MASS MEDIA

Mass Media: the means of mass communication, especially television, radio,

newspapers and the Internet collectively. The scale of communication is the
defining factor of the mass media: it necessarily refers to mass
participation/consumption.
Traditional media: Despite the term, traditional media has revolutionised
communications and made the modern world we live in a possibility. As forms of
communication, traditional media has altered the meaning of geographical
distance, allowed an increase in the volume of communication and increased the
speed at which information travels. More importantly, it has done so in ways that
retain the integrity of the content, compared to the unavoidable distortion of
meaning through word-of-mouth communication.
New media: The exact definition of this ever-changing category is still in
debate. New Media is characterised by interactive user feedback, creative
participation or the formation of communities around a genre or type of media
content. Some forms of New Media include Interactive websites, online fora and
social media sites. (New media does not include television programs, feature
films, magazines, books, or paper-based publications unless they
somehow include technology that enable digital interactivity.)
New media can be seen as yet another stage in the evolution of mass
communication. On top of conquering distance and time with its global reach
and the sheer speed of digital information delivery, it has provided
opportunities for interactive communication and allow forms
of communication that were formerly separate to overlap and
interconnect to create new forms of content.
The rise of new media signals a potentially radical shift of who is in
control of information, experiences and resources; it brings about a new
digital culture that is characterized by
1. participation in the production and dissemination of digital content by nonmedia professionals (e.g Youtube, Vimeo, )
2. imitation, copying, transformation and re-contextualization of both usergenerated content (e.g. Internet memes) and media-generated content
(e.g. TV programmes)
3. iii) unplanned and serendipitous assembling of content found online (e.g.
Youtube video edits)
Social media: (the most important subset of New Media) a term used to
describe the new generation of digital, computerized or networked information
and communication technologies with a social function. These can be web-based
or mobile-based and can take many different forms, including lnternet forums,

blogs, wikis, podcasts and picture-, music- and video-sharing. Examples of social
media applications are Google Groups, Instagram, Facebook, YouTube, Second
Life, Flickr and Twitter.
Social media can be extremely broad and includes subcategories such as:

Social networks

Focused on establishing social ties between individuals online, often drawing on

pre-existing offline social ties as an initial foundation. Obvious examples include
Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and Tumblr.

Content-sharing sites

Where content produced by both professional and amateurs can be viewed,

rated and discussedReddit, YouTube and Flickr, for instance.

Content-ranking tools

Where individuals signpost other users of the platform to content they think is
especially worth attention. It includes sites like Rotten Tomatoes, IMDB and
Reddit that allow users to rate or submit reviews of content.
These types and functions may overlap on different platforms, especially as
social media continues to evolve.

The Grey Area: When is it Traditional and when is it New Media?

As our contemporary understanding of the field of mass communication
changes, so do the terms and definitions we use to refer to these ideas. It is
important to acknowledge that there is a grey area. If newspapers belong to
traditional media, what about online newspapers?
New media or traditional? Let us analyse a few components and qualities of an
average online newspaper:

As you can see, it is a mix of both. In your argument, focus on the relevant
aspect/component that matches the type of media you wish to discuss. Not
everything digital is New Media. Be critical, be analytical, be preciselink
component to quality to type of media.

THE MASS MEDIA IS A TOOL

Purpose & Function: From the perspective of the individual or media
consumer, the functions and purposes of mass media may appear clear and
simple. We use mass media platforms for:
1. Obtaining information
2. Entertainment purposes
3. Sharing information/content
Source of Information: The media plays a conscious role in educating society
by sustaining a public message. It is an integral part of modern life and
inadvertently has an important role in shaping our perceptions and beliefs. In
this manner, it plays a role in educating the public through
socialisation: transmitting values and perceptions embedded in the content it
carries and shaping the perception of what is normal, acceptable or true in
society.
Platform for announcements: The media can be used for public service
announcements and for the dissemination of information in the interest of the
publicthat is, for the good of society.
Source of entertainment: Movies, TV shows, even books are all forms of
media that could provide a source of entertainment for its consumers and
audience. In order to attract viewers and readership, media that carry this
function typically aim to attract its audience through the use of
interest, aesthetic appeal and marketing techniques.
Gives the weak/oppressed a voice (New Media): In the past, media was
used as an important tool to create awareness to the masses on social conditions
happening at that time. Charles Dickens, for instance, was a novelist who wrote
books with themes that addressed social issues such as the ill effects of
industrialisation and the devastating conditions of the poor. Due to statecontrolled traditional media, the oppressed were not able to voice out their
discontentment for fear of being incarcerated. Now, New Media platforms give
members of the public the power to challenge authorities and to speak up for
themselves.
A TOOL USED BY DIFFERENT PLAYERS
The government: For Public Education, announcements, propaganda, line
of communication.
The non-government organisations: As a government watchdog, for
education/awareness.
The business organisations: For Advertising/marketing, public relations

The Religious groups: For education/awareness/social causes/propaganda

The people: To create social pressure, as a government watchdog, to voice out
grievances, avenue for freedom of expression.
TO ACHIEVE DIFFERENT OBJECTIVES
1) Public Education
On one level, the media can be used for public service announcements and for
the dissemination of information in the interest of the public. This can range from
national events, campaigns and policies by the government to critical
information with regard to public health and safety: disaster warning, PSI level
broadcasts, directions to the nearest bomb shelter or medical centre. On another
level, the media plays a conscious role in educating society by sustaining a
public message, whether it is in the interests of the government, the people, or
both. A message of tolerance and equality can be sustained through various
national (or even global) media, to shape society. Equally, this power of the
media can be used for evil. The media was a key component in propagating and
sustaining Nazi, anti-Semitic ideology throughout Hitlers administration. More
importantly, media also plays a role in educating the public through socialisation.
This is most evident in the way the media can help to shift societys stand on
stereotypes and combat, or encourage, prejudice and discrimination. Television
shows that portray females as individuals to be respected equally and judged on
their own terms can play a criticalif intangiblerole in setting the social norms
that viewers believe in and abide by, especially by socialising younger viewers,
who will begin to see through the stereotypes of the past and take gender
equality as a natural state of affairs.
2) Voice of the People: Mediator between society and state
The media plays a common-carrier role by providing a line of communication
between the government and the people. This communication goes both ways:
The people learn about what the government is doing, and the government
learns from the media what the public is thinking. This is Herbamas public
sphere (1989), in which the media mediates between society and state and
organizes itself as a bearer of public opinion. The mass media has a powerful
influence on politics. It shapes the perceptions of the political world that
average people and political leaders hold. These perceptions become the basis
for political beliefs and actions. The mass media is particularly important during
periods of rapid political changes, during elections, and in times of war and
political violence. That is why political leaders try hardest during such times to
control what the news covers. This function can also be seen in the reporting of
the results of public opinion surveys conducted by outside organizations. But
increasingly, media organizations incorporate their own polls into their news
coverage. Ironically, the mass media affects what and how we learn about
politics and our own political views through the selection, focus and style of
reportingthey help to shape the very public opinion they claim to objectively
report. [See: Public Education (above); Agenda Setting (below)]

3) Government Watchdog
This is when the media monitors the work of the government and ensures that
the political leaders uphold their oaths and do not abuse their positions or the
democratic system. They function as the guardians of democracy and the
defenders of public interest. Despite being an important function, it is seldom
observed as the key function of most media organizations around the world.
Either one of the following would cause a diversion from this function: censorship
by the government, the private agenda of commercial owners or the preferences
of readers.
4) Agenda Setting
Journalists cannot report on an infinite number of stories, so they must choose
which are the most newsworthy. By choosing which stories to present to
the public, the news media helps determine the most important issues;
in
other
words,
the
journalists
set
the
agenda.
What is
showcased, downplayed or omitted matters because it shapes which issues will
be debated in public. This function is often performed through advertising,
marketing, propaganda and public relations. For example

When large corporations own large news outlets, they exert control over
what the people know this is corporate propaganda.

When the government uses the media to inform, explain, and win support
for its programs and policies, it is political communication or
propaganda.

When social organizations advertise for a social cause like

environmentalism, they are engaging in social activism.

Sometimes political scientists refer to agenda-setting as signalling because the

media signals which stories are the most important when they decide what to
report. By selecting, organising and prioritising the issues of the day, the media
plays a powerful role in directing the attention of the public, and subsequently,
what society chooses to focus on. For example, the Singapore media chose to
focus more on the stellar 14.5% economic growth figure in 2010 rather than a
worrying 18-month high inflation figure that raised cost-of-living pressures.
However, new media platforms now have the power to allow members
of the public to challenge the agenda-setting power of traditional
media by breaking the exclusivity of media presentation and content
production. It has been argued that the emergence of new digital technologies
signals a potentially radical shift of who is in control of information, experience
and resources.
The new media, particularly the Internet, provides the potential for a
democratic post-modern public sphere, in which citizens can participate in wellinformed, non-hierarchical debate pertaining to their social structures. This

facilitates media democracy with its concept of marketplace of ideas, a rationale

for freedom of expression based on an analogy to the economy concept of a free
market. The marketplace of ideas belief holds that the truth or the best policy
arises out of the competition of widely various ideas in free, transparent public
discourse, an important part of liberal democracy. Facebook and Twitter allowed
Singapore residents to raise the issue of suspiciously low PSI readings during the
2013 Indonesian Haze. The sensitivity of citizens to the PSI readings and public
safety, as well as a screen grab of what was a dangerously high PSI reading on
a government portal (later amended to a lower figure) forced even the
mainstream media to address the issue of public safety and the reliability of
government statistics.
Advocates of media democracy: Media democracy proponents advocate
monitoring and reforming the mass media, strengthening public service
broadcasting, developing and participating in alternative media and citizen
journalism.

Public service broadcasting: This includes media outlets whose

primary mission is public service. The broadcasters receive funding
from diverse sources including license fees, individual contributions, public
financing and commercial financing. It is neither commercial nor stateowned, and is free from political interference and pressure from
commercial forces. Through PSB, citizens are informed, educated and
also entertained. When guaranteed with pluralism, programming diversity,
editorial
independence,
appropriate funding,
accountability
and
transparency, public service broadcasting can serve as a cornerstone of
democracy.

Alternative media: These are media which provide alternative

information to the mainstream media and dedicated to a certain
cause or viewpoint. They often aim to challenge existing powers,
represent marginalized groups, and foster horizontal linkages among
communities of interest.

Citizen journalism, also known as public or participatory journalism, is

the act of citizens playing an active role in the process of
collecting, reporting, analyzing and disseminating news and
information. The intent of this participation is to provide independent,
wide-ranging and relevant information that a democracy requires. However
such reports often bypass mainstream media and are unfiltered. Some
examples of citizen journalism sites include CyberJournalist, NowPublic,
and CNNs I-Reporter. Citizen journalism should not be confused with civic
journalism, which is practiced by professional journalists.

5) Profit-making (profit motive)

From a producers point of view, the main purpose of producing and
managing media content is, more often than not, the generation of
profits. This is often referred to as the profit motive. As media production and

control has shifted from the hands of the government to that of corporations and
businesspeople, this has become one of the primary factors to consider
when evaluating how faithful the media is to its other social functions
and its responsibility to the public.
How does the mass media generate profits? Advertising fees: by
attracting a large enough audience to charge fees for advertisers to gain access
to them. Traditional media shape their content to attract as many viewers as
possible as they can charge more for advertising. This has an impact on the way
the content is shaped. Sensationalism is a common way to attract a large
audience by playing up the controversial or emotional aspects of the content.
New media platforms like Facebook generate profits by attracting users, but
charge advertisers a premium also for the targeted advertising they provide
they display ads to users based on their personal information, profile, and the
nature of their interests and online activity. Are you single and have you recently
liked a post on a new romantic comedy? Chances are, Facebook has taken note
of this and sent dating website advertisements your way. Such practices require
us to question new medias commitment to user privacy.
Subscription/pay-per-view: media producers charge their audience for the
content they provide. This means that the content is likely to be shaped to make
it as attractive as possible to their target consumer and less likely to challenge
their views. Cable stations often take into account the political preferences and
social views of a preferred audience and shape content to match the desires of
the viewers. As such, they are more likely to pander to existing social
preferences than to challenge them.
Since the mass media is such a powerful tool of influence, often in such a
pervasive manner, it is important to think about its impact on our society in
shaping our beliefs. The extensive reach of the mass media and the way it
interacts with every aspect of our lives means that its influence can be felt in a
wide range of areas, shaping our society through its content and its
capabilities.
Generally, THE IMPACTS OF MASS MEDIA MANIFEST IN:
Behaviour What we do (actions)
Speech patterns What we say and how we say it (language, accents, lingo)
Purchasing
patterns

What
we
choose
to
buy
Outward appearance How we want to present ourselves physically be it
through the use of clothes, accessories, hair and makeup, weight changes or
plastic
surgery.
Social institutions Family, Schools, Government Organisations, Religious
Organisations etc.
CONDITIONS FOR IMPACT:

Time be it long term or short term

Constant Exposure the pervasiveness of the Media content

VICTIMS / AFFECTED PARTIES

Children
and
Teenagers
Before we discuss the effects of the mass media, we have to have an
understanding of the audience and the prevalent characteristics that allow the
mass media to affect them. In this respect, the youth and children are always
seen as the most important audience because they are especially susceptible to
the effects of the media, with alarmists especially worried about the negative
influence of unsuitable content. Also, the effects of the media on this group
have the capability to shape the future of society, an argument that cannot be
made as persuasively when applied to adults.
The young are vulnerable to the effects of the media because they are seen as

Innocent: they are still learning about what is normal, acceptable and true
in society and the world around them. The media is able to shape their
perceptions and beliefs especially with the high level of media penetration
and consumption in modern life. (See D. Media Effect Theories:
Socialisation)

Impressionable: they have yet to form their own set of beliefs and moral
standards, so they are more likely to respond emotionally to what is
attractive and cool, and correspondingly, less likely to measure what they
see, read or hear against codes of conduct and morality.

Nave: they are less critical about the information and values they receive
and are more likely to trust the media. This is because they lack the
experience and maturity to question the truthfulness, morality and
relevance of what they are exposed to.

While all the above may hold true for children, critics have argued that the
youth of today are

Sceptical: they are highly critical of received wisdom and messages.

Being exposed to a plethora (a wide range/variety of) messages through
the media, they are able to weigh one against another.

Digital natives: being born into a media-dominated culture, they are

active participants on a level that their parents and predecessors have
never experienced. As such, they understand the nature and questionable
reliability of the media they consume, whether it is through traditional
media channels, new media or social media.

You may weigh the opposing views but do take note that the latter view tends to
hold for modern youth but not children. In any case, be wary of over-

generalisation. As long as you use suitable qualifiers (e.g.: they are generally;
most children are; they are characterised as) your argument should be
reasonable and safe!

THE IMPACTS OF MASS MEDIA

For the following impacts of mass media, you need to view them from the lens of
the groups of people listed below.

People with little education/knowledge

People with little or no values

A. MASS MEDIA AND EDUCATION

Learning benefits of mass media:

It takes a long time to adopt mass media in a formal educational setting,

but print media (books, newspapers), movies (documentaries), TV and the
internet (online encyclopaedias) have sparked curiosity and have
educated many throughout history in more informal settings.

However, today, mass media is widely used in schools as a teaching

aid. Educators see the mass media (especially visual and interactive
media) as an effective tool to reach out to younger generations
that were raised on television and personal computers. There is a
huge market for educational videos, and schools are responding to
changes in technology by outfitting their campuses with cutting edge
equipment.

With new media, more information is readily available especially in

countries that have the proper infrastructure. The new media,
namely the Internet, is an infinite source of information. Such information
is not only readily available, but easy to find and in abundance as well.

Furthermore, one can always be assured of the currency of the

information, since online information is constantly updated. The
new media hardly has dated information due to the ease of access and
thus the ability of participants to make changes as soon as it happens. In
fact, it is this idea of real time that makes the new media so attractive
compared to other forms of traditional media.

Social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter have been commonly
used as platforms outside the classroom because of their incredible
usage rates among students as well as their specific capabilities
that allow community learning and idea exchange.

Interactive learning modules developed by different corporate media

companies have become increasingly popular. This is especially relevant to
adult learners. Training agencies now offer their services online, harnessing
the flexibility, availability and convenience of the internet to their
users advantage. This can make it easier for adult learners to save time
by learning off-site (outside of the classroomat the office or at home).
These online learning modules are also helpful in providing value-added
services and equip professionals to work in a dynamic and
competitive environment. Moreover, interactive learning provides
solutions for evaluating and monitoring of the learners progress.

Interactive Learning Modules are designed not only for the technical and
management corporate trainee people but also for the people with
learning disabilities. With the advent of technology, physical barriers are
no longer a constraint for leading a normal life. Media technology can
make learning accessible for the people with disabilities. With elearning, supported by the web-based learning environments, people with
disabilities may engage in learning in the comfort of their own home
without having to contend with the difficulties of physical travel. This can
also reduce their dependency on disability access features at the learning
institute of their choice. Multi-sensory media experiences also help ADHD
(attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), visual or kinaesthetic learners
overcome difficulties learning in a traditional, audio-learning (teacher talk)
environment by allowing easy and repeated access to different types of
learning modules tailored to meet their needs.

The Mass Medias negative impacts on learning:

Critics say that the traditional media like television and the new media like
the Internet, have effects harmful to education by shaping the way
learners absorb information. These effects include a shortened attention
span and a lessened willingness to critically evaluate sources. Large
doses of media supposedly hamper development of the pre-frontal cortex
the area responsible for planning, organizing and sequencing behaviour for
self-control, moral judgment and attention.

In addition, because of the immediacy and large volumes of information,

students become mere decoders of information who have neither
the time nor the motivation to think beneath or beyond the
information they are spoon-fed with. The often unfiltered and
decontextualized cloud of information on the internet requires active
navigation and critical analysis by a discerning and mature audience. The
young are often ill-equipped to handle information that has not been
filtered or structured for them and this may be counter-productive if not
harmful.

Alongside long-held concerns over the high-risk of exposure to

pornography, youth have also been known to be influenced by harmful
subcultures through new media sources.

Because it was more difficult and costly to publish information in the past,
there was more quality control. Today, the new media technology makes it
very easy to publish online and although it is easier to get access to a
wider range of material, there is less quality control. Information sources
are less reliable and students who make use of the media to do research
have to be more discerning. Many believe that the young are ill-suited to
critically question the information they receive without proper guidance
and contextualisation.

Tech-savvy children today can be overly exposed to online information

from an early age, so much so that they are woefully underexposed to the
real world, with virtual information taking the place of real-life experiences.
As they do not have enough real-life responsibilities, they could end up
with a warped sense of reality or entitlement, with opinions formed
by what they see on Facebook or Youtube.

In addition, there is concern that schools are stressing technology and

information over social goals. Schools have traditionally been places
where students not only learn new information, but also learn to interact in
groups of their peers. Online education, especially courses that are
exclusively online, are not places where children can learn how to
behave in social situations.

B. MASS MEDIA AND VIOLENCE

Media
exaggeration
of
Violence
The media plays up the violence and terror because of the need for
increased viewership. By playing up violence and the atrocities caused,
peoples attention will be garnered and their interest aroused. It is partly for the
sake of viewership that violence is exaggerated in mass media. However, media
violence presents a picture significantly different from that of true violence and
context is often skewed. Mass media may mislead people with exaggerations
and distortions. Research indicates that media violence has become much
more graphic, much more sexual, and much more sadistic in various
media like films, television, video games, music, music videos, and websites.
Impact
of
exaggeration
of
violence
The selective presentation of sensational violence leads to a warped
world view. The viewers perception of the world is limited or distorted by
selective associations via news reports. This can encourage negative
attitudes towards certain countries, nationalities, races, religions and cultures.
It also creates a climate of fear and raises the possibility of an escalation
in violence as people feel a need to protect themselves and may carry weapons
or retaliate more violently than is necessary.
High
level
of
violence
in
the
mass
media
The media has also been accused of perpetuating violence through an increase
in violent content.

Impact of high levels of violence in the media

People who have been exposed to high levels of violence in the mass
media have been found to behave in an aggressive manner. Exposure to
high levels of violence is linked to increased heart rate, faster respiration
and higher blood pressure. This simulated fight-or-flight response
predisposes people to act aggressively in the real world.

This is more pertinent for children and youth who lack maturity and thus
are generally low in resilience to what they are exposed to. [See Victims /
Affected parties above] Information is easily available on prime time TV and
since one of the purposes of media is to make profits, media pander to the
desires of their paying audience by featuring shows that are well-received.
Furthermore, children today are usually left to their own devices to do
what they want without the supervision of their parents who are hardly at
home (corresponding to the prevalence of dual-income families). This
technologically-savvy and well-connected generation of children, in particular, do
not need adults to access information from the Internet and yet they have not
been developed in their maturity of thought to be more discerning with what
they watch. Hence, they are most susceptible to the effects of violence in mass
media.

People who have been exposed to high levels of violence for prolonged
periods may also be desensitised to violence because they have
become so used to it.

Desensitisation is evident in our daily lives. We see images of war-torn countries,

hear or read stories of terror and violence almost every day in the news such
that we rarely become shocked at what we see or hear. We have become
immune to such violence. This is of concern to us because young people who
grow up being exposed to such images and news may no longer see
violence as wrong and may come to accept it.

On the other hand, there are others who assert that media violence will
not lead to people becoming violent. It has been argued that people will
not commit a murder just because they have just watched a
murder flick. In addition, social scientists have been unable to
establish clearly that media violence causes real-life aggression.
By arguing otherwise, we are in fact overstating the power of the image
and understating the role of the parents.

It is important to note that media violence researchers do not claim

that media violence effects are the only or most important cause
of aggressive behaviour. Aggressive behaviour occurs because of a
combination of factors such as family upbringing, marital discord, singleparent status or divorce, low socio-economic status, maternal
psychological distress and the society which one lives on.

According to the Uses and Gratifications Theory, avid fans of media

violence are not influenced by the huge exposure of it. Instead, they are
already aggressive either by nature or by social and family influence, and
they are constantly seeking out for violent games and movies to
satisfy their needs for brutality and bloodshed.

Most players are guys seeking to find position and meaning in life, which
they find in these interactive video games that they engage in. Given the
interactivity that online games offers now with other real players makes
gaming a lot more appealing to those who are socially awkward or who
face problems in the real world.

C. MASS MEDIA
STEREOTYPES

AND

THE

CREATION

AND

PERPETUATION

OF

C.1. Age-related stereotypes

As the number and percentage of older persons in the world, especially the frail
and demented increase, the perception that they are a burden to their families
and society is more evident. The opinions younger people have of older
people and the relationships they share, as well as the views older
people have of themselves, are directly affected by how older people
are depicted on television, in the news media, in film, and in
advertising. Each plays a role in perpetuating ageism by venerating youth
and denying aging as a natural part of the life process, and media
managers increasingly seeking to satisfy the tastes of young people, whom they
consider to be the most important part of the public.

At best, older persons are portrayed as being sweet, childlike, peaceful,

comical, absentminded or befuddled. At worst, they are repulsive, feeble,
irrational or out of touch with reality. In 2005, the number of people aged
65 and older had risen to 12.7 percent of the population but this cohort is
represented in less than 2 percent of programmes on primetime television.

Another perspective that people consider for the elderly, is that of the
omniscient and wise. They are mostly shown as all-knowing and almost
unaffected by the situation that surrounds the main characters. However,
they are not the main characters, and they remain in the background (eg:
Harry Potters Dumbledore).

Impact on ageism:

As a major component of the mass media that influence mainstream

culture, advertising often mirrors contemporary life. People over 50 make
up the largest share of television audiences, spending 30 to 40 percent
more time watching than the rest of the population. That a fast-growing
number of older persons will be exposed to ageism across a
variety of media should be cause for concern in both a business
sense and in a wider societal one.

Portraying customers in a demeaning way may backfire, in that

diminishing the self-esteem of older people may eventually lead
them to make fewer purchases. Some marketing researchers concur
that when older people see nothing directed at them, they gradually lose
their sense of themselves as consumers, which dampens their consumer
spending.

Age discrimination clearly has an economic impact in terms of lost

productivity. Victims may be pressed to retire at the height of
their careers, when they know their jobs well and still have wisdom and
experience to contribute. They are replaced by a younger, less
experienced workforce whose output is lower in volume and quality. In
addition, the significant reduction in income that retirees face reduces
their consumption, along with the purchasing power of society as a whole,
and the nations tax base.

However, it is also unfair to put the blame entirely on the media because
characteristics of elderly projected on media can also originate from the
general perceptions of individuals, which are framed by their experiences
with the elderly. According to the Limited Effects Theory, the audience
seek information from various sources including the media and remember
such beliefs that they already have towards the elderly, hence reinforcing
their pre-existing opinions of them.

C.2. Racial stereotypes

Despite historic and continued efforts to overcome racial disparities within
societies, in todays culture, we are constantly bombarded with prejudicial and
discriminatory images and ideas. When turning on the news and glancing
through the pages of a local newspaper, ethnic minorities are the central focus
of crime features and are thus portrayed as the prime source of crime in our
nation. Similarly, victims of criminal acts who are of an ethnic minority are rarely
featured. Sadly, as a result, a faulty depiction of crime and offenders has
resulted which lends to the perpetuation of prejudicial beliefs in our country.

At the crux of this issue is the problem of racial profiling that exists
in various realms within our society. Racial profiling is, specifically, the use
of an individuals race or ethnicity by law enforcement personnel as a key
factor in deciding whether to engage in enforcement (e.g. make a traffic
stop or arrest). This is based on an unfair association between such
characteristics and the propensity to commit crime. In general, the term
may also refer to the general prejudicial associations unfairly linking
race/ethnicity to crime.

Impact of racial stereotypes:

Racial profiling is an apparent and problematic aspect of the media

today as it serves to further biases and stereotypes in society. This
can cause the users of media to assume that the images and facts

portrayed are representations of racial groups as a whole. The continued

barrage of these images by the media furthers this problem as it
further reinforces falsely constructed social realities.

The media constantly portrays racial minorities to be criminals. This

rather dramatic interpretation is absorbed by undiscerning members of
society, which then contributes to the creation of the false
conception that criminals are dominantly ethnic minorities.

C.3. Gender stereotypes

Gender stereotypes are beliefs held about characteristics, traits, and
activity-domains that are deemed appropriate for men and women.
Traditionally, typical characteristics for women are piety, submissiveness, and
domesticity, while authority, and social behaviour, are traits commonly held by
men. Such stereotypes construct a reality that articificially and unfairly restricts
the roles and behaviour of men and women, and shapes a system of recognition
and disapproval that marginalises people who behave outside of these perceived
norms.
Impact of gender stereotypes

The mass media can reinforce gender stereotypes. Gender is an

important way to understand the world. Ours is a highly gendered world
and children quickly learn gender-related knowledge. The mass media both
reflect and form the cultural stereotypes. Young children gain access to
cultural norms through these media sources, and particularly for very
young children, through storybooks (eg: Fairytales like Cinderella and Snow
White) and television (eg: The Simpsons). The social learning theory
advocates that individuals, especially children, imitate or copy behaviour
from personally observing others, the environment, and the mass media.

In order to garner consumers support, the mass media uses recognisable

models or stereotypes for the characters they are showing. By constantly
making use of gender stereotypes in different forms of mass media, these
stereotypes are actually constantly being reinforced and perpetuated.

One of the most serious consequences of the influence of stereotypes is

that as a member of a society, a person may actually accept its
beliefs about masculinity and femininity and incorporate those
beliefs as important elements in his or her own self-concept. If that
persons traits and characteristics fail to meet the social ideal, the result is
frequently low self-esteem and sometimes even depression. Italian fashion
has banned too-thin models as they have been proven to perpetuate a
false ideal of female beauty that has contributed to anorexia nervosa and
bulimia in young girls who worry about not being slim enough.

Benefits of mass media on gender stereotypes

The media has played an important role as we have gradually

moved away from restrictive gender stereotypes. Increasingly,
women are portrayed in a diversity of roles that reflect their
changing place in society.

Negative impacts of mass media on gender stereotypes

The media has long played a role in reinforcing and

communicating gender stereotypes. The male hero tends to be
physically strong, aggressive, assertive, takes the initiative, independent,
competitive and ambitious. TV and film heroes represent goodness, power,
control, confidence, competence and success. They are geared, in other
words, to succeed in a competitive economic system. There is no shortage
of aggressive male role-models in Westerns, war films and so on. In
television programmes: good women were presented as submissive,
sensitive and domesticated; bad women were rebellious, independent
and selfish. The dream-girl stereotype is gentle, demure, sensitive,
submissive, non-competitive, sweet- natured and dependent.

Children and youth who do not think critically about gender stereotypes
can be misinformed about how the world perceives them and what they
can (or should) grow up to be. Most of them begin accessing social
network sites during early adolescence a time when they also become
more conscious of their image and friendships. Through social and mobile
media, teens provide one another with instant and impactful
feedback on their appearance and self-expression, reinforcing their
beliefs of different gender roles and characteristics.

The portrayal of the gender in sport: Research has yielded a

substantial body of knowledge regarding the ways sport is presented in the
mass media. Several differences have been found in the representation
and portrayal of men and women athletes.

D. MASS MEDIA AND PERCEPTIONS OF THE IDEAL BODY IMAGE

Physical appearances of men

The medias image of the ideal man is a muscular strong man whom all
men should aspire to be like. The persuasiveness of the media has
convinced young men to believe in the notion that to be a real man you
have to project a strong, tough body image. The evidence of this is seen on
nearly every magazine, advertisements and sports page where the image
of the athletic male body rippling with muscles is found throughout.

Media-created images of muscle-bound men are not limited to sports

reports. The message to young people is clear: To be popular and
successful, you have to have a great body. Advertisements also portray an
abundance of scantily clad, muscle-bound, athletic-looking young men.

For decades, just as traditional advertising has sexually objectified women

and their bodies, todays marketing campaigns are objectifying men in the
same way. A 2002 study by the University of Wisconsin suggests that this
new focus on fit and muscled male bodies is causing men the same
anxiety and personal insecurity that women have felt for decades.

On the other spectrum are men who make conscious efforts to upkeep their
physical appearances. Men are increasingly, open to, or are already regularly
patronising beauticians, manicurists and enjoying spa treatments. These men,
newly termed metrosexuals create a market for male aesthetic grooming
services.
Physical appearances of women

Researchers report that womens magazines have ten and one-half times
more ads and articles promoting weight loss than mens magazines do,
and over three-quarters of the covers of womens magazines include at
least one message about how to change a womans bodily appearanceby
diet, exercise or cosmetic surgery.

Women in the mass media are often immaculately groomed,

beautiful, sexy and slim. These are the successful women who
are role models in which other women should look up to.

In TV sitcoms, thinness is constantly associated with other desirable

attributes such as wealth and desirability. Women in ads featuring
handbags, cosmetics, perfumes are model-like and near perfection.

In particular, women are constantly bombarded with images of what

they should aspire towards as they are usually the main victims
and target audience of such media portrayals: youth (no wrinkles),
perfection (no blemishes), good looks and sexual attractiveness. The
underlying message is that they must meet the cultural dictate of physical
perfection to be accepted by society.

Sadly, not everyone realizes that the image of the perfect women is a
computer-enhanced one. The unrealistic and unattainable image is
continuously hammered into the consciousness of countless girls,
adolescents and women, thus fuelling sales for dieting, cosmetic and
plastic surgery industries. It is estimated that the diet industry alone is
worth $100 billion (U.S.) a year.

Provocative images of womens partly clothed or naked bodies are also

especially prevalent in advertising. Women become sexual objects
when their bodies and their sexuality are linked to products that are
bought and sold.

Many media activists argue that producers should be called to account,

and that images of women should be forced to be more realistic. Some
producers have taken the lead.

Impact of mass media shaping our perception of beauty

The mass media promotes an unrealistic and unhealthy body image.

Overwhelming presence of media images of painfully thin women means
that real womens bodies have become invisible in the mass media. The
real tragedy is that many women internalize these stereotypes, and
judge themselves by the beauty industrys standards. Women learn
to compare themselves to other women, and to compete with them for
male attention.

Research indicates that exposure to images of thin, young, airbrushed female bodies is linked to depression, loss of self-esteem
and the development of unhealthy eating habits in women and
girls. What is perhaps most disturbing is the fact that media
images of female beauty are unattainable for all but a very small
number of women.

Mass media reinforce societal standards of beauty. Societys

perception of beauty is also moulded and reinforced by the mass media.
The massive amount of mass media portraying an ideal beauty causes
people to internalize the standard definition of beauty and they take
measures to attain the propagated ideal. This explains our fascination or
even obsession with image and fashion, especially of celebrities.

E. MASS MEDIA, ADVERTISING, AND CONSUMERISM

We live in a consumer culture, buying, using and discarding mass produced
items as we go about our daily lives. We purchase because the items are
necessary for survival. We also buy to satisfy the not-so-practical desire to
possess that exclusive something.
In todays age of new media, the opportunities for consumerism and
excess are made much more readily available than ever.
There is no dispute over the power of advertising to inform consumers of
products available. Consumers can use the information to compare between like
products and get the best deal for themselves. Websites such as shopbot.com,
nextag.com or pricegrabber.com help consumers to compare prices from a range
of websites and merchants. However, advertising creates the impression
that the consumer is inadequately prepared to handle life and is in dire
need of an arsenal of products and services to help him or her survive
the trauma of navigating modern life.

( Advertising is everywhere in mass media. Watch the trailer to Morgan

Spurlocks Greatest Movie Ever Sold, and then listen to him talk about how
advertising uses mass media to fuel consumerism. )
While there is no denying the hold advertising exerts over our consumer habits,
we should also consider how ideas and images propagated by the mass media
make it easy for us to buy into the consumer culture.
It is important to note that our economic and social values and ideas make us
susceptible to the persuasion of advertisements.
Impact on materialism and consumption
Mass media could have an adverse effect on peoples value system because

it seeks to create needs which may not be necessary rather than

merely showing how a product or service fulfills peoples needs. People
may be influenced to think that they need something when in fact, they
can do without it.

it surrounds consumers with images of good life and suggests the

acquisition of material possessions leads to contentment when in
reality, other factors are necessary to achieve happiness. People may get
too caught up in acquiring material possessions that they forget about
other important factors in achieving happiness.

it suggests material possessions are symbols of status, success,

and accomplishment and will lead to greater social acceptance
and popularity.

Censorship and the ideology supporting it go back to ancient times. Although

censorship is viewed as the restriction of personal liberty, every society has had
customs, taboos, or laws by which speech, play, dress, religious observance, and
sexual expression were regulated.
1. DEFINITION OF CENSORSHIP
The official prohibition or restriction of any type of expression believed
to threaten the political, social, or moral order. It may be imposed by
governmental authority, local or national, by a religious body, or occasionally by
a powerful private group, on mails, speech, the press, the theatre, dance, art,
literature, photography, the cinema, radio, television, or computer networks.
Censorship may be either preventive or punitive, according to whether it is
exercised before or after the expression has been made public.

2. EXAMPLES OF CENSORSHIP
Motion pictures, radio programmes, advertisements, printed materials, plays,
dramas and the Internet are censored because their contents are thought to be
unacceptable on the grounds that they violate religious teachings, contain
scenes of excessive violence, vulgarism, explicit sex scenes and acts of
indecency which are deemed to be immoral and exert negative influences over
the readers, viewers or listeners.
Some forms of censorship are Omission, Removal, Whitewashing, Restriction,
Bans and Cuts, Use of Law and Order or Government/organisation authority.
3. ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST CENSORSHIP
FOR
1. Political

Certain sensitive material which

will hurt internal security and
benefit potential aggressors if
published, is usually censored.

Examples of censored material

include a states build-up of
weapons and a governments
plans with regard to a war.

In times of war, censorship

should be stricter than before
because the state not only
wants to prevent the enemy
from getting information on
military value, it also wants to
sustain the morale of its people.

The World War II catchphrase

Loose lips sink ships (coined
by the US Office of War
Information) was used as a
common justification to exercise
official wartime censorship and
encourage individual restraint
when
sharing
potentially
sensitive information.
The government does not want
the people to lose confidence in
them in the event of political
unrest. Otherwise, the people

AGAINST
1. Political

The mass media should be given

the liberty and responsibility to
function freely in order to provide
free access to information and
ideas to the public. The people
have the right to know what the
government is doing so that they
can make the right choice when
electing a new leader for the
country. In this way, the interests
of the country will be protected.

By keeping the people informed

about current affairs, they would
be mentally prepared for any
major disturbances in the country.

China has often been criticised for

her suppression of food and
health
scandals
(eg.
SARS,
tainted milk) which prevented
swift action from being taken to
contain the problem.

Censorship
has
often
been
abused by repressive regimes,
which effectively decides what
the population processes by
restricting
information,
thus
leading to a society that is
ignorant

would most probably leave the

country
and
thus
cause
economic
instability,
unemployment problems and a
drop in foreign investments.

2. Moral

The
prevalence
of
certain
questionable
material
may
erode the moral fabric of society
as such material affects the
basic moral values of people.
For
instance,
pornography
perverts young, impressionable
minds, encourages promiscuity
and undermines the general
morality of the public.

Pornographic items are banned

from theatres, book stores and
video shops because they are
not only without any literary or
social value, but are dangerous
in their portrayal of women as
sexual items or as victims of
sexual violence.

Potential
that
violence
on
screen increases the likelihood
of a rise in the number of
murder
cases,
rapes
and
assaults (due to imitation)

In the movie, The Fight Club,

several scenes were partly
snipped off due to its graphic

North Korea, the most censored

country in the world (according to
Committee to Protect Journalists)
has no independent journalists,
and all radio and television
receivers sold in the country are
locked to government-specified
frequencies. For many North
Koreans, the lies that the
government presents as truth are
considered the truth because the
people have no alternative source
of information with which to
compare facts or allegations of
facts.

2. Moral

Audiences
today
are
more
discerning (more media-literate
and informed) and not likely to be
corrupted by access to such
materials.

Violence on the screen does not

make us more violent. It only
reflects our natural inborn violent
impulses.

depiction of violence.

3. Religious

It is necessary to censor certain

religion-sensitive material to
maintain the stability of a
certain belief. In other words,
this is done to avoid the
distortion of orthodox religious
beliefs.
In
December
2008,
a
Singaporean
couple
was
charged
with
sedition
for
distributing the Chick tracts The
Little Bride and Who Is Allah?,
said to to promote feelings of
ill-will and hostility between
Christians
and
Muslims
in
Singapore.

4. Racial Disharmony

Racially insensitive material or

incendiary remarks can create
misgivings, misunderstandings
and disharmony among the
various racial and religious
groups, resulting in civil unrest
and disorder.
Films or publications that insult
or ridicule a particular race or
suggest racial superiority should
be censored.

There is also the danger that

caricature
and
stereotypes
might
propagate
prejudiced
views and incite discriminatory
acts.

The controversies behind the

3. Religious

The public should make an

informed choice where religion is
concerned so as to make the right
decision in choice of religion.

Censorship on religious grounds

undermines
education
since
articles and printed materials
which
contain
religious
discussions are banned, thus
depriving people from gaining
knowledge of the contents.

4. Individuality and Creativity

Censorship stifles creativity and it

might indirectly curb a nations
progress as well.

Public taste should not be

dictated. The individual can
practise
self-censorship
and
disregard items that hurt his
sensibilities.

Censorship violates humanitys

natural autonomy in that it denies
an individual an uninfluenced
choice in formulating his or her
beliefs.

Danish
cartoons
depicting
Prophet Muhammad and the
Dutch film Fitna

5. Depriving information

Censorship
is
undesirable
because it denies people of
information.
New,
innovative
ideas are often difficult to
comprehend, and old convictions
are hard to break down. This is
why the truth can sometimes
seem impossible, absurd, or just
plain false.

The content of school textbooks is

often an issue of debate since
textbooks target audience are
young
people.
The
term
whitewashing is used to refer to
the selective removal of critical or
damaging evidence or comments.
The reporting of military atrocities
in
history
is
extremely
controversial, as in the case of
the Japanese atrocities in Asia
and
The
Holocaust.
The
representation of every societys
flaws or misconduct is typically
downplayed in favor of a more
nationalist, favorable or patriotic
view.

4. CENSORSHIP IN CYBERSPACE
In the information age, the Internet is one of the most convenient ways to access
a broad range of information. The World Wide Web is also a recreational and
commercial hub but it unfortunately contains both savoury and unsavoury
contents (websites on pornography, hate speech, cult groups, terrorist
propaganda etc).
The popularity and dominance of the Internet has grown with the rise of new
media and netizens. Online censorship is the regulation of internet

content; this is referred to as censorship as certain content becomes prohibited.

Internet censorship is the control or suppression of the publishing of, or access to
information on the Internet. It may be carried out by governments or by private
organizations at the behest of government, regulators, or on their own initiative.
Individuals and organizations may engage in self-censorship for moral, religious,
or business reasons, to conform to societal norms, due to intimidation, or out of
fear of legal or other consequences.
Numerous governments around the world have been addressing the problems of
material on the Internet that are illegal under their offline laws, and also that
considered harmful or otherwise unsuitable for minors.
Government policies concerning censorship of the Internet may be
broadly grouped into four categories:

Government policies to encourage Internet industry self-regulation and

end-user voluntary use of filtering/blocking technologies.

Criminal law penalties (fines or jail terms) applicable to content

providers who make content unsuitable for minors available online.

Government mandated blocking of access to content deemed

unsuitable for adults.

Government prohibition of public access to the Internet.

In the many countries that have far more restrictive Internet censorship laws, the
governmental focus appears to be on prohibiting and/or restricting politically
sensitive speech, criticism of the government, etc.

5. CENSORSHIP IN SINGAPORE A CASE STUDY

Censorship content in Singapore is regulated by the Media Development
Authority of Singapore (MDA), formed in 2003, which is a merger of the
Singapore Broadcasting Authority, the Films and Publication Department and the
Singapore Film Censors. It is under the auspices of the Ministry of Information,
Communication and the Arts (MICA).
The MDA applies the following principles in the exercise of its functions:

Different approaches are applied to different mediums as the

impact differs with each medium

More attention is paid to materials targeted at the young

Materials for public display are subjected to more stringent

regulation because of the sensitivity of the materials and the possibility
that they might be viewed by unwilling viewers

Due consideration is given to the artistic or educational merits of a

film or publication

Citizen advisory groups are invited to give input where

controversial materials are involved, to reflect public involvement in
the regulation process.

The Censorship Review Committee meets every ten years to review and update
censorship objectives and principles to meet the long-term interests of our
society.
The evolution of Singapores Media Policy
The media landscape is complex and has to be managed to suit the uniqueness
of Singapores culture. Censorship in Singapore is justified on historical and
socio-political grounds. Both the government and the people want it, favouring
caution and prevention over liberalism. Media policies, guided by rules and
regulations, are determined by political experiences as well as several
other factors.
Some of these factors are:
1. Singapores multiracialism Out of Boundary markers need to be
determined to ensure that all are sensitive to each others race, language
and religion. There have been incidents in the past where uninhibited and
erroneous media reports have caused racial riots and the shedding of
blood: the 1950 Maria Hertogh riots, the 1964 riots during Prophet
Muhammads birthday procession and the 1969 spillover riot from Malaysia
1. A primarily conservative society In relaxing censorship policies, the
Government needs to take into account the concerns and values of the
majority of Singaporeans. With a largely conservative populace, it is the
prerogative of the government to balance between providing greater space
for free expression and the values upheld by the majority.
Censorship and regulation for different forms of mass media in
Singapore
i) Films and Videos: The importing, making, distributing or exhibiting of films in
Singapore is governed by the Films Act of 1981. Released films are presented to
the Board of Film Censors which classifies the films under different ratings for
different groups of audiences:

G (General) everyone

PG (Parental guidance) everyone, advisable with an accompanying adult

NC16 (not for children under 16) for above 16s, contains partial nudity
and little violence

M18 (mature 18) for above 18s, contains partial nudity(frontal), moderate
violence and may contain religious issues

R21 (restricted 21) for above 21s, contains nudity (sex scenes), violence,
and may contain religious issues

Banned contains issues that cause controversy in Singapore (any outright

denigration of race or religion, matters that threaten national interest, or
depictions of hardcore pornographic, offensive or deviant sexual activities
are banned)

ii) Video Games: An official video games classification system came in effect on
28 April 2008. Under the system, video games that contain nudity, coarse
language, drug use and violence, will be given a rating sticker similar to those
found on video media in Singapore with either one of the two ratings:

Mature 18 (M18) rating contains mature themes, realistic depictions of

violence and drug use, nudity and frequent use of strong coarse language.

Age Advisory rating recommended to those aged 16 years and above,

containing moderate violence, portrayal of implied sexual activity, nudity
without details, coarse language and depiction of illegal drug use.

Games that do not fall into any of these categories and are approved for general
consumption do not require these stickers and games containing offensive
material (such as racial or religious denigration) are still banned.
iii) Party Political Films: The controversial Section 33 of the Films Act bans the
making, distribution and exhibition of party political films. It further defines a
party political film as any film or video

which is an advertisement made by or on behalf of any political party in

Singapore or any body whose objects relate wholly or mainly to politics in
Singapore, or any branch of such party or body; or

which is made by any person and directed towards any political end in
Singapore

In 2008, in a move to liberalise the media, the government announced the ban
on party political films to be eased party political films will be allowed, but with
some safeguards. Documentaries, factual footage and recordings of live events
and biographies are allowed. Political commercials, footage distorted to give a
slanted impression are not. In the next election, political podcasts and vodcasts

will be allowed as part of the campaigning efforts, but the extent to which this
will be free from monitoring or censorship has yet to be determined.
iv) Performing arts: The scripts of all plays to be performed in Singapore must
be vetted in advance by the MDA, which has the right to ban any script it views
as contrary to the public interest, with no right of appeal.
v) Local Press & Foreign publications: All local daily newspapers, including
the flagship newspaper Straits Times, are printed by Singapore Press Holdings,
whose management shareholders are appointed by the government in
accordance with the Newspaper and Printing Presses Act of 1974. While current
shareholding structure does not imply direct governmental control on media
content, their active presence tends to promote some degree of self-censorship
amongst journalists.
Foreign publications that carry articles the government considers slanderous,
including The Economist and the Far Eastern Economic Review, have been
subjected to defamation suits and/or had their circulations gazetted
(restricted).
Pornographic material is strictly prohibited in Singapore; this encompasses
magazines such as Playboy or Penthouse. However, magazines which are
deemed to contain mature content such as Cosmopolitan Magazine are free to
be distributed at all stores with a Parental Warning/not suitable for the young
label on its cover.
vi) Internet: Internet services provided by the three major ISPs are subject to
regulation by the MDA, which blocks a number of websites (approximately 100)
containing mass impact objectionable material, such as terrorism/extremism
and pornography.
Government agencies have been known to use or threaten to use litigation
(laws) against bloggers and other Internet content providers.
CASE STUDIES
MH17 dominates newspaper front pages around world, but not in
Russia (Shaun Walker in Kiev, The Guardian, Friday 18 July 2014)
State-run Rossiyskaya Gazeta leads with story about Russians eating habits,
relegating plane crash to bottom of page.
The downing of MH17 over eastern Ukraine was the main story on the front
pages of most newspapers around the world on Friday. Not so in Russia, where
the state-run Rossiyskaya Gazeta led with a story about the eating habits of
Russians, relegating the 298 deaths on board MH17 to the bottom of the front
page.

Other Russian newspapers led with stories about US sanctions on Russia,

including the respected Vedomosti, in what was either a strange editorial
decision or a conscious plan to play down an attack that much of the world was
already linking to Russia.
State television reported the incident, but claimed Ukrainian army missiles shot
down the plane. On Friday, Channel One said the Russian defence ministry had
spotted missile radar activity in Ukraine on Thursday. More outlandish theories,
such as the idea that the planes red-white-blue colouring had meant that the
Ukrainians mistook it for Vladimir Putins presidential jet and thus shot it out of
the sky, were jettisoned after an initial airing.
The Russian twittersphere was awash with conspiracy theories about Ukrainian
or even US involvement in the downing of the plane. The boss of the Kremlins
English-language television channel, Russia Today, wrote on Twitter that she
despaired of people jumping to conclusions about what had happened, shortly
after retweeting an opinion saying that Ukrainian freaks were behind the
attack but would attempt to blame pro-Russian rebels.
Russian Newspaper Issues Front-Page Apology for Flight MH17 (Polly
Mosendz, The Wire, July 25 2014)
Left-leaning Russian publication Novaya Gazeta Russia (New Gazette Russia)
made it very clear how they felt about Russias involvement in the MH17
disaster. The front page of todays paper boasted the bold headline: Forgive Us,
Netherlands in Dutch, and in smaller letters underneath the same message in
Russian.

The story received a four-page spread inside the paper. On the left side of this
page, the headline reads They thought they were dolls, and the description of
the photograph, From the site of the Boeing fall. Specifically, it states
fall, rather than crash or shooting. The quote highlighted at the bottom
comes from a witness to the MH17 crash, Theyre telling us that there is no war.
But what is this? People thought they were dolls and it was babies! On the
opposite side of the page, Holland met the deceased in silence, with the
photography description as, Netherlands C-130 and Australian C-17 delivered
from Ukraine the first forty coffins with remains of the victims of crash Malaysia
Airlines. In this case, Novaya Gazeta more boldly calls it a crash,
though shooting still does not appear in any headlines.

MH17: Russians fed steady diet of conspiracy theories about crash

(Laura Mills, The Associated Press, 22 July 2014)
Russians are getting plenty of explanations for downing of Malaysia Airlines
Flight 17. None admits possibility that Russia may bear responsibility.

Coverage of the downed Malaysia Airlines flight on the front pages of various
weekend newspapers in Russia. News consumers in Russia are being given
plenty of explanations for what happened to the plane, and all point the finger at
Ukraine.
MOSCOWAn assassination attempt against Russian President Vladimir Putin. A
desperate ploy to draw the West into the battle for Ukraines east. A botched
mission to commit mass murder against Russian citizens.
Russian news consumers are getting plenty of explanations for the downing
of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, which killed 298 people. While they vary wildly in
content, all point the finger at Ukraine. None admits the possibility that Russia
may bear responsibility.
MH 17: DUTCH NEWS
Malaysia Airlines MH17 crash: Dutch newspapers respond with anger
and despair as wait for return of bodies continues (Adam Withnall, The
Independent, 21 July 2014)
The Netherlands biggest newspaper declared Ukrainian separatists murderers
and there were plenty of recriminations and accusations across the weekends
papers.
Almost four days on from the deaths of 192 Dutch nationals in the shooting down
of Malaysia Airlines flight MH17, the reaction from newspapers in the
Netherlands has shifted from shock and speechlessness to outright anger.
It emerged this morning that Russia-backed separatists in eastern Ukraine have
blocked the passage of a train carrying the bodies of hundreds of victims in
refrigerated carriages.
And the Dutch foreign minister, Frans Timmermans, has told Ukraines president
that his country was furious at other reports of bodies being dragged around
and the site not treated properly in Grabovo, Donetsk.
As the home country for the majority of those killed on board the flight
scheduled from Amsterdam to Kuala Lumpur last Thursday, investigators from
the Netherlands have been given access to examine the bodies being kept on
the train in the rebel-held town of Torez.
An image of the train occupied the front page of Dutch newspapers today, as it
became a symbol for the anger and frustration felt towards the separatists
accused of shooting MH17 out of the sky. Malaysia Airlines MH17 crash: Dutch
newspapers respond with anger and despair as wait for return of bodies
continues.

Many commented over the weekend on the poignant move by the

daily nrc.next to leave the front page of its weekend entirely blank out of respect
for those killed.
Today, its front page ran with a picture of the train and the headline: Wanneer
komen ze naar huis? When are they coming home?
On Saturday it carried a picture of separatist fighters guarding the crash site
under the one-word headline Moordenaars Murderers.

Flight MH17 shot down in Ukraine: how newspaper front pages

recorded disaster (18 July 2014)
The world has reacted with shock and anger to the shooting down of Malaysia
Airlines flight MH17 over Ukraine.
While European and Malaysian papers mostly focused on the loss of lives, others
did not hold back in pointing the finger at who they thought was responsible for
the disaster.
The Netherlands had 154 citizens on board the plane, which took off from
Amsterdam. The countrys daily paper De Telegraaf declared Terrorist attack
across its front page, with a picture of the devastation on the ground.
Voorpagina van morgen. pic.twitter.com/dqD46KmPX6
Esther Wemmers (@TeleEsther) July 17, 2014
The Sun in London took no time in declaring who it thought was to blame, with
the headline Putins missile over a picture of the wreckage.
Tomorrows front page: At least 6 Brits dead after flight #MH17 is shot out of the
sky pic.twitter.com/fUSYbCjlVK
The Sun (@TheSunNewspaper) July 17, 2014

Initial reports said 295 passengers and crew were on board the plane. Malaysia
Airlines then updated the figures to 283 passengers and 15 crew.
Also in Britain, the Daily Mail declared Therell be hell to pay.
And the Daily Mirror reported Slaughter at 33,000 feet a similar line to The
Guardians Murder in the sky.
In Malaysia, The Star reported MH17 down: 295 feared dead in crash.
Dutch paper NRC Next took the most sombre tone a stark front-page

photograph, accompanied by only a few words, to symbolise the loss of 298

lives.

CASE STUDY 2 MEDIA BIAS

Gaza through the distorted lens of French media (Ali Saad, Al Jazeera)
This article is based on the opinion of a media sociologist and how he views
French reporting of the Gaza conflict as bias towards the Israelis. He forces us to
question and re-look journalists code of ethics in their news reporting.
The publics right to access comprehensive, free, independent and pluralistic
information must guide the journalist while performing his/her mission. This
responsibility vis-a-vis the citizen takes precedence over any other. This ethos,
according to the French Journalists Syndicates Code of Ethics, should act as the
guiding principles for French journalists in their endeavour to research, write and
comment on current affairs.
Recently, however, French journalists commitment to this code of ethics has
been questioned in light of their coverage of the ongoing Israeli onslaught on the
Palestinians in Gaza.
An emphatic characteristic of French mainstream coverage of this episode of the
Israeli-Palestinian conflict is its persistent attempt to constantly reframe or
redefine the very nature of the conflict by creating the perception of balance of
power between the Israeli and Palestinian forces, when such does not exist in
reality. This persistence results in the production of biased information and
reporting which misrepresents the situation.
Since the beginning of the Israeli onslaught, more than 1,400 Palestinian civilians
(including over 200 children) have been killed, thousands more wounded and
thousands of civilian buildings destroyed by Israeli bombardment. On the Israeli
side there have been three civilian deaths and 64 soldiers killed.
Nonetheless, the discourse permeating French media tends to treat both sides of
the conflict equally: Israel, which has one of the most powerful armies and one of
the strongest economies in the world and which enjoys western backing; and
Gaza, which obviously has no army or sustainable economy and has been
enduring a severe blockade for over seven years.

Accordingly, the Israeli military onslaught on Palestinians in Gaza is mostly

framed as a war or conflict between Israel and Gaza, or between Israel and
Hamas, as reflected in several newspapers headlines such as Le
Monde,Liberation, Le Figaro and Le Point. And at times, this offensive is
reduced to a duality between Hamas and the Israeli prime minister, as it was
summerised by the Nouvel Observateur magazine, when it posed the
question: How could Hamas get out of this conflict while they are trapped by
their obsession to finish off the Israeli prime minister.
There are also constant attempts to sway public opinion in order to place
emphasis on the Palestinians responsibility for triggering the Israeli onslaught
in the first place, and for causing the Palestinian peoples suffering. For example,
on the third day of the Israeli offensive, in an interview on France3 channel,
Leila Shahid, Ambassador of Palestine to the European Union, was talking about
the killing of 80 Palestinian civilians by Israeli bombing, when the host
interrupted to say: Why dont you ask Hamas to stop firing rockets on Israel?
Similarly, the magazine Marianne ran a story with the title: Where is Hamas
taking the Palestinians?
This superficial assumption resurfaced again when Palestinian resistance factions
rejected the inadequate ceasefire proposed by Egypt. French media emphasised
the rejection and again accused the Palestinian resistance of prolonging the
conflict; Israel was framed as an icon of pacifism for accepting and no questions
were asked about the nature of the ceasefire, the reason behind Israels quick
acceptance while none of its military objectives had been achieved, and its
relationship with the Egyptian regime. Such a superficial approach belies a
profound lack of analytical insight and belittles peoples intelligence.
Mainstream media has also systematically described Israeli bombing, destructive
and deadly as it is, as a response to the Palestinian resistances rockets,
thus propelling Israels self-defence narrative. While Palestinian rockets are
counted daily, the number of raids and missiles fired from Israeli planes on the
Palestinian population is rarely mentioned.
Most French mainstream media have also used ambiguous language to create a
false parity between the devastation and deaths suffered on the Palestinian side
and the limited damage inflicted on the Israeli side.Le Journal Du
Dimanche, for example, ran a story on the fourth day of the Israeli assault, with

a title Israel-Hamas more than 100 deaths in 4 days, thus conveniently

masking the Palestinian death toll.
France2 TV channel dedicated plenty of airtime to explain in detail the daily life
of an Israeli family, showing a father carrying his little girl who was frightened by
the noise of a rocket as well as scenes of the damage caused by the rocket.
There was no report on what life is like for Palestinians under Israeli bombing.
The following day, that same channel aired similar images of an Israeli woman
carrying a baby and describing her fear and anxiety under the daily rocket fire.
The same report purported to show the Palestinian side, where instead of
documenting the extent of destruction and death, the camera went around a
Palestinian house which was still intact, as a Palestinian father described how his
family took cover from Israeli bombing!
And when some TV channels happen to show the losses on the Palestinian side,
it is always followed by a detailed explanation parroting the Israeli armys
justifications that the onslaught only aims to target Hamas fighters and the
tunnels threatening Israels security. Rarely, however, are there images reflecting
the enormity of the Palestinian catastrophe. Thus, when on July 19, a French TV
report showed footage from a Gaza hospital where many injured and dead were
brought in, it was followed by another one which detailed Israeli army
operations, focusing on Palestinian fighters using tunnels to get into Israelicontrolled territory.
Thus while viewers are reminded that Israel has the right to defend itself, there
is no mention of Palestinians having that same right, for their fighters are
presented as terrorists. The Israeli armys targeting of Palestinian civilians is not
questioned and there is no discussion of the motives of the Palestinian
Resistance.
This apparent willingness of French mainstream media to omit the real causes of
the conflict and to mislead the public about the obvious imbalance of power on
the ground amounts to flagrant misinformation, and at times even to fragrant
lies. Therefore, the medias purported neutrality in covering the IsraeliPalestinian conflict fails to show the reality on the ground: Palestinian suffering
caused by Israeli bombardment, blockade, occupation, and apartheid.
Few French journalists are ready to challenge this dominant pro-Israeli (to say
the least) narrative and abide by the spirit of the journalistic code of ethics by

working to provide objective information and analysis of the situation in Gaza

and Palestine as a whole.
A MintPress Analysis Of The Biases In Reporting On Gaza
This article analyses biases in the reporting of the Israel-Palestinian conflict. It
outlines how this awareness of media bias towards Israel in the reporting of the
conflict has created pressure that resulted in a shift in bias towards the
Palestinians. This shows the influence of social media and how the function of
media has changed because of the two way relationship between news reporters
and netizens.
On Monday, an MSNBC contributor took the unusual step of publicly decrying
MSNBCs and the American medias coverage of the Israel-Hamas conflict.
During an interview on Ronan Farrow Daily, Rula Jebreal, a Palestinian
journalist, denounced the preferable treatment Israel gets in news coverage,
attributing such treatment to the pro-Israel lobby.
Because of AIPAC [the American Israel Public Affairs Committee], and because
of the money behind it, and because of Sheldon Adelson, and because of all of us
in the media. We are ridiculous. We are disgustingly biased when it comes to this
issue, said Jebreal.
Jebreal pointed out that pro-Israel voices vastly outnumber pro-Palestine voices
in the media and that NBCs removal of correspondent Ayman Mohyeldin a
move many have speculated was due to his public pro-Palestinian stance,
though he was later restored to his position due to social media pressure
suggests an unnatural bias in the way the media reports from the Middle East.
Since Jebreal criticized MSNBC for its pro-Israel bias, she has claimed that her TV
appearances have been cancelled.
Increasingly, coverage of Operation Protective Edge Israels invasion of the
Gaza Strip following a buildup of tensions in the aftermath of the alleged Hamas
kidnapping and murder of three Israeli teenagers, which has, to date, resulted in
over 600 Palestinians killed and some 4,000 wounded, per the Gaza Health
Ministry has been slanted either toward Israel or toward Palestine.
For example, coverage of the Israeli Defense Forces Saturday raid on the Gaza
City neighborhood of Shuja-iyya, in which 66 Palestinian civilians were killed in a
single hour, has termed the assault a massacre, adding an emotional weight to
the story that may obscure or distort the actual reporting.
Typically, American media has taken a demonstrable pro-Israel stance in the
coverage of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. For example, Fairness and Accuracy in
Reporting, a news industry watchdog, found that during PBS NewsHours
coverage of the conflict in 2013, the program overwhelmingly favored Israel.
This is backed by a 2002 study that found that ABC, CBS and NBC were 79
percent likely to describe Israels role in the conflict as defensive and Palestines
role as aggressive.

Shifting biases
This time around, however, the bias seems to be tilting toward the Palestinian
side of the story. Reports of the lopsided casualties lists lists that show only
150 Israeli losses, compared to Palestinian fatalities and injuries that number in
the thousands have led many to look at Israel with a critical eye, which, in
turn, has prompted many Israelis to feel that an emotional bias is forming
against Israel and Israelis. This, however, does not dismiss the fact that many
American Zionist Christians and Zionist Jews bear a personal animosity toward
Palestine that is, in part, rooted in both political and religious ideology. This is
creating a scenario in which many understandings about what is currently
happening in Gaza do not necessarily correlate with the unbiased reporting of
actual events.
There is a subtle shift occurring in media coverage on issues regarding the
Israeli-Palestinian conflict, but there is still work to be done to balance out
reporting, Marc Sabbagh, communications and policy associate with the Arab
American Institute, a Washington, D.C.-based nonprofit, told MintPress News.
Technology and online activism are helping to amplify voices on both sides of
the conflict in good ways and bad ways and are leveling the playing field
when it comes to depicting the on-the-ground realities.
Still, the withdrawal of journalists in the past few days from major news outlets
and the fine-line journalism in papers like The New York Times which had a
piece detailing many changes and revisions made in their coverage on the issue
due to public pressure show that there is still bias or even an uncertainty in
how to cover the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the current crisis in Gaza.
The role of bias in Israeli-American relations
In large part, Israels national security depends on the United States opinion of
the country. As a veto-carrying member of the United Nations Security Council
and NATO, the U.S. has effectively blocked every international measure to punish
or sanction Israel, despite the fact that Israel is in abeyance of international law
for its illegal occupation of the Gaza Strip, Golan Heights and the West Bank.
Additionally, despite the fact the International Court of Justice, the U.N. General
Assembly and even the High Court of Justice in Israel are all calling Israels
presence in the occupied Palestinian territories a belligerent act of occupation,
the U.S.s refusal to permit any punitive actions against Israel has allowed Israel
to operate as it would, despite international objections.
The U.S.s willingness to shelter Israel comes mostly from the political sway the
fundamentalist Zionist Christian community holds in the political dialogue in
America. Fundamentalist Christians represent the largest lobbying and the
largest fundraising population toward pro-Israel causes and candidates, and
according to the groups teachings, a Jewish-controlled Israel is a prerequisite for
the Apocalypse, which would herald the second coming of Christ.

This has helped to form a hardened view of the Palestinians less as humans
and more as faceless belligerents in the imaginations of many, particularly
among the political right.
In regards to Israels justification for entering Gaza, Edward Hudgins, director of
advocacy and a senior scholar at The Atlas Society, an Objectivist advocacy
group based in Washington, D.C., told MintPress, Hamas, elected by the people
of Gaza, has made the destruction of Israel and the murder of Jews job number
one.
After Israel pulled out of Gaza in 2005, Hamas did not build schools and train its
children in the enterprises of peace and prosperity. Rather, it built military units
and trained its children as suicide bombers; indeed, it celebrates and honors
those who kill themselves in the process of killing Jewish children. It did not build
businesses and promote prosperity. Rather, it built tunnels to infiltrate Israel, and
smuggled in rockets and mortars to fire at its neighbor.
It intentionally places its weapons near civilian housing, schools, and hospitals,
using its own children as human shields, so that counterattacks will produce
corpses to elicit sympathy among those in the West nave or blind enough to
ignore the full context of the conflict.
Questioning common perceptions
In recent years, however, the lack of empathy the Israelis have shown in dealing
with the Palestinians and the self-inflicted roadblocks and requirements the
Israeli government has placed on peaceful co-existence with Palestine have led
many to forget the image of Israel standing alone against the rest of the Middle
East.
There is a viewing and reading audience that came into consciousness with the
Israel of 2002, 2006, 2008-9, 2012 and now 2014, and not 1948,1967,1973
etc., wrote Yousef Munayyer, a Palestinian political analyst, to Politico via chat.
It is a lot harder to sell the image of Israel as a David facing a Goliath when
Israel is using F-16s against a largely civilian population and not columns of
tanks.
While this awareness in no way weakens or even deflects the religious
motivations of defending Israel, it does make blind allegiance to the Israeli cause
without consideration of the Palestinian side of the story a dicier proposition. For
example, President Barack Obamas declaration that Israel had the right to
defend itself following the recent buildup of tensions related to the murder of the
Israeli teenagers in Gaza has been repeatedly challenged in light of Israels
heavy-handed response. The presidents remarks, meanwhile, have failed to
address the right to self-defense for Palestinians or Hamas.
The disproportionate response through a ground invasion and ongoing attacks
in the weeks following the murder of the three Israeli teenagers weakens the
Israeli governments argument that this military response and ground invasion is

solely a matter of self-defense, Sabbagh, of the Arab American Institute, noted.

The reason it is accepted at face value is the United States consistent support
for this position by officials like President Obama and Secretary Kerry. Any
pinpoint operation supposed to take place has undoubtedly spiraled out of
control.
The rarity of the truth
Lost in this conversation, however, may be the actual truth about what is
happening in Gaza. In this tug-of-war between high emotions on both sides of
the issue, unbiased, factual reporting has all but been drowned out. With most
Americans having already made up their minds about the Gaza invasion and the
Israeli-Palestinian conflict, in general, the incentive for major news media outlets
to report in detail on the situation is significantly weaker than the urge to simply
reflecting the sensationalism of the situation.
If one is to understand what is really happening in Gaza, though, separation from
the bias and spin that has traditionally dominated coverage of this issue is
needed. In todays media market, such an approach to reporting about the
Middle East is growing rarer by the day.
I dont want people to support Israel just because thats what America has
always done, Sahar Zaytoun, an Israeli-American contractor in Los Angeles, told
the Christian Science Monitor, adding, I want them to support Israel because
they actually understand what is really going on in that country and agree with
what we need to do.
Whats the use of the word balance in such an asymmetric war?
This article outlines the recent criticism of media bias in BBCs news reporting of
the Gaza conflict. The author purports that rather than debate over whose side
BBC is taking, the main issue should be about contextualising the issue by giving
readers an understanding of the historical and social context of the two
countries and their long-standing conflict.
The war raging in Gaza is the third in six years. War is probably the wrong word
to describe the confrontation between Israel and Hamas, the Islamic Resistance
Movement that rules the Gaza Strip, given the huge asymmetry of power
between them. Nor does asymmetric warfare adequately convey the full
measure of inequality between the two sides.
The biblical image of David and Goliath comes to mind, except that the roles
have been reversed: a tiny and vulnerable Palestinian David faces a massively
armed and overbearing Israeli Goliath. It is this asymmetry that makes the
notion of balance problematic.
Invariably, the allegations of bias in the BBCs coverage come from both the
supporters of Israel and of the Palestinians. Listeners and viewers have

complained in equal numbers that the corporations coverage was biased either
towards Israel or towards the Palestinians.
BBC bosses say that if complaints are coming from both directions, they must be
striking the right balance. But lack of balance is only one of several charges
levelled at the broadcaster. Failure to put current events in their proper historical
context is another.
Twelve days ago, some 5,000 people protested outside the BBCs headquarters,
demanding an end to pro-Israeli bias in its reporting. The demonstration was
staged by Palestine Solidarity Campaign, Stop the War, CND and others. A
further 45,000 people signed an online petition, claiming that the corporations
reporting of Israels aerial bombardment of Gaza was entirely devoid of context
or background.
The importance of context was also noted in a 2006 report commissioned by the
BBC governors from an independent panel, chaired by Sir Quentin Thomas, to
assess its coverage. While exonerating the BBC of the charge of systematic bias,
the Thomas report found identifiable shortcomings, particularly in respect of
gaps in coverage, analysis, context and perspective.
The report noted the failure to convey adequately the disparity in the Israeli and
Palestinian experience, reflecting the fact that one side is in control and the
other lives under occupation. It also stated that given this asymmetry, the
BBCs concern with balance gave an impression of equality between the two
sides which was fundamentally, if unintentionally, misleading.
To counter this tendency, the report recommended that the BBC should make
purposive, and not merely reactive, efforts to explain the complexities of the
conflict in the round, including the marked disparity between the position of the
two sides.
The BBCs coverage of the current crisis reflects a serious attempt to rectify
some of these shortcomings. Reporters regularly highlight the unequal nature of
the struggle in Gaza and the devastating impact of the Israeli offensive on the
enclave. Israeli spokesmen still receive more than their fair share of airtime but,
as civilian casualties mount, they are challenged more robustly.
Nevertheless, presenters too often stick to the justified but disproportionate
response paradigm, espoused by the UK government. Pressure on the BBC
governors by Israels vocal supporters in Britain continues to play its part in
inducing self-censorship and inhibiting criticism.
This last issue is one faced by the media in general. Israel is infinitely stronger
than Hamas not only in military terms but also in its capacity to wage the
propaganda war. It is sometimes said that history is the propaganda of the
victors. Because it is the stronger party, Israel is better placed to impose its
narrative not only on the past but also on the present. And to me, as a revisionist
Israeli historian, this narrative appears fundamentally flawed.

The origins of the current war in Gaza is a case in point. As always, Israel claims
to be acting in self-defence, blaming the victims of its military aggression for
their own misfortunes. Yet the basic cause for this war is the 47-year-old Israeli
occupation of the Palestinian territories.
True, in 2005 Israel carried out a unilateral disengagement of Gaza. But, under
international law, it remains the occupying power because it continues to control
access to the strip by land, sea and air. An occupying power has a legal
obligation to protect civilians in the areas it controls, yet Israel has been shelling
and killing them.
Israel claims its most recent incursion into Gaza was a response to Hamas rocket
attacks. Here are some facts that do not fit comfortably into the narrative of a
peace-loving nation that is up against a fanatical, murderous terrorist
organisation. In 2006, Hamas won a fair and free Palestinian election and formed
a government, seeking a long-term ceasefire with Israel. Israel refused to
negotiate.
In 2007, Hamas and Fatah formed a national unity government with the same
agenda. Israel resorted to economic warfare to undermine this government and
encouraged Fatah to stage a coup to drive Hamas from power. Hamas preempted the coup with a violent seizure of power in Gaza.
In flagrant violation of international law, Israel then imposed a blockade (still in
force today) on the 1.8 million inhabitants of Gaza. Four months ago, Hamas
reached an accord with Fatah, and another national unity government was
formed, this time without a single Hamas-affiliated member but with the old
agenda of negotiating an end to the conflict with Israel. Prime Minister Benjamin
Netanyahu hysterically attacked it as a vote for terror, not for peace. He used
the abduction of three Jewish teenagers on the West Bank as an excuse for a
violent crackdown on Hamas supporters there, although Hamas had nothing to
do with it. The Hamas rocket attacks were a response to this provocation.
The last thing Netanyahu and his right-wing colleagues want is a united and
moderate Palestinian national leadership. Undermining the unity government is
one of the undeclared objectives of the current assault. Israels spin doctors
trumpeted its acceptance and Hamass rejection of an Egyptian ceasefire
proposal. Hamas, however, could not accept this proposal because it left the
savage siege in place.
It is difficult to resist the conclusion that Israels real objective in unleashing this
offensive is to bomb Hamas into a humiliating surrender. Israels ultimate aim
seems to be not a just peace but the reimposition of the status quo with a
fragmented Palestine and with itself as an imperial overlord. The BBC may be
forgiven for having difficulty in explaining this staggeringly unequal conflict in all
its complexity. It is an extremely tough conflict to cover well.
Israeli Ambassador Ron Dermer COMPLETELY Puts CNN In Its Place.
BOOM.

As a further illustration of the article above, the following video shows how
pressure on the internet has caused a shift in peoples attitudes against Israel
due to Media bias that leans towards the Palestinians. Can there actually be
accountability in our news reporting?
The problem news correspondents face (from the perspective of
journalists) What really happened with NBC and Ayman Mohyeldin
This video gives us an interesting perspective from that of the journalist and
makes us question and re-think the role of the journalist. Are reporters expected
to be completely dehumanized by reporting objective and factual news or can
they display sympathy and empathy in the news?