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Biol 201
Prokaryotic cells
III.
Eukaryotic cells
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
Marita Yaghi
Small cells, having more surface by unit of volume, are more easily
controlled
Still, some cells remain big
An eukaryotic cell varies from 10 to 100 m while a Prokaryotic cell varies
from 1 to 10 m
Microscopes:
Are essential to view cells because of their small size and the eyes
resolution limitation
They work by magnification using lenses
Light microscopes
- Operate at visible light
- Have two magnifying lenses
- Aim to achieve very high magnification and clarity (the higher the
magnification, the higher the resolution)
- Resolve structures up to 200 nm apart
- We have
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Electron microscopes
- Employs electron beams that have shorter wavelengths (the shorter the
wavelength, the higher the resolution)
- We have two types:
i.
ii.
topography,
and
also
using
false
coloring.
Using stains or dyes help us increase the contrast between different cellular
components.
In
fact,
some
stains
only
bind
to
specific
molecules.
IG: antibodies, that bide only certain proteins, can be used. This is
Immunohistochemistry, where purified antibodies are injected in a living
organism with fluorescent or radioactive stains, and they bind to cellular
structures with the target molecules, making them observable by a microscope.
4
7
5
2
8
3
Simplest organisms
Cytoplasm surrounded by a
plasma membrane and into a
rigid cell wall made of cellulose or
chitin (those have usually a
pathogen effect)
They have no distinct
compartment no
endomembrane system
Free-DNA in the nucleoid
Contain only ribosomes but lack
membrane-bounded organelles
They lack an elaborate
cytoskeleton BUT contain
molecules related to actin (MreB)
and tubulin(FtsZ) their
strength and shape is determined
by the cell wall BUT is influenced
by the cytoskeleton-like
structures
Their plasma membrane carries functions usually carried by organelles
The membrane folds bacterial pigments connected with photosynthesis
Since the DNA, enzymes and other constituents lie free in the
cytoplasm, they all have access to all parts of the cell Prokaryotic
cells operate as a single unit
We have two main domains in prokaryotes:
1. Bacteria
2. Archaea intermediate between Bacteria and Eukarya
Ribosomes associate with two other forms of RNA for the proteins
synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), which carries encoding info from DNA
into the cytoplasm that is used by ribosomes, and transfer RNA (tRNA),
which carries the amino acids.
Ribosomes are considered universal organelles found in all three domains
of life.
Ribosomes are found either free in the cytoplasm or bound to internal
membranes; each synthesizes a specific type of proteins:
-
Free ribosomes
Proteins in the cytoplasm
Nuclear proteins
Mitochondrial proteins
Some organelles proteins
(not
related
to
the
endomembrane system)
Membrane-bound ribosomes
- Membrane proteins
- Proteins
found
in
the
endomembrane system
- Proteins that export from the
cell
The individual subunits form in the nucleus and move through the pores
to the cytoplasm where they assemble to form the ribosomes that will
translate mRNA and synthesis proteins with the tRNA.
Ribosomes sites or protein synthesis
We can see that the plasma membrane contains the cell, which contains the
cytoskeleton and a lot of organelles and other interior structures suspended in
the cytoplasm, semi-fluid matrix.
Some animal cells show the finger-like projections called microvilli, while other
eukaryotic cells have flagella, that aid movement, or cilia, that have other
functions.
Most plant cells have central vacuoles, which occupy a very large portion of its
internal volumes. Vacuoles segregate toxic items, store material and deal with
tonicity
Also, most plant cells have chloroplasts organelles in which photosynthesis takes
place.
The cells of plants, fungi and some protists have cell walls, although the
composition is not the same in the different domains.
Plant cells have cytoplasmic connections within one other called plasmodemata.
Flagella occurs in the sperm of some cell plants but is usually absent from them
as well as from fungi cells.
Centrioles are also usually absent.
The ensemble of these membranes forms Endomembrane System that marks the
distinction between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells.
The largest of the internal membranes is the Endoplasmic Reticulum that means
a little net within the cytoplasm. It is made of a phospholipid bilayer fixed to
proteins.
The ER contains the two
largest compartments
present in the Eukaryotic
cells:
1- The cisternal space or
lumen
inner region
2- The cytosol
outer region
fluid part of the
cytoplasm that contains
dissolved organic
molecules (proteins and
ions)
The Rough ER:
The RER is primarily composed of flattened sacks whose surfaces are
bumpy because of ribosomes.
The RER is not easily seen with a light microscope, it requires an electron
microscope.
The RER is a site for proteins synthesis, which happens on its surface. The
synthesized proteins are:
Exported from the cell
In brief
Proteins synthesized by ribosomes on the RER are transported into the internal
compartments of the ER. These proteins may be used further inside the cell or
secreted outside of it. Transported by vesicles that got out of the RER, these
proteins travel to the cis face of the Golgi apparatus. They are modified and
packed in other vesicles that get out of the trans face of the Golgi. These vesicles
transport the proteins to other locations in the cell or fuse with the plasma
membrane releasing their content out of the cell.
Lysosomes:
Lysosomes are membrane-bounded
digestive vesicles that are part of the
endomembrane system.
Lysosomes arise from the Golgi apparatus.
Lysosomes contain a lot of degrading
enzymes, which catalyze the breakdown of
proteins, carbs and lipids.
Lysosomal enzymes break down old
organelles and recycle their components
making rooms for new ones. IG: mitochondria
are recycled every 10 days
Lysosomes eliminate all engulfed cells via
phagocytosis by their main cell. IG: pathogens
phagocytized by white blood cells fuse within
the lysosomes that release their enzymes to
degrade the pathogen.
The digestive enzymes of lysosomes are
optimally active at acid pH.
Fusing with a food vesicle (made by
phagocytosis) or with old organelles activate
the lysosomes, as it leads to lowering their
internal pH and thus, making the enzymes
work, degrading the food vesicle or old
Lysosome aiding in Lysosome aiding in the
organelle.
the breakdown of an digestion
of
old organelle
phagocytized particles
In Brief: Lisosomes are formed from vesicles that bud off the Golgi. They contain
digestive enzymes that digest phogocyted cells or break down old organelles.
Vacuoles:
Vacuoles are membrane bounded structures that exist mainly in plants,
but also in fungi and Protista.
The vacuole is surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast it contains
channels for water to help maintain the cells tonicity or osmotic balance.
Different vacuole types with different structures are found in different
cells, depending on their functions:
- The central vacuole found in plants
i. Maintains the tonicity of the cell due to the water channels of the
tonoplast
ii. Involved in cell growth as it occupies most of the cells volume
iii. Can store molecules, ions and waste products
- Contractile vacuole found in protists; it pumps water and maintains its
balance in the cell
- Other vacuoles for storage and for isolation of toxic material from the
rest of the cytoplasm
V. Mitochondria
Generators
and
Chloroplasts:
Cellular
During mitosis, when the cell divides, the mitochondria within it divide
also, doubling in number then partitioned between the two cells. The
required components for the mitochondria divisions are encoded by genes
in the nucleus and translated into proteins by the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm. Therefore, mitochondrial replication is impossible without the
nucleus.
Mitochondria cannot be grown in a cell-free structrure
Mitochondria can also replicate by fusion
Chloroplasts:
Chloroplasts are contained in all cells that carry out photosynthesis,
mainly plants.
Chloroplasts can make their own food as they contain a green pigment,
called chlorophyll.
The inner membrane surrounds a membrane system of stacks called thylakoids, that contain
chlorophyll vesicles. Photosynthesis occurs in the thylakoids. These are stacked to form columnns
called grana.
Leucoplasts:
Other DNA containing organelles in plants
Lack pigments and internal structure
They may serve as starch storage sites and will then be called amyloplast
Mitochondria, chloroplasts, amyloplast and Leucoplasts are called plastids; they
are produced by the division of pre-existing plastids.
Endosymbiosis:
Theory of endosymbiosis:
Some of todays eukaryotic cells evolved
from the symbiosis of two cells: a
prokaryotic cell engulfed by a second cell,
which would be the ancestor of
eukaryotes.
Mitochondria would have originated from
aerobic Bacteria (uses dioxygen for
oxidative reaction) while Chloroplasts
would have originated from photosynthetic
Bacteria.
There is much evidence:
- M and C have the size of a Prokaryotic cell
- M and C divide by fission like Bacteria
- They have two membranes cristae
structure
- Their DNA and ribosomes are similar in
size and structure to the ones found in
prokaryotes
- They have genome similarities with protobacteria and cyanobacteria.
The cytoskeleton also acts as a scaffold that holds certain enzymes and
macromolecules in specific place in the cytoplasm
IG: enzymes responsible for the cell metabolism bind to actin proteins
IG: ribosomes bind to actin proteins
Actin filaments
Diameter
Subunits
Shape
Polarity
Role
Stability
7 nm
- Globular protein
-Actin proteins
Microtubules
25 nm
- Globular proteins Dimers of and tubulin subunits
- 13 protein
photofilaments
- tube shape
- 2 protein chains
- form from the
- loosely twined
nucleus center
towards the
periphery
+ ends meaning
+ and ends that
away from the
show the direction
nucleus and ends
of growth of the
towards the
filaments
nucleus
Cellular movements Movement of
like contraction,
material within the
crawling, tightening cell
during division and Organize the cells
formation of cellular structure
extensions
Polymerization is
Constant state of
regulated by switch flux: constantly
proteins in the cell polymerizing and
at appropriate times depolymerizing
Intermediate
filaments
8-10 nm
- fibrous proteins
- group of cytoskeletal
fibers
- several tetramers
- twined together and
overlapping
- very tough
No polarity
Provide structural
stability
Centrosomes:
Centrioles are barrel shaped organelles found in animals and most
protists. Plants and fungi lack centrioles.
Centrioles occur in pair, forming a right angle. The region surrounding
them is called centrosome.
Surrounding the centrioles in the centrosome, we can find the
pericentriolar material, which is composed of ring shaped structures called
tubulin. They help organize the assembly of microtubules in animal cells.
These structures are called microtubule-organizing centers.
The centrosome also reorganizes microtubules that occur during cell
divisions.
Although plants and fungi lack centrioles, they have microtubuleorganizing centers.
Centrioles:
Molecular molecules:
All Eukaryotic cells have to move material inside their cytoplasm. One way
is by using the channels of the ER. Another way is by using vesicles loaded
with material that will move along the cytoskeleton like on a railroad.
IG: in a nerve cell with a long axon extended away from the cell body, vesicle can
move material along the microtubules inside the axon away from the cell body
Cilia:
Because of evolution, Eukaryotic cells todays possess no flagella and are
non-motile.
Cilia are structures similar in organization (9+2 and internal) to flagella
that can be found within cells. Theyre short cellular projections, usually
numerous. They are arranged in rows on the surface of eukaryotes.
They have several functions:
i. Propel the cells forward through water original function
ii. Move water over the tissue surface
iii. Sensory cilia in ears are bended by sound waves sensory process
The 9+2 structure in flagella and cilia is a fundamental component in Eukaryotes.
Cell walls:
The cells of plants, fungi, and many types of protists have cell walls, which
provide these cells protection and support. They are different from the cell
walls in Prokaryotes.
They are made of:
i.
Cellulose fibers in plants and protists
ii.
Chitin in fungi
In plants:
a.
Primary walls are laid down while the plant is growing
b.
Middle lamella glues the different cell walls
c.
Secondary walls inside primary walls inside some cells
Extracellular matrix:
Animal cells lack cell walls. Instead they have an extracellular matrix that
surrounds their cells, made by a mixture of fibrous proteins and
glycoproteins embedded within each other:
i. Collagen
ii. Elastin
iii. Proteoglycans
The ECM of the cells is attached to the cytoplasm by a 3rd kind of
glycoproteins Fibronectin that binds to proteins called Integrin. Integrin is
a part of the plasma membrane that extends into the cytoplasm to attach to
microfilaments and intermediate filaments.
Integrin also alters gene expression and cell migration.
The ECM helps coordinate the behavior of all cells in a tissue.
Variant cadherin,
desmocollins bind to
intermediate
filaments of the
cytoskeleton
Adhesive
Classical cadherin
junction or
binds to
Adherens
microfilaments in the
junction
cytoskeleton
Adhesive
Integrins bind the cell
junction
to the extracellular
Hemidesmosome matrix
& focal adhesion
Communicating 6 transmembrane
junction: Gap
connexon/pannexin
junction
proteins create
intercellular pores
Communicating Cytoplasmic
junction:
connections between
Plasmodesmata gaps in adjoining
plant cell walls
Function
Example
MHC Complex
Blood groups
Antibodies
Holds cell together Junctions
in a way that
between
material pass
epithelial cells in
through but not
the gut
between cells
Creates strong &
Epithelium
flexible connections
in cells ; Found in
vertebrates
Connects cells
together; oldest
form found in all
cells
Provide attachment
to a substract
Allow passage of
Excitable tissue
small molecules
like heart muscle
from cell to cell in a
tissue
Communicating
Plants tissues
junction between
plant cells
Surface proteins:
One important set of genes codes for proteins that will mark the surface of
the cells as being from a particular type.
Cells will identify each other by cell-surface markers such as surface
proteins and act accordingly.
Cells from the same tissue recognize each other and coordinate their
functions by creating connections.
Glycolipids lipids with carbohydrates heads, most common form of
tissue-specific cell-markers
IG: glycolipids on red blood cells are responsible for A, B and O blood types
ii.
Adherent junctions
Based on the protein Cadherin (classic types I and II) Ca2+dependent adhesion molecule with a phylogenetic distribution
Two extra-cellular domain of 2 Cadherins in 2 cells to join them
Cadherin interacts with actin filaments through other proteins to
form flexible connections between cells
Desmosomes
Cadherin-based junctions only in vertebrates
Desmocollin and desmoglein cadherin to the intermediate filaments
They link cells together
iii.
Cadherin-Mediated Junction
ii. Plasmodemata
In plants only
Cytoplasmic connections between touching
plasma membranes at gaps in the cell wall
Concern the majority of living cells in a
plant
They are lined with the plasma membrane
and contain a tubule that connects the ER of
two cells.