Environmental Aspects of Small Scale Energy Storage Systems

P.I. Kokkotis, C.S. Psomopoulos*, G.Ch. Ioannidis, S.D. Kaminaris

Department of Electrical Engineering, Piraeus University of Applied Sciences, 250, Thivon & P. Ralli Ave.,
12244, Egaleo, Greece
*Corresponding author: E-mail: cpsomop@teipir.gr , Tel: +30 210 5381182

Abstract
Regarding Small Scale Energy Storage Systems, we will have to exclude the large Pumped Hydro
because of its bulk capacity characteristic. Flywheels, Super Magnetic Energy Storage and
Supercapacitors are considered environmentally friendly and briefly mentioned; therefore we will
focus on electrochemical means of EES systems such as batteries.
Batteries are identified as a problematic material in the waste stream. They are made from a variety
of chemicals and some of these chemicals, such as nickel and cadmium, are extremely toxic and can
cause damage to humans and environment. They can also cause soil and water pollution and
endanger wildlife. Cadmium can cause damage to soil micro-organisms and affect the breakdown
of organic matter. Other chemicals used in modern electrochemical batteries will be discussed,
along with any protective means of safe utilization with minimum environmental impact.
Keywords: Energy Storage; batteries; cadmium; lithium; environment.

1. INTRODUCTION
Electrical Energy Storage (EES) refers to a process where electrical energy from a power network is
stored and then converted back to electrical energy when needed. Such a process enables electricity
to be stored at times of low demand, low generation cost or from stochastic energy sources such as
wind, solar and wave and be used at times of high demand, high generation cost or when no other
generation method is available. [1]
1.1 Energy Storage Methods
The current energy storage systems [2] are divided in the following categories according to the
means of energy storage:
Electrochemical energy
o Battery Energy Storage (BES)
Lead-Acid
Nickel battery
Sodium-sulfur
Lithium battery
Metal-air battery
o Flow Battery Energy Storage (FBES)
o Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
o Super Capacitor Energy Storage (SCES)
Mechanical Energy
o Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
o Liquid Air Energy Storage (LAES) or Cryogenic Energy Storage (CES)
o Hydro Energy Storage (HES)
o Pumped Hydro Energy Storage (PHES)
o Flywheel Energy Storage (FES)
Chemical Energy Storage
o Hydrogen
Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Environmental Management,
Engineering, Planning & Economics
ISBN: 978-960-6865-87-9, Mykonos island, Greece , June 14-18, 2015

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Thermal Energy Storage

o Sensible heat storage systems
o Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage (LHTES)
o Thermochemical energy storage

1.2 Small Grid Definition and Energy Storage

As mentioned by [3], [4], [5] a micro grid is a weak grid formed by many small sources, storage
systems, power converters and loads. The micro grid can operate both connected to the main grid
and in an islandic mode. This system is used to overcome the stochastic nature and the uncertainty
of the RES, in order to create a reliable load/generation system from the main electric grid point of
view. In this context, the use of the EES is an idea accepted widely, as the variability of the
generated power can be smoothed, power quality problems avoided and the frequency and the
voltage of the micro grid controlled.
2. ENVIRONMENTAL APPROACH ON ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS
Having in mind the International Standards and the EU directives (Table 1) that qualify these
technologies, we will present a short technical summary for the technologies in focus and state the
environmental impacts and the regulatory issues arising with these technologies.
Table 1. EU Directives and International Standards
EU Directive
Title
a
Simple Pressure Vessel Directive
2009/105/EC
a
Pressure Equipment Directive
97/23/EC
a
Low Voltage Directive
2006/95/EC
a
Electromagnetic Compatibility Directive
2004/108/EC
a
Batteries and Accumulators and Waste Batteries and
2006/66/EC
Accumulators Directive
a
End-of Life Vehicles Directive
2000/53/EC
a
Restriction
of Hazardous Substances in Electrical and
2002/95/EC
Electronic Equipment Directive
ISO
Title
b
Environmental management - Life cycle assessment 14040
Principles and framework
b
Environmental management - Life cycle assessment 14041
Goal and scope definition and inventory analysis
b
Environmental management - Life cycle assessment 14042
Life cycle impact assessment
b
Environmental management - Life cycle assessment 14044
Requirements and guidelines
a
Available at ec.europa.eu (European Commission)
b
Available at www.iso.org (International Standards Organization)
2.1 Electrochemical Energy Storage Methods
2.1.1 Battery Energy Storage
2.1.1.1 Lead-Acid Batteries
Technical summary: Lead-Acid batteries are electrochemical cells based upon chemical reactions
involving lead and sulphuric acid. Lead-Acid is one of the oldest and most developed battery
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technologies [6].
Environmental Impacts & Regulatory Issues: The lead used in these batteries is toxic [7] and
therefore must be recycled. In addition, the sulphuric acid typically used as the electrolyte is
corrosive and when overcharged the battery generates hydrogen which presents an explosion risk.
2.1.1.2 Nickel Batteries
Technical summary: Nickel batteries are electrochemical cells. There are a number of Nickel based
batteries currently available or under development, including Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd), NickelMetal Hydride (Ni-MH), Nickel-Zinc (Ni-Zn) and Sodium-Nickel Chloride (Na-NiCl2). Ni-Cd and
Ni-MH are the most developed of the Ni batteries [6].
Environmental Impacts & Regulatory Issues: The most significant drawback of Ni-Cd batteries is
the highly toxic cadmium used within them. Although this metal is highly recyclable it is
exceedingly toxic. Most Nickel is recovered from end-of-life batteries since the metal is reasonably
easy to retrieve from scrap and can be used in corrosion resistant alloys such as stainless steel. EU
legislation is in part responsible for the supercedence of NiCd batteries by Ni-MH batteries and
represents a significant issue to any future development of Ni-Cd battery technologies. Avoiding
fumes and dust is essential for workers in this sector [8].
2.1.1.3 Sodium-Sulfur Batteries
Technical summary: Sodium-Sulphur (NaS) batteries are electrochemical cells. NaS batteries are
the most developed type of high temperature battery. A NaS battery consists of liquid (molten)
sulphur at the positive electrode and liquid (molten) sodium at the negative electrode as active
materials separated by a solid beta alumina ceramic electrolyte [9]. The electrolyte allows only the
positive sodium ions to pass through it and combine with the sulphur to form sodium polysulphides.
Environmental Impacts & Regulatory Issues: There are limited environmental concerns associated
with NaS batteries, since the materials used in their construction are relatively environmentally
inert. There is a small risk associated with the high temperature at which the battery must be
operated in order to maintain the sulphur in its molten form [10].
2.1.1.4 Lithium Batteries
Technical summary: Lithium batteries are electrochemical cells. Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) and LithiumPolymer (Li-pol) types are both available [11].
Environmental Impacts & Regulatory Issues: Li batteries have a limited environmental impact since
the lithium oxides and salts can be recycled. The main impact is the resource depletion, human
toxicity and Eco toxicity mainly associated with copper, cobalt, nickel, thallium and silver) [12].
2.1.1.5 Metal-Air Batteries
Technical summary: Metal-air batteries are electrochemical cells and are the most compact batteries
available.
Environmental Impacts & Regulatory Issues: Environmentally, metal-air batteries are relatively
inert since no toxic materials are involved in their construction. Like other battery types, metals
such as zinc or aluminium used within the battery should be recycled [6].
2.1.2 Flow Batteries
Technical summary: Flow batteries store and release energy through a reversible electrochemical
reaction between two electrolytes. There are four types of flow battery currently being produced or
in the late stages of development; zinc bromine, vanadium redox (VRB), polysulphide bromide and
cerium zinc. The zinc-bromine system - developed by ZBB Energy Corp in the USA - represents a
type of hybrid flow battery. A leading form of the vanadium redox flow battery is a system by VRB
Power Systems Inc in Canada. These systems feature the separation of chemical reactants from the
electrochemical cells through which charging and discharging take place. The storage capacity is
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dependent upon the size of the electrolyte tanks whilst the power output is dependent upon the size
of the fuel cell. The vanadium redox system has an advantage over the hybrid system as the
discharge time at full power can be varied [13].
Environmental Impacts & Regulatory Issues: The potential size and scale of these systems are
likely to determine the extent to which environmental impacts are significant. Significant quantities
of space may be required for holding tanks containing the electrolytes and although these
substances may not be specifically toxic this obviously requires care at the design stage. A major
advantage of the technology is the ability of the technology to perform discharge cycles indefinitely
so there are no significant waste products associated with operation [14].
2.1.3 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
Technical summary: SMES is a technology that can store electrical energy in a magnetic field
within a cooled super-conducting coil. The coil is cryogenically cooled beyond its super-conducting
temperature (-269oC). At this temperature, resistance of the material to electric currents disappears,
and the limited electrical resistance allows extremely high efficiencies of up to 97% to be achieved
as well as enabling storage more or less indefinitely. An additional advantage is the immediate
release of power which renders the system useful to customers requiring extremely high quality
power output [15].
Environmental Impacts & Regulatory Issues: Extremely low temperatures are required for the
superconducting system which represents a safety issue. Larger scale SMES systems could require
significant protection to deal with magnetic radiation issues in the immediate vicinity of the plant
[16].
2.1.4 Supercapacitors Energy Storage
Technical summary: Supercapacitors can store energy in the electric field between a pair of charged
plates. Supercapacitors, ultracapacitors or double-layer capacitors (DLCs) as they are also known,
contain a significantly enlarged electrode surface area compared to conventional capacitors, as well
as a liquid electrolyte and a polymer membrane [17].
Environmental Impacts & Regulatory Issues: Supercapacitors can be employed to enhance the
energy performance of automotives, for example, through regenerative braking systems, which can
therefore lead to emissions benefits. In addition, supercapacitors have a long lifecycle. Potential
negative environmental impacts of supercapacitors arise from the materials and compounds used
within their construction and operation [1], [18].
2.2 Mechanical Energy Storage Systems
2.2.1 Flywheel
Technical Summary: Flywheels represent a mechanical form of energy storage in which the kinetic
energy of a fast-spinning cylinder contains considerable stored energy. Recent technological
advances have modernised the traditional flywheel, improving its efficiency dramatically. Modern
flywheel systems are typically comprised of a massive rotating cylinder, supported on a stator by
magnetically levitated bearings that eliminate wear and extend system life compared with
conventional bearings. To increase efficiency, the flywheel is operated in a low pressure
environment to reduce friction with the air. A flywheel energy storage system draws electricity
from a primary source to spin the high density cylinder at speeds greater than 20,000 rpm [19].
Environmental Impacts and Regulatory Issues: With no chemical management and disposal issues
to consider, flywheels have some environmental advantages over the battery systems described
earlier. Design life for these devices may be only a few years or less, which is an area for future
research activity. Subject to stringent safety safeguards applied to the operation of heavy, rapidly
rotating objects, a flywheel system should not cause problems to the local area [6].

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2.2.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage

Technical Summary: CAES projects would use excess off-peak energy to compress air and
inject it into a depleted natural gas reservoir and then use the compressed air to power a
generator during peak periods when the energy is needed most. Traditional CAES essentially
dumps the heat into the atmosphere, therefore requiring a second injection of heat prior to reexpansion [20]. AA-CAES instead aims to remove the heat and store it separately, then re-eject
the heat at the expansion stage, thereby removing the need to reheat with natural gas [21].
Environmental Impacts and Regulatory Issues: Compressed air energy storage, as a means of
mitigating intermittency in wind power production can be favourable in certain conditions,
especially when geological conditions are well suited for implementation and no energy has to be
spent on the creation of a cavern. In general, ACAES have a lower impact compared to the CAES,
due to fact that no fossil fuel is combusted. However, the impacts for a CAES plant are lower than
those from natural gas power plant. For ACAES, an important part is the thermal energy storage
and developing of the thermal mass with high heat transfer capabilities and low environmental
impact is crucial to improve overall performance of the system [22].
2.2.3 Liquid Air Energy Storage
Technical Summary: Liquid Air Energy Storage or Cryogenic Energy Storage works similarly as a
CAES system but the difference is that the air is liquefied and stored in over ground tanks. One
pilot plant is operational at the time in Slough Trading Estate, UK [23].
Environmental Impacts and Regulatory Issues: One of the concerns at the start of the pilot plant
project was stratification of the liquid air in the storage tank. This could result in local oxygen
enrichment of the working fluid and the risk of fire or an explosion if the enriched fluid came into
contact with hydrocarbons, such as the lubricating oil for the power turbine. This was managed in
the pilot plant by ensuring all parts in contact with the working fluid were oxygen cleaned. Some
enrichment was observed in feed pipes to the cryogenic pumps after 57 days of down time through
preferential boiling of the nitrogen content of the liquid air. Purging of these pipes before operation
cleared the enriched fluid from the system. No evidence of stratification or enrichment of the bulk
liquid air in the storage tank was observed during the project over two years of operation [24].
2.3 Chemical Storage Systems
2.3.1 Hydrogen
Technical Summary: The hydrogen production pathways [25] include Steam Methane Reforming
using natural gas as feedstock, Gasification of Coal and other hydrocarbons, Electrolysis using
conventional grid or renewable power, Gasification of biomass and Nuclear Power. Hydrogen can
be then be stored in underground caverns, salt domes and depleted oil and gas fields [26]. Stored
hydrogen can then be used in fuel cells or injected directly to natural gas pipes to boost the calorific
value and thus lead to better combustion in gas turbines.
Environmental Impacts and Regulatory Issues: Each pathway has its own environmental
considerations and can be found in Table 2 [25]. Regarding small scale storage, like gasification of
biomass and electrolysis through RES, for remote consumers, one can say that it is pretty clean as a
technology.
2.4 Thermal Energy Storage
Thermal Energy Storage refers to the conversion and storage of energy to heat or cold. This can be
achieved through heat exchangers and heat pumps and the storage vessel can be either underground
tanks and cavities or over ground tanks. VDI Guideline VDI 4640 Part 1 [27] also analyses the
various underground minerals that can store thermal energy that can be later retrieved. Finally,
thermal energy storage is widely used in the forms of buildings air conditioning systems and solar
heating for domestic water usage. The combination of photovoltaic panels along with solar heating
from the same panel can greatly reduce greenhouse gases [28] thus making it an ideal solution for
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small scale heat storage solution with minimum to non-existent environmental impacts. The main
environmental concern regarding the Ice Thermal Energy Storage lies within the refrigerant used in
the freezing cycle [29].
Table 2. Hydrogen Production Pathways and Environmental Considerations
(-) Burning natural gas contributes to global warming
Steam Methane Reforming
(-) Extracting and transporting natural gas could harm sensitive
landscapes
(-) Making H2 from coal or heavy oil would generate large
Gasification of Coal
amounts of carbon emissions
(-) Coal mining can degrade land and water quality
(+) Use of renewable power would produce low to zeroElectrolysis
emissions
(-) Use of conventional grid power would generate more global
warming pollution than steam methane reforming with natural
gas
(-) Near-term benefits of using renewable power may be greater
if used to displace other sources of electricity
(+) If feedstock are sustainably cultivated, process has low to no
Gasification of Biomass
net global warming emissions
(-) Large scale production of feedstock and collection and
transport of crops and residues may raise air, land and ecosystem
concerns
(+) Low global warming emissions
Nuclear Power
(-) Issues of waste management and disposal and extraction and
processing of uranium
3. DISCUSSION
No matter the magnitude of the energy storage system, certain environmental aspects should be
considered. In the context of promoting smart grids as in small scale and distributed energy
generation in remote communities, the major aspects of batteries environmental impacts must be
considered. Consumers must have the means and proper information on recycling of the batteries,
thus a proper recycling network must operate flawlessly. In general, energy storage systems are
environmentally inert during their operation and the major impacts are found during their
construction. As in all chemical and mechanical devices, the installation must be made in secure
rooms with all the necessary precautions, lighting, accident prevention automations and emergency
exits.
The future need for energy storage will increase but also the technologies used, in means of
materials, will shift towards more environmentally friendly materials. Lead-Acid batteries, for
example are the current pinnacle of energy storage in many sectors, and because they can be
recycled up to 90% they are the best choice in means of operation capabilities and environmental
aspects.
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