all cylinder ends are
still loaded). The control for the unloading of one cylinder end per stage
is generated only if the pressure
reaches a second threshold (different
from the one defined before).
It is important to notice that the switching between single- and double-acting
december 2014

CT489.indd 3

n Figure 5. Temperature versus flow.

operation generates a discontinuity in

the flow which can cause an imbalance
in the plant. The compressor working
cycles have been evaluated acquiring
cylinder pressures of each stage. As
flow rate is controlled by changing the
compressor speed, the pressure has
the typical trend of a full-load running
machine. The pressure trend analysis
at several speeds allows observing the
presence of pulsation during the suction or the discharge phase. This phenomenon is emphasized in particular
at low speeds.
These pressure fluctuations are typically due to valve plate (or ring) fluttering phenomena and can negatively
influence valve life especially if the
compressors often run at low speeds
due to plant requirements.
VSD, reverse flow comparison
The two compressors under investigation are identical, therefore the detected differences in power consumption and valve behavior depend on the
system adopted to adjust the flow rate.
The power comparison between
the two systems neglects the contribution of the inverter (Figure 4).
The discharge temperature trends
detected in the two compressors for
different flow rates have been com51

pared. The temperatures of the reverse flow system controlled compressor are higher than those of the
VSD-controlled machine and decrease with the flow. This phenomenon is typical in capacity control
systems based on the reverse flow
method. In fact, the gas flows back
from the cylinder into the suction piping with a temperature that is higher in
comparison to the temperature of the
gas coming from the process. This
produces an increase of the average
suction temperature and consequently of the discharge temperature.
The graph in Figure 5 shows the
continued on page 52

n Figure 6. Cylinder pressures during

suction phase.
Compressortech2

11/19/14 9:49 AM

n Figure 7. Power versus capacity is

shown for both compressors (Inverter
power consumption is not considered.)

temperature trends measured on the

two compressors. The temperature increase in the case of the reverse flow
system is minimal and doesnt affect
the process.
The analysis of the cylinder pressure trends (Figure 6) highlights that,
at the same flow rate, the pressure
fluctuations during the suction phase
are significantly higher in the compressor equipped with the VSD system compared to the one equipped
with the reverse flow system.
The difference is related to the
control strategies. The reverse flow
system performs a flow regulation by
controlling the closing instant of the
suction valves. To perform this function, the valve finger is actuated in
order to keep the sealing element in
open position starting from the first instant of the suction phase up to the
one defined by the control system.
Suction occurs when the valve is
forced in open position, thus fluttering
phenomena are not possible. This reduces the wear on springs and plate/
rings, ensuring better reliability and
longer valve life.
It must be considered that oscillations are generally emphasized when
compressor speed is lower than the
asynchronous motor nominal speed.
december 2014

CT489.indd 4

The compressor set with the reverseflow system works always at the nominal speed, whereas the one controlled
by an inverter generally operates at a
lower speed.
When the compressor runs at full
load, the suction valve is not controlled and fluttering phenomena may
occur. These phenomena are sensibly reduced when valve plate/ring position is driven by the valve capacity
control system.
The behavior of the two compressors has been monitored and analyzed
beginning in August 2013. The reverse
flow system has shown a higher capability in capacity control (up to 15% of
the nominal flow rate) in comparison to
VSD (up to 50% the nominal flow rate)
(Figure 7). For this reason at the operating range required by the plant, the
use of the bypass was not necessary
for the compressor with the reverse
flow system. On the contrary, the compressor with VSD was mainly run with
the bypass open. The use of the reverse flow system has contributed to a
decrease in power consumption.
Conclusions
The capacity control in reciprocating compressors required to adapt the
compressor flow to process demands
52

can be performed through different

devices. The good results obtained by
the first compressor convinced Ineos
to install the system on a new machine
at the same plant in August 2013.
A direct comparison between two
different capacity control methods
has been possible thanks to a second
compressor controlled through VSD
and bypass. Temperatures, cylinder
pressures and power consumptions
in both cases have been acquired for
the same capacity and advantages/
disadvantages have been evaluated.
The reverse flow system has proved
a better capacity control capability (up
to 15% of nominal flow rate) in comparison to VSD (up to 50% of nominal flow rate). For this reason, in the
operating range required by the plant,
the compressor with reverse flow system has mainly run with closed bypass while the machine with VSD has
mainly run with open bypass.
In addition, the analyses on valve
behavior have confirmed that the system can reduce valve plate impact
stresses and can assure its fully axial motion. This allows a better valve
reliability. On the contrary, the VSD
system does not offer the same advantage and increases the stress on
the valves. CT2
Compressortech2

11/19/14 9:50 AM

III
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9/19/14 3:19 PM

GEA Gradually Expands

venture is natural-gasCompression Range > Latest
engine driven packages
By Roberto Chellini

n GEA supplied this oil-free reciprocating compressor package to EnerjiSA for its Bandirma power plant in Turkey. The
electric driven compressor handles 5.3 MMcfh (150,000 m3/hr) of gas from a variable inlet pressure of 350 to 550 psi (24
to 38 bar) to a discharge pressure of 580 psi (40 bar).

EA Group is a global business concentrated in applications/equipment for the food

industry (75 to 80% of its turnover)
but it also operates in other markets.
In particular, it is developing solutions
for energy markets.
COMPRESSORtech2 interviewed
Ivano Camaggi, president of GEA Refrigeration Italys Power Technology
Center at Castel Maggiore on the outskirts of Bologna.
The Italian business unit has specialized in the engineering, and production and installation and service
of gas skids. GEA Refrigeration Italy
installed the first screw-oil-injected
fuel gas compressor for gas turbines
in 1990 and recently has widened the
spectrum of its activities to cover compression of natural gas for pipeline
applications, associated gas, biogas,
coalbed methane and syngas. It also
provides chillers for inlet turbine cooldecember 2014

CT491_498.indd 1

ing and for production of cool water,

such as at power generating plants.
Most of their fuel gas skids use an
oil-flooded GEA screw compressor
made in Berlin (by the former Grasso). To meet customer specifications,
a number of skids have been engi-

n Ivano Camaggi
54

neered to host reciprocating compressors and integrally geared centrifugal

compressors from several OEMs.
Camaggi said GEAs operation in
Berlin manufactures the screw compressor and delivers standard packages (skids) for the food industry.
While in Bologna, we engineer
each skid tailored to customer specifications. Our gas skids are used to
power both aero derivative and industrial gas turbines in 6700 to 134,100
hp range (5 to 100 MW) including the
LM2500 and 6000 from GE, RB211
and Trent from Rolls-Royce and the
Siemens line from Finspong, Sweden.
The great majority of the skids
manufactured for Russia are based
on screw compressors built in Berlin,
Camaggi said. GEA has supplied 600
screw compressors for this application
in the last 10 years. The Russian market for such skids is the biggest and
presently is about 30 units per year.
Compressortech2

11/19/14 9:52 AM

GEAs reciprocating compressor skid activity started in

2008 with a GE compressed natural gas (CNG) compressors for Iran (56 packages before the international economic embargo) and China (another 56 packages).
The China packages were quite powerful for such service, 536 hp (400 kW), Camaggi said. They were used at
mother stations to fill large cylinders transported by trucks
to remote areas not served by pipelines. The gas was distributed to the public through daughter stations.
Successively GEA Refrigeration Italy developed fuel gas
reciprocating compressor packages and in 2009 sold its first
five skids to Spains Technicas Reunidas. About 150 packages are now in operation at compressor stations, the last of
which was commissioned in Turkey during September.
Four reciprocating compressors driven by GE Waukesha
gas engines have been delivered for pipeline compression
in Uzbekistan.
These were GEAs first skids where the compressor was
driven by a gas engine, a challenging solution from the engineering point of view, and interesting also for the aftermarket service required by the driver.
The use of gas engine-driven compressor packages is
very common in North America but still in its infancy in Europe and other parts of the world. At GEA we are promoting
this solution because we believe it has advantages especially in areas provided with weak electric grids.
Camaggi said his engineering team should gradually expand the spectrum of skid-mounted compressor packages.
Thats why from the start of this activity with screw compressors the company has gradually expanded to recips
Kiene.indd
first, then to centrifugal compressors and now is looking
into the gas engine solution, Camaggi said. We have to
closely follow the state-of-the-art in our product line not only
to survive, but with the aim of expanding in a highly competitive world.
Compressors and drivers, the core of our skids, are supplied by a group of international OEMs, all of which provide
high-quality components. Once you are included in the vendor list, you are automatically qualified from the technical
point of view. At that point, acquiring an order is only a question of being competitive.
This is only possible through a lean organization staffed
with skilled personnel. Operating in a custom market where
each skid is designed in accordance to unique specs is not
an off-the-shelf activity. Each project requires a dedicated
engineering activity.
However, it would be impossible to start from scratch
each time. To be competitive it is essential to standardize
components and use a wide array of subassemblies (modules) that at the same time reduce engineering cost, production time and increase reliability of the final product.
Camaggi said investing in human resources is the second pillar essential for success. To be competitive these
days you need skilled, motivated and competent personnel
who are prepared to introduce any type of innovation in the
organization structure, he said.
continued on page 56

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december 2014 55
Compressortech2
Hahn_July.indd 1

CT491_498.indd 2

6/18/13 9:15 AM

11/19/14 9:53 AM

n This is a GE Frame 9FA gas turbine fuel gas booster system. The 7770 hp
(5.8 MW) electric motor drives a skid-mounted, three-stage, integrally geared
centrifugal compressor.
He said being a part of an international company such as GEA offers
the advantage of having a worldwide
organization with the knowledge of
industrial processes and with direct
contacts with customers.
Customers are looking for a solu-

tion partner who knows their whole

production process and can provide
an application, Camaggi said. Thats
why we anticipate, in the near future,
offering our packages to chill the air at
gas turbine inlet for power augmentation during the hot season.

Recovery of associated gas at the

wellhead is another interesting application that GEA will develop to reduce
flaring and make gas available to fuel
turbines. The associated gas, prior
to compression, has to be treated in
a separate skid to separate solid, liquid and gaseous impurities that could
damage an oil-flooded screw compressor (oil contamination) or the gas
turbine combustion system.
Compressor packages from GEA
Refrigeration Italy have been installed
in 20 different nations. Camaggi said
his company plans to increase its
market share in Russia and the former CIS nations and to expand in the
Middle East and Africa.
Very active engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) combines are now located in Turkey and
South Korea, Camaggi said. South
Korean EPCs are presently handling
60% of Middle Eastern projects and
it is essential to work with them to
penetrate this area of the oil and gas
marketplace. CT2

Recent Orders
Rolls-Royce
Rolls-Royce said BG Group has selected the Trent 60
DLE industrial gas turbine as the driver for the main refrigeration compressors in the proposed Lake Charles LNG
Export project in Louisiana.
Each of the three liquefied natural gas (LNG) trains will
use four Trent 60 DLE gas turbines as part of the Air Products C3MR refrigeration process. Each train will employ two
Trent 60 DLE gas turbines driving propane compressors
and two Trent 60 DLE gas turbines driving mixed-refrigerant compressors.
BG Group and Rolls-Royce have also agreed to the terms
of a long-term service agreement covering the support and
maintenance of the equipment for up to 25 years.
The equipment and service contracts are expected to be
activated in the first half of 2015, subject to the federal permits process and final investment decisions by BG Group
and Energy Transfer, the developers of the project.

GE
GE Oil & Gas will supply a gas turbine-driven compressor train and mechanical drive technology to Petronas, for
a second floating liquefied natural gas (FLNG) facility being
developed off East Malaysia.
GE also supplied turbomachinery solutions for Petronas
first FLNG, which is being constructed in South Korea. GE
will supply four of its PGT25+G4 gas turbine generator sysdecember 2014

CT491_498.indd 3

n GEs LM6000 is scheduled for its first application on a floating

LNG Vesel.
tems and two nitrogen trains featuring two LM6000-PF+
2BCL907 aeroderivative gas turbines in mechanical drive
mode. The company said this is the first time an LM6000
gas turbine is being applied to an FLNG project.
The project will enable offshore LNG production in certain
smaller gas fields that are lacking pipelines to an onshore
LNG plant. The second FLNG plant will support the growing
demand for gas in peninsular Malaysia, where many power
plants and commercial customers are located, GE said.
GEs equipment will be manufactured at the companys
assembly facilities in Florence and Massa, Italy. Commercial
operation is expected to begin in the third quarter of 2017.
Once operational in the first quarter of 2018, the second
FLNG facility will produce 1.36 million tonnes/yr of LNG. CT2
56

Compressortech2

11/19/14 9:53 AM

PRIME
Movers

continued from page 47

signed, or has pending, contracts for
90% of the midstream-oriented horsepower that it expects to receive during
the rest of this year, the company said.

MAN Diesel & Turbo

Uwe Lauber has
been named chairman of the executive board of MAN
Diesel & Turbo effective Jan. 1, 2015.
Lauber headed
the oil and gas business unit before
U. Lauber
becoming the executive board member responsible for
global sales and aftersales on Oct. 1,
2014. He joined the Augsburg, Germanybased company in 2000.
MAN Diesel & Turbo is a company
that always led the way, and it still
does to this day in many areas, Lauber said. I look forward to continuing
to extend this pioneering role together
with my executive board colleagues
and our 14,000-strong workforce.

Miratech
Kevin OSullivan, the president and
CEO of Miratech Group, will become
chairman and Dean Glover has been
named CEO.
Glover most recently was senior vice
president of the products division of
Global Power, which provides customengineered auxiliary equipment and

maintenance support services for the

power generation industry. He is a certified Six Sigma Master Blackbelt.
Miratech provides emissions and
acoustical reduction solutions for natural gas and diesel reciprocating engines
used in the natural gas production, oil
and gas drilling, power generation, industrial, rail and marine industries.

REDUCE DOWNTIME
WITH FIELD REPAIRS
ON-SITE REPAIRS PERFORMED BY CERTIFIED
SAFETY-TRAINED EXPERTS

Triton, GEA
Triton has completed its acquisition
of GEA Heat Exchangers, absorbing
all companies as well as all staff.
Triton said it plans to further develop
the heat exchanger business. Except
for a for a new brand name that will be
rolled out later, Triton said nothing will
change for GEA customers.
The GEA Heat Exchangers Group
will be reorganized into three segments:
climate and environment, with activities
including all products for applications
of HVAC technology; solutions in major
power generation projects, including wet
cooling towers, dry cooling systems, filing media for cooling towers, as well as
further applications; and systems and
components for further heat exchanger
application areas such as those in the
markets of oil and gas and petrochemistry, marine and transportation systems,
among others.
The GEA name will continue to be
used until the introduction of the new
brand, Triton said.
DECEMBER 2014

CT496.indd 9

Mechanical Overhauls

Protective Devices

Field Machining

Ignition Systems, Controls & Devices

Foundation Services

Laser & Optic Alignment Services

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(800) 255-0111

57

Exline_FieldService.indd 1

www.exline-inc.com

Compressortech2

11/19/14
10/22/1412:29
2:27PM
PM

FEATURED
PRODUCTS
Online Mobile App
Cummins Inc. has released a free
QuickServe Online (QSOL) mobile app
for Apple iOS devices that provides access to parts options, catalogs and engine dataplate information for 15 million Cummins engine serial numbers.
It also includes a fault code analyzer
for Cummins electronic engines.
The QSOL mobile app is available
globally for download in the Apple Store
by searching for QuickServeMobile. Users of the QSOL app are encouraged to
use the feedback button in the Settings
menu to suggest enhancements.
QSOL is continually updated with
the latest Cummins parts and service
information, the company said.
www.cummins.com

Pressure Relief Valve

Total Valve Systems (TVS) has introduced its model 6820 TRV, the first
nonreclosing pressure relief valve that

across the spectrum of temperature,

pressure and sealing classes, and
operate from -450 to 1500F (-267
to 816C) in accordance with valve
specifications. The device is a fullface design with pipe flange bolting
for lug, wafer and short pattern body
configurations. Flange ratings are
150, 300 and 600. Set pressures are
from 3 to 1500 psi (0.2 to 103 bar).
www.totalvalve.com
can be reset in seconds from the field
or remotely, according to the company. Related product model 6220 is a
shutdown version that shuts off when
the valve reaches the set pressure or
is triggered remotely.
Total Valves model 6820 TRV system includes TRV module, actuator and
isolation valve for high-pressure lines.
The 6820 TRV requires no external
power and its performance is not impacted by system backpressure.
Triple-offset valves are standard

Reservoir Sensor
A low-level sensing reservoir system from Dymax Corp. prevents emp
ty material reservoirs from introducing
air into dispensing lines, thereby eliminating contamination during the dispensing process.

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The system utilizes an adjustable

sensor for use with pressurized reservoirs and features an SB-100 controller that activates a warning when
the material in the reservoir reaches a
specified low level. The controller also
features an external PLC connection
that allows for a total line shutdown,
saving time and money by stopping
the dispense system when material
reservoirs are empty, Dymax said.
The sensor configuration is adjustable, allowing operators to set specific
levels of material to signal warning and
automatic shutoff options. The low-level
functions include remote visual beacon,
audio buzzer and auto shutdown. There
are no wetted components; the sensor
does not contact fluids, so its compatible with a wide range of materials.
www.dymax.com

58

Compressortech2

2/17/14 9:06 AM

11/19/14 10:48 AM

literature
Coalescer/Separator Systems
Hilliard
Corp.
has released in
formation about
its
coalescer/
separator sys
tems, which re
move moisture
and particulate
contamination
from steam and
gas turbine lube
oils. Details are provided about its selfsufficient stand-alone or portable models,
single- or multiple-element vessels and
custom designs.
www.hilliardcorp.com

Control Systems
Petrotech
Inc.
has released literature detailing
its turnkey instru
mentation and
electrical serv
ices, and control
systems for a
variety of turbo
machinery as
sets, such as
centrifugal and reciprocating compressors.
The companys solutions are found up
stream in oil and gas production, midstream
in pipeline and natural gas processing and
downstream in petrochemical and refining.
www.petrotechinc.com

Flow Sensors
A product catalog
has been pub
lished by Siargo
Ltd., which spe
cializes in and
manufactures
MEMS flow sen
sors, modules
and system prod
ucts across a
wide range of applications. The sensors can mea
sure gas flow in a pipe diameter from
0.019 in. (0.5 mm) to 6.56 ft. (2 m)
and with a flow speed of 0.19 in./s
(5 mm/s) up to 246 fps (75 m/s).
www.siargo.com
DECEMBER 2014

Dec_LIT.indd 1

Component Repair
Improving equipment performance and reducing operat
ing costs are the focus of new literature from Mountaineer
Industrial Services in Beckley, West Virginia. The com
pany repairs and rebuilds cylinders, rods, pistons and
other components used in gas production and transmis
sion. The company also finishes those components with
thermal-applied coatings or laser processing.
www.bmrgroup.net
Pumps_Layout 1 9/11/2014 2:44 PM Page 1

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Compressortech2

11/19/14 10:48 AM
9/12/14 8:46 AM

2
3
4
7

Scheduled Downtime
Visit www.compressortech2.com/scheduled-downtime/ for answers

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Acquisitions
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World Cup

A new feature in celebration of Joe Kanes retirement:

Wheres

Joe?

Somewhere hidden within the pages of this issue is

this caricature of beloved COMPRESSORtech2
magazine Founder Joe Kane.

Find it.
Tell us where you found it.
And you could win a prize.
E-mail your answer to bhaight@dieselpub.com
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11/4/14 11:19
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Pag

Advertisers Index
*Further information on this companys products can be found in the 2014 Edition of the Diesel & Gas Turbine Sourcing Guide
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6/9/14 10:32
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Cornerstones Of Compression story continued from page 64

Frick Compressors 189596

Steam Engine
Bore x Stroke
in.
(mm)

Steam
Engine Type

Speed
rpm

Power hp
(kW)

4x8
(102 x 203)

7x8
(178 203)

Slide valve

80

5
(4)

5.5 x 8
(140 x 203)

8.5 x 8
(216 x 203)

Slide valve

80

8
(6)

6 x 14
(152 x 356)

10 x 14
(254 x 356)

Slide valve

75

7.5 x 14
(190 x 356)

11 x 14
(279 x 356)

Slide valve

8.5 x 14
(216 x 356)

13 x 20
(330 x 508)

9.5 x 14
(241 x 356)

Dimensions

Refrigerating

Compressor
Bore x Stroke
in.
(mm)

24 hr.
Capacity Tons
Ice-Making

Machine No.

Frick Eclipse Refrigerating & Ice-Making Compressors Two Single-Acting

Compressor Cylinders Per Machine Ref.: 1895-96 Combined Catalogue

LxWxH
ft.
(m)

Shipping
Weight
lb.
(kg)

6.6 x 6.2 x 7.7

(2.0 x 1.9 x 2.3)

16,000
(7256)

6.6 x 6.2 x 7.7

(2.0 x 1.9 x 2.3)

17,000
(7710)

14
(10)

7.5

11.5 x 10.5 x 12.5

(3.5 x 3.2 x 3.8)

26,000
(11,791)

75

18
(13)

66

10.5

11.5 x 10.5 x 12.5

(3.5 x 3.2 x 3.8)

28,000
(12,698)

Corliss

70

28
(21)

10

18

14.2 x 11.4 x 13.5

(4.3 x 3.5 x 4.1)

48,000
(21,769)

15 x 20
(381 x 508)

Corliss

70

42
(31)

15

27

14.2 x 11.4 x 13.5

(4.3 x 3.5 x 4.1)

59,000
(26,757)

10.5 x 14
(267 x 356)

16 x 24
(406 x 610)

Corliss

65

48
(36)

20

32

16.7 x 12.7 x 15.5

(5.1 x 3.9 x 4.7)

68,000
(30.839)

11.5 x 14
(292 x 356)

17 x 24
(432 x 610)

Corliss

65

60
(45)

25

40

16.7 x 12.7 x 15.5

(5.1 x 3.9 x 4.7)

70,000
(31,746)

12.5 x 14
(318 x 356)

19 x 28
(483 x 711)

Corliss

60

75
(56)

30

50

18.5 x 13 x 17.5
(5.6 x 4.0 x 5.3)

82,000
(37,188)

(342 x 356)

20 x 28
(508 x 711)

Corliss

60

96
(72)

35

60

18.5 x 13 x 17.5
(5.6 x 4.0 x 5.3)

84,000
(38,095)

11

14 x 32
(356 x 813)

22 x 32
(559 x 813)

Corliss

60

105
(78)

40

70

20.5 x 14 x 19.5
(6.2 x 4.3 x 5.9)

105,000
(47,619)

12

15 x 32
(381 x 813)

24 x 32
(610 x 813)

Corliss

60

128
(95)

50

85

20.5 x 14 x 19.5
(6.2 x 4.3 x 5.9)

110,000
(49,887)

13

16 x 32
(406 x 813)

26 x 36
(660 x 914)

Corliss

55

150
(112)

60

100

24.5 x 15.5 x 24.2

(7.5 x 4.7 x 7.4)

165,000
(74,630)

14

16 x 36
(406 x (914)

28 x 36
(711 x 914)

Corliss

55

165
(123)

65

110

24.5 x 15.5 x 24.2

(7.5 x 4.7 x 7.4)

175,000
(79,365)

15

17 x 36
(432 x 914)

30 x 36
762 x 914)

Corliss

55

195
(145)

75

130

25.5 x 15.5 x 25
(7.8 x 4.7 x 7.6)

185,000
(83,900)

16

20 x 36
(508 x 914)

32 x 36
(813 x 914)

Corliss

55

228
(170)

95

155

25.5 x 15.5 x 25
(7.8 x 4.7 x 7.6)

193,000
(87,528)

17

22.5 x 36
(572 x 914)

36 x 36
(914 x 914)

Corliss

55

300
(224)

120

200

27 x 17 x 26.5
(8.2 x 5.2 x 8.1)

217,000
(98,413)

n
Caption13.5 x 14
10

n The 1895-6 Frick Eclipse product catalogue indicates that the company was building ice making and refrigerating ammonia compressors
ranging from 2 to 500 tons (1.8 to 454 tonnes) for packing houses, breweries, cold storage depots, ice-making factories, etc.
tention. This opened the way for systems with automatic
control in 1922.
In the 1920s, the range of practical refrigeration was extended to well below 0F (-18C). Frick built some of the first
successful large-scale CO2 compressors for making dry ice.
In the succeeding years, Frick played a leading part in
many types of commercial, industry and building refrigerating and cooling systems, extending its line to include a
nine-cylinder machine. By the late 1960s, screw compressors were beginning to displace reciprocating compressors
in refrigeration and air conditioning applications. By 1982,
Frick had introduced its own screw compressors and production of reciprocating units ended soon thereafter. CT2

of mechanical refrigeration. Frick also introduced longstroke horizontal compressors in 1911, which remained in
use through the 1950s.
As the open-type compressor was made in smaller and
smaller sizes, the A frames that supported the cylinders
were finally combined into one piece. From this arrangement, the enclosed compressor was later developed. First
built in 1915, these machines were available in a range of
sizes in time to serve the pressing demands of camps, food
and powder plants, hospitals and ships in World War I. The
enclosed design retained many of the desirable features
of the slow-speed machines, but enclosed machines with
automatic lubrication operated safely without constant atDECEMBER 2014

CT486.indd 2

63

Compressortech2

11/19/14 11:40 AM

C ornerstones Of Compression

Breaking The Ice For Mechanical

pioneered ice making,
Refrigeration > Frick compressors
refrigeration and air conditioning
By Norm Shade

pressure compound steam engine cylinders, measured 50

ft. (15.2 m) long. Its rated capacity was 350 tons (317.5
tonnes) at 60 rpm, with a maximum speed of 70 rpm.
By the late 1890s, Frick anticipated a demand for smaller
sizes, with lighter parts running at higher speeds, for moderate capacity refrigerating systems to serve hotels, restaurants, hospitals and various industrial plants. As steam
power was not always available, other drive types were
introduced. Fricks first direct-connected electric dc motordriven compressor was built in the early 1900s. These
adaptable machines paved the way for the wide acceptance
continued on page 63

eorge Frick, an engineering genius born in 1826,

undertook to ease the labor of men and animals
with power machinery. His portable and traction engines were among the first in the U.S., and were followed
by Corliss steam engines in sizes up to 5000 hp (3729 kW).
Established in 1853 at Waynesboro, Pennsylvania, during the Civil War, Fricks plant was subjected to numerous Confederate raids and was closed for a month when
Waynesboro was occupied before the Battle of Gettysburg.
After the war, Frick prospered building steam engines,
threshers and sawmills.
During the 1870s, numerous European designs of refrigerating machinery began appearing in the U.S. In 1882,
Frick entered the refrigerating machinery field by building
an ammonia compressor cylinder mounted on the frame of
an existing vertical steam engine. George retired in 1886,
three years after the Frick Co. was incorporated and 43
years after building the industrial firm.
The first complete Frick refrigerating machine, built in
1883, had two 12 x 16 in. (305 x 406 mm) [bore diameter
x stroke] ammonia cylinders with a steam cylinder between
them. It ran at 50 to 55 rpm and developed 25 tons (22.7
tonnes) of refrigeration.
Success of its first ammonia compressors stimulated a
demand, and Frick Co. in the mid-1880s developed an entire line of large refrigerating machines, driven by the new
Frick Corliss steam engines.
By 1886, four of the machines were running. Eight more
were shipped in 1887, including a 20 x 36 in. (508 x 914
mm) compressor delivering 150 tons (136 tonnes) of refrigeration. These early Frick machines not only set the
standard for the refrigeration industry for the next 30 years,
but most of their design features remained in use until the
1950s. Breweries and packing houses vied with ice-making
plants in adapting the pioneer machines to their needs and
many early compressors operated for 40 to 60 years.
An 1896 ammonia compressor at the Marshall, Missouri
Ice Co. plant ran until 1949, when it was replaced by two 7 x
7 in. (178 x 178 mm) Frick enclosed machines. Three gigantic
36 in. (914 mm) stroke machines operated for nearly 50 years
at the Armour meat packing plant in Kansas City, Missouri.
In 1896, Frick built the largest refrigerating machine in
the world for Armour. The 30 ft. (9.14 m) tall, 27 x 48 in.
(696 x 1219 mm) giant, with tandem 26 x 48 in. (660 x 1219
mm) high-pressure and 50 x 48 in. (1270 x 1219 mm) lowDECEMBER 2014

CT486.indd 1

n This 13.5 in. (343 mm) bore x 28 in. (711 mm) stroke
Frick refrigerating compressor, driven by a 20 in. (508 mm)
Corliss steam engine, was installed for the Rock Island Ice
Co. at Fort Worth, Texas, in 1891. It operated for 60 years.
64

Compressortech2

11/19/14 9:58 AM

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G3304 NA
G3304B NA
G3306 NA
G3306B NA
G3306 TA

G3306B TA
G3306 TAA
G3306B TAA
G3406 NA
G3406 TA

KTA19
G8.3
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VRG 330
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