Rotor concepts and load estimation

Assoc. Prof. Martin O.L.Hansen

DTU Wind Energy and CeSOS, NTNU

The external conditions for a wind turbine rotor is highly

non-steady
Wind shear
Disturbance by tower
Atmospheric turbulence
Wave loads if offshore

Inflow

Further, the structure responds

elasticly to the time varying loads
again changing the inflow
(aeroelasticity or Fluid Structure Interaction FSI)

The aerodynamic model is called many times during a time simulation

of the structural dynamics
Typical simulation time T=600 s and timestep t=0.01s, i.e
in the order of 60000 iterations per load case
Number of simulations is in the order of 2000 load cases !!!!
(120 mill. calls)

A FAST MODEL IS REQUIRED

Therefore engineering models such as the Blade Element Momentum
model (BEM) still widely used

The most basic slide understanding a wind turbine:

A force is needed (thrust T) to slow down the wind speed in order to
extract kinetic energy per time, P, from the flow approaching the
rotor
m A( x)u ( x)

Ekin 1
2
2

P
2 m(V0 u1 )
t

The thrust force can be achieved as a pressure drop

created by flow past a wing
T=pA

The local flow on a HAWT wind turbine rotor

neglecting induced wind

p
V2

r
r

Aerodynamic loads on a 2-D wing section

Cl ( , Re)

L
1 V 2 c
2

Cd ( , Re)

D
1 V 2 c
2

Real flow past blade including induced wind

We learned that the power comes from removing kinetic energy from the air
through creating a force pointing upstream (thrust)

Ekin 1
2 m (V02 u12 )
P
t

m A( x)u ( x)

Should we then not increase the thrust until the velocity in the wake u1=0 ?

The answer is no
If ones increases T too much then the flow will go around the rotor
and
if T=0, then u1 V0
In both cases the power is 0 and an optimum value must exist

2
2

P m(V0 u1 )
1
2

m 0

It can be shown that u=(Vo-u1)

P 12 m (V02 u12 )
P 12 Au (V02 u12 ) 12 Au (V02 (V0 2u ) 2 ) 2 Au 2 (V0 u )
dP / du 2 A(2uV0 3u 2 ) 0
uopt 23 V0 Popt 12 A

16 3
V0
27

Definition power coefficient

P
Cp 1
3
V

o A
2

Theoretical maximum Betz limit

C p ,max

16 3
Vo A 16
1 27 3

60%
27
2 Vo A
1
2

How big must T be to obtain this ?

Conservation of momentum:

Vd (Vol ) V V dA F

t CV
CS

m side AcvV0 A1u1 ( Acv A1 )V0 A1 (V0 u1 )

2

T A u ( Acv A1 )V msideV0 AcvV0

2
1 1

2
0

T A1u1 (V0 u1 ) Au (V0 u1 )

Conservation of momentum

T Au (V0 u1 )
8
Topt A 23 V0 (V0 13 V0 ) 12 A V02
9

Definition thrust coefficient

T
CT 1
2

AV
0
2

Optimum value (Betz limit)

CT ,opt

8 2
A V0 8
1 9 2
9
2 AV0
1
2

Measured CT(a)

U=(1-a)Vo
Momentum theory not valid for high CT

Lift and drag projected relative to rotorplane

p N L cos D sin [ N / m]
pT L sin D cos [ N / m]

Lift and drag responsible for thrust and torque !!!

T pN dr

M R rpT dr
P M R

Vertical axis wind turbines

Worlds largest VAWT in Cap-Chat Quebec

(110 m tall, 3.8 MW rated power)

Velocity triangle gives size of relative

velocity and angle to rotor f

Vrel Vrot W Vo

p
L 12 Vrel2 cCl ( )
D 12 Vrel2 cCd ( )
Lift and drag projected normal to rotor (L is normal to Vrel)

pn L cos D sin
pt L sin D cos

If the tangential load is known the power can be computed as

P(t ) M tot (t ) pt hR
1

pt hR

pt

P(t )
1
1
C p (t ) 1

3
3
3
1

V
h
2
R
V
h
2
R
V
o
o
o
2
2

For both the HAWT and the VAWT wind turbine the angle
of attack can be estimated if the induced wind, W, is
known
If the angle of attack is known the aerodynamic lift and
drag can be estimated from 2-D airfoil data
From the aerodynamic loads the global power and thrust
can be calculated
The induced wind can be estimated 1) from the basic
conservation of momentum equations (engineering
method)
or alternatively 2) the flow and thus the loads can be
computed using CFD

HAWT

Classical Blade Element Momentum method for HAWTs

u (1 a)Vo
u1 (1 2a)Vo

Equlibrium between load and wake

dT (Vo u1 ) dm u 2 rdr (Vo u1 ) 4 rVo2 a (1 a ) dr

dT BpN dr B( L cos D sin )dr

Two different equations for the local thrust force

dT 4 rVo2 a (1 a ) dr

dT BpN dr B( L cos D sin )dr

Cn Cl cos Cd sin

Bc

2 r
1
a
4 F sin 2
1
Cn

Similarly can be derived for tangential induction a=wtan/r

dM 4 r 3Vo a(1 a )dr

dM BrpT dr Br ( L sin D cos )dr

Ct Cl sin Cd cos

Bc

2 r
1
a
4 F sin cos
1
Ct

For high CT the momentum theory not valid (Glauert correction)

Empirical correlation
4a (1 a ) F
CT
1
4a (1 4 (5 3a )a ) F

a 13
a 13

The classical BEM gives good results for the steady loads

Comparison between computed and measured electrical power for the

2MW Tjaereborg machine

Can be used as a preprocessor to a WT controller to estimate the maximum

power coefficient and the necessary pitch and tip speed ratio

Cp,max(p,)
and the gains in a PI controller

The classical BEM code only valid for constant inflow

and zero yaw.
Can be used to calculate power curves but not for unsteady
calculation of the loads during operation
This can be cured adding some engineering models

Unsteady BEM (Vo(t), Vrel(t), (t)) L(t) and D(t)

(t)
(t)

Quasi steady induced velocities calculated as:

BL cos
Wn
4 rF Vo f g Wn )
BL sin
Wt
4 rF Vo f g Wn )

The equations for the induced velocity consistent with

momentum theory for zero yaw
The equations are also valid for 90 degrees yaw (basic helicopter theory)
And it is therefore assumed they are valid for any yaw angle !!!

Unsteady effects
Dynamic inflow/wake

Wint 1

dWqs
dWint
Wqs k 1
dt
dt

dW
W 2
Wint
dt

Dynamic stall

These and similar equations are the basis for the assesment of the aerodynamic
loads in most servo-,hydro,-aeroelastic codes such as e.g.
HAWC2
FLEX5
BLADED
FAST

VAWTs
Also for vertical axis wind turbines the momentum based method are
popular

Single disc
Double disc

Single disc theory

Relationship between the local thrust in a streamtube and the

decreased local velocity u that includes the induced velocity

Step 1: Calculate aerodynamic loads

from assumed value of induced wind
Vrel , x Vo y Wx
Vrel , y x
Vrel2 Vrel2 , x Vrel2 , y
Vt Vrel , y sin Vrel , x cos
Vr Vrel , y cos Vrel , x sin

atan(Vr / Vt )
p

L V cCl ( )
1
2

2
rel

D 12 Vrel2 cCd ( )

px L

Vrel , y
Vrel

py L

Vrel , x
Vrel

Vrel , x
Vrel

Vrel , y
Vrel

Step 2: Estimate mean axial load

2
N

B px B px
px

N
2

Step 3: Calculate thrust coefficient

px
CT 1
2
V

o h
2
Step 4: Update induced velocity (induction factor a)

Wx
a
Vo

Solve for a new a and thus Wx then goto step 1

u (1 a )Vo
4a (1 a )
CT
1
a

4
(1
4 (5 3a ) a )

a 13
a 13

Double disc to simulate also the downstream part of the rotor

Free wind speed approaching rotor

U u (1 au )U

wind speed at upstream disc

U e (1 2au )U

Inflow to downstream disc

U d (1 ad )U e

wind speed at downstream disc

au and ad found similarly as in single disc from CT(a) relation

CFD
Numerical solution of the Navier-Stokes equations

Incompressible N-S equations

V 0
DV
g p ij
Dt
ui u j

ij
x j xi

From ICEM CFD Engineering

-Preprocessor (where a lot of time is spent)

Geometry (CAD or similar)
Grid generator
Specifying boundary conditions (inflow, outflow, wall, symmetry etc.)
-Solver
Steady/unsteady
Discretization (Upwind schemes)
Turbulence model
Transition model
-Postprocessor
extract specific data
visualization

Turbulence - the great challenge

Turbulent flows are highly unsteady and 3-D contains eddies of many scales.

Sir Horace Lamb (1932):

I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there
are two matters on which I hope for enlightment. One is quantum
electrodynamics and the other is turbulent motion of fluids. And
about the former I am rather optimistic.
According to an apocryphal story, Heisenberg was asked what he would ask
God, given the opportunity. His reply was: "When I meet God, I am going to ask
him two questions: Why relativity? And why turbulence? I really believe he
will have an answer for the first."

Scales in turbulent fluid flow

Largest scales similar to the physical dimension of the problem
1/ 4

Smallest scales: Kolmogorov length scale

Typically fractions of mm

is the energy dissipation rate per unit mass [m2/s3]

is the kinematic viscosity [m2/s]

Number of gridpoints required for a

Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) Re9/4
Example :
Re=105
Re=106

N=1.81011
N=3.21013

Modeling the turbulence therefore necessary

Reynolds averaging of the equations RANS

f f f g g g
1
f
T

f (t )dt
0

f0
gf gf

f g f g

f f

s s

Following is set into the NS equations

u u u v v v w w w

p p p

Afterwards the NS equations are timeaveraged using

the formulaes from previous slide as:
DV

g p ij
Dt
ui u j
ij

x j xi

The result becomes

DV
' '

g p ( ij ui u j )
Dt
This is the standard NS equations with an added
term denoted the Reynolds stresses (stress tensor)

turb
ij

u u
'
i

'
j

Transport equations can be derived for the Reynolds

stresses, but this introduces terms of third order products
of the fluctuating velocities.
This is known as the closure problem.

Boussinesq approximation therefore models the

Reynolds stresses through an eddy viscosity t

turb
ij

ui u j 2
u u t

k ij

x j xi 3

'
i

'
j

2
k ij is added to the pressure
3

If the term
the equations becomes similar to the normal NS equations

DV

g p* ij
Dt
ui u j
ij ( t )

x j xi

2
p p k
3
*

Turbulence is modeled as an extra diffusion

and the role of the turbulence model is to calculate
the size of this diffusion

Different catogories of turbulence models:

Algebraic
One-equation models
Two equations models
RNG (ReNormalization Group)
Reynolds stress models
LES (Large Eddy Simulation)
DES (Deatached Eddy Simulation)
DNS (Direct Numerical Simulation)

Despite the many challenges CFD is routinely used also in WT industry

2-D aerodynamics (airfoil data)
Full rotor computations
Aerodynamic accessories
Flow in landscape (siting)
?

Breaktrough of CFD for wind turbine rotors

NREL Wind tunnel measurement

NREL Phase-VI Wind Turbine

NASA Ames Tunnel (24.4x36.6 m)

Blind test comparison

Upwind Configuration, Zero Yaw
4000

Low-Speed Shaft Torque (Nm)

3500
3000

2500

measurements

2000

Ris comp.

1500
1000
500
0
5

10

15

Wind Speed (m/s)

20

25

Pressure distributions at 7 m/s

Pressure distributions at 10 m/s

CFD for wind turbine rotors

Advantages
Full control over input parameters
Cheap compared to measurements
Parametric variations can easily be made
Provides detailed information of the very complex flow everywhere in the field
Input to faster empirical engineering type models
Gain knowledge of complex flow physics

Disadvantages
Large computer resources
Prediction of separation, turbulence and transition modelling
Slow compared to BEM, not suited for realistic aeroelastic simulations
Grid generation
?