Sewerage Code of Australia

Part 1: Planning and Design

Second Edition
Version 2.3

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CONTENTS
1 GENERAL
1.1 SCOPE
1.2 PURPOSE AND APPLICATION
1.3 PLANNING AND DESIGN RESPONSIBILITIES AND INTERFACES
1.3.1 General
1.3.2 Planning responsibilities
1.3.3 Design responsibilities
1.3.4 Consultation with other parties
1.4 SEWER SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH
1.4.1 System design life
1.4.2 Objectives of the system design
1.4.3 Design output

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2 SYSTEM PLANNING
2.1 SEWERAGE SYSTEM PHILOSOPHY AND DEFINITION
2.1.1 Disaggregation
2.1.2 Level 1 Total system
2.1.3 Level 2 Transportation subsystems
2.1.4 Level 3 Operating units
2.1.4.1 Sewers
2.1.4.2 Sewage pumping stations
2.1.4.3 Storage
2.2 PLANNING PRINCIPLES
2.2.1 Planning horizon
2.2.2 Concept Plan
2.2.3 Catchment analysis
2.2.4 Provision for future gauging needs
2.2.5 Terrorism
2.3 PLANNING PARAMETERS
2.3.1 Loading per serviced property
2.3.2 Assessment of future loads
2.3.3 Assessment of existing system loads
2.3.4 Environmental considerations
2.3.5 Geotechnical investigations
2.3.6 Operations and maintenance considerations
2.4 SEWAGE QUALITY
2.4.1 Septicity
2.4.2 Sewage quality / Trade waste management
2.5 PLANNING REVIEW

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3 FLOW ESTIMATION
3.1 DESIGN FLOW ESTIMATION
3.2 DESIGN FLOW ESTIMATION METHOD
3.2.1 General
3.2.2 Traditional design flow estimation method
3.2.3 Design flow estimation incorporating existing systems
3.2.4 Design flow estimationPartially pumped systems
3.2.5 Flow schedule

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4 DETAIL DESIGN
4.1 DETAIL DESIGN PROCESS
4.2 DETAIL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
4.2.1 Catchment design
4.2.2 Design accuracy
4.2.3 Sewer layout

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4.2.4 Environmental considerations

4.2.4.1 General
4.2.4.2 Urban salinity
4.2.4.3 Vegetation
4.2.4.4 Contaminated sites
4.2.4.5 Tidal zones
4.2.5 Easements
4.2.6 Disused sewers
4.2.7 Special design considerations
4.3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT OF SEWERS
4.3.1 General
4.3.2 Roads, reserves and open space
4.3.3 Railway reserves
4.3.4 Public and private property
4.3.5 Changes in direction using an MH
4.3.6 Dead-ends
4.3.7 Horizontal curves in sewers
4.4 OBSTRUCTIONS AND CLEARANCES
4.4.1 General
4.4.2 Surface obstructions
4.4.3 Clearance from transmission towers and power lines
4.4.4 Clearance from structures
4.4.5 Underground obstructions and services
4.4.5.1 General
4.4.5.2 Clearance requirements
4.5 PIPE SIZING AND GRADING
4.5.1 General
4.5.2 Environmental protection requirements
4.5.3 Minimum air space for ventilation
4.5.4 Minimum pipe sizes for maintenance purposes
4.5.5 Maximum EP for reticulation sewers
4.5.6 Limitation on sewer size reduction
4.5.7 Minimum grades for self-cleansing
4.5.7.1 General
4.5.7.2 Reticulation sewers
4.5.7.3 Property connection sewers and ends of lines
4.5.8 Minimum grades for slime control
4.5.9 Maximum grades for septicity
4.5.9.1 Branch and trunk sewers
4.5.9.2 Reticulation sewers
4.6 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT OF SEWERS
4.6.1 General
4.6.2 Long section design plan
4.6.3 Minimum cover over sewers
4.6.4 Lot servicing requirements
4.6.4.1 General
4.6.4.2 Serviced area requirements for residential lots
4.6.4.3 Serviced area requirements for industrial and commercial lots
4.6.4.4 Partial lot service
4.6.4.5 Servicing of basements
4.6.5 Minimum depth of sewer connection point
4.6.5.1 General
4.6.5.2 Soffit requirement
4.6.5.3 Physical losses in customer sanitary drains
4.6.5.4 Depth of connection point
4.6.6 Grading through MHs
4.6.6.1 General
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4.6.6.2 Internal fall through MHs joining sewers of same diameter

4.6.6.3 Internal falls through MHs joining sewers of different diameters
4.6.6.4 Large falls at MHs
4.6.6.5 Effect of steep gradehydraulic jump
4.6.7 Vertical curves
4.6.8 Compound bends
4.7 CORROSION PREVENTION
4.7.1 General
4.7.2 Internal corrosion
4.7.3 External corrosion
4.8 STEEL SEWERS
4.8.1 Sizes and configurations
4.8.2 Joints
4.8.3 Field welding
4.8.4 Flanged joints

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5 PROPERTY CONNECTION
5.1 GENERAL
5.2 LIMITATIONS OF CONNECTION TO SEWERS
5.3 METHODS OF THE PROPERTY CONNECTION
5.3.1 General
5.3.2 IO interface method
5.3.3 Buried interface method
5.4 MAXIMUM DEPTH OF PROPERTY CONNECTION
5.5 NUMBER OF PROPERTY CONNECTIONS
5.5.1 Single occupancy lots
5.5.2 Multiple occupancy lots
5.6 LOCATION OF CONNECTION POINTS
5.6.1 Undeveloped lots
5.6.2 Developed lots
5.7 Y PROPERTY CONNECTIONS
5.8 LENGTH OF PROPERTY CONNECTION SEWERS

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6 MAINTENANCE STRUCTURES
6.1 TYPES OF MAINTENANCE STRUCTURES
6.2 LOCATIONS OF MAINTENANCE STRUCTURES
6.3 SPACING OF MAINTENANCE STRUCTURES
6.3.1 General
6.3.2 Maintenance structure spacingReticulation sewers
6.3.3 Maintenance structure spacingBranch and trunk sewers
6.4 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR LOCATION OF MAINTENANCE STRUCTURES
6.5 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR CONNECTION OF NEW SEWERS TO EXISTING
SEWERS
6.6 MAINTENANCE HOLES (MH)
6.6.1 General
6.6.2 Types of MH construction
6.6.3 Design parameters for MHs
6.6.4 Property connections into MHs
6.6.5 Diameters of MHs
6.6.6 MH base layout
6.6.7 Flotation
6.6.8 Ladders, step irons and landings
6.6.9 MH covers
6.6.10 Cross-fall on MH covers
6.7 MAINTENANCE SHAFTS (MS)
6.7.1 General
6.7.2 Design parameters for MSs and TMSs
6.7.3 Property connection sewer into MSs and TMSs

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6.8 OTHER MAINTENANCE STRUCTURES AT INTERFACE OF PROPERTY CONNECTION

SEWER AND CUSTOMER DRAINS
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7 ANCILLIARY STRUCTURES
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7.1 GENERAL
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7.2 WATER SEALS, BOUNDARY TRAPS AND WATER-SEALED MHS
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7.2.1 General design parameters
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7.2.2 Water seals on reticulation sewers entering branch or trunk sewers
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7.2.3 Water seals on branch sewers entering trunk sewers
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7.3 GAS CHECK MHS
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7.3.1 General
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7.3.2 Design parameters for gas check MHs
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7.4 VERTICAL AND NEAR VERTICAL SEWERS
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7.4.1 General
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7.4.2 Design parameters for bored, exposed and encased vertical and near vertical sewers88
7.5 VENTILATION
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7.5.1 General
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7.5.2 Design parameters for vents
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7.6 NEAR-HORIZONTAL BOREHOLES
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7.6.1 General
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7.6.2 Design requirements
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7.6.3 Maintenance requirements
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7.7 VORTEX INLETS AND WATER CUSHIONS
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7.8 INVERTED SYPHONS
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7.8.1 General
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7.8.2 Design parameters for inverted syphons
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7.9 OVERFLOWS / EMERGENCY RELIEF STRUCTURES (ERS)
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7.9.1 General
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7.9.2 Design parameters for ERSs
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7.10 FLOW MEASURING DEVICES
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7.11 WET WEATHER STORAGE
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7.11.1 General
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7.11.2 Design requirements for wet weather storage
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8 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
8.1 GENERAL
8.2 PRODUCTS AND MATERIALS
8.3 STRUCTURAL COMPUTATIONS
8.4 EXTERNAL FORCES
8.5 FOUNDATION DESIGN AND GROUND WATER CONTROL
8.6 GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
8.6.1 General
8.6.2 Sewers in engineered or controlled fill
8.6.3 Sewers in non-engineered fill
8.6.4 Filling along route of pipeline
8.6.5 Mine subsidence
8.6.6 Slip areas
8.6.7 Water-charged ground
8.7 ABOVE GROUND CROSSINGS
8.8 PIPE COVER
8.9 TRENCH DESIGN
8.10 BULKHEADS AND TRENCHSTOPS
9 DESIGN REVIEW AND DRAWINGS
9.1 DESIGN REVIEW
9.2 DESIGN DRAWINGS
9.2.1 General

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9.2.2 Real property information

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9.2.3 Sewers
9.2.4 Structures
9.2.5 Longitudinal sections (profiles)
9.2.6 Title block notation and standard notes
9.2.7 Other
9.3 DRAFTING STANDARDS
9.3.1 Scale
9.3.2 Recording of as-constructed information

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APPENDIX A ESTIMATION OF EQUIVALENT POPULATION (EP)

A1 GENERAL
A2 ESTIMATION METHOD
A2.1 Residential component
A2.1.1 Single occupancy lots
A2.1.2 Multiple occupancy lotsMedium density residential
A2.1.3 Multiple occupancy lotsHigh-density / multi-storey residential
A2.2 Commercial and special use components
A2.3 Industrial component
A2.3.1 General
A2.3.2 Use of Tables A2 and A3
A3 WORKED EXAMPLE FOR AN INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

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APPENDIX B FLOW ESTIMATION FOR UNDEVELOPED AREAS

B1 GENERAL
B2 PEAK DRY WEATHER (SANITARY) FLOW
B3 GWI CALCULATION
B4 IIF CALCULATION
B5 WORKED EXAMPLE FOR A RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT
B5.1 Description
B5.2 Peak dry weather flow (PDWF)
B5.3 Ground water infiltration (GWI)
B5.4 Rainwater dependent inflow and infiltration (IIF)
B5.5 Design flow

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APPENDIX C GAUGING OF SEWER OVERFLOWS, FLOWS, LEVELS AND VELOCITIES

C1 GENERAL
C2 PRE-CONSTRUCTED FLUMES AND WEIRS
C3 RETRO-FITTING OF DEVICES
C3.1 Flumes and weirs
C3.2 Doppler HVQ gauges
C3.3 Transit-time HVQ gauges
C3.4 Other HVQ type gauges
C3.5 Using H-only and a rating table at unrated structures
C3.6 Flumes and weirs in conjunction with HVQ gauges
C4 FULL PIPE METERS
C5 OVERFLOW EVENT RECORDERS
APPENDIX D COMPUTER FLOW MODELLING

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APPENDIX E ANALYSIS OF FLOW GAUGING RESULTS FROM EXISTING SYSTEMS

E1 GENERAL
E2 PEAK DRY WEATHER FLOW (PLUS GROUNDWATER INFILTRATION)
E3 INFLOW AND INFILTRATION (WET WEATHER) FLOW (IIF)

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TABLES
TABLE 1.1 TYPICAL ASSET DESIGN LIFE
TABLE 1.2 PLANNING AND DESIGN APPROACH
TABLE 4.1 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE DEFLECTIONS THROUGH A MH
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TABLE 4.2 CLEARANCES BETWEEN SEWERS AND OTHER UNDERGROUND

SERVICES
TABLE 4.3 MINIMUM PIPE SIZES FOR RETICULATION AND PROPERTY
CONNECTION SERVICES
TABLE 4.4 EP CAPACITY LIMITATIONS FOR RETICULATION SEWERS
TABLE 4.5 MANNING COEFFICIENT
TABLE 4.6 ABSOLUTE MINIMUM GRADES
TABLE 4.7 MINIMUM GRADES FOR PROPERTY CONNECTION SEWERS AND
PERMANENT ENDS
TABLE 4.8 MINIMUM COVER OVER SEWERS
TABLE 4.9 MINIMUM INTERNAL FALL THROUGH AN MH JOINING RETICULATION
SEWERS OF SAME DIAMETER
TABLE 4.10 LIMITATIONS ON LARGE FALLS AT MHS USING INTERNAL AND
EXTERNAL DROPS
TABLE 6.1 ACCEPTABLE MH, MS AND TMS OPTIONS FOR RETICULATION
SEWERS
TABLE 7.1 MAXIMUM LIMIT OF DEVIATION IN LEVEL AND LINE OF BOREHOLES
TABLE 7.2 DESIGN REQUIREMENT FOR SILT TRAPS
TABLE 7.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR VORTEX INLETS AND WATER CUSHIONS
TABLE 8.1 REQUIREMENTS FOR BULKHEADS
TABLE A1 EQUIVALENT POPULATIONS FOR SYNCHRONOUS DISCHARGES
TABLE A2 NON-SYNCHRONOUS DISCHARGES - LIST OF INDUSTRIES AND THEIR
EP CLASSIFICATIONS
TABLE A3 EP OF NON-RESIDENTIAL EP/HA CLASSIFICATIONS
TABLE B1 LEAKAGE SEVERITY COEFFICIENT (C)
TABLE B2 APPROXIMATE VALUES OF 1(1,2) FOR VARIOUS LOCATIONS
TABLE B3 CONTAINMENT FACTOR VERSUS ARI

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FIGURES
FIGURE 2.1 DISAGGREGATION MODEL FOR TRANSPORTATION SUBSYSTEMS
FIGURE 3.1 FLOW COMPONENTS IN A GRAVITY SYSTEM
FIGURE 4.1 PHYSICAL LOSSES IN CUSTOMER SANITARY DRAINS
FIGURE 4.2 DEPTH OF POINT OF CONNECTION AND USE OF RISERS
FIGURE 6.1 MULTIPLE MS BETWEEN MH AND "LAST" MH/TMS
FIGURE 6.2 MULTIPLE MSS BETWEEN CONSECUTIVE MHS
FIGURE B1 "D" FACTOR VERSUS AREA - AREAS < 40 HA

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1 GENERAL
1.1 SCOPE
Part 1 Planning and Design of the Sewerage Code of Australia covers Water Agency
requirements for planning and design of gravity sewerage. Identification of the need for
pumping stations is an element of system planning. The design of sewage pumping
stations (SPSs) is addressed in WSA 042001 Sewage Pumping Station Code of
Australia.
Part 1 is applicable to new townships, new urban developments, re-development areas as
well as sewer augmentations and renewals. It provides planning and design inputs to the
processes of:
(a)

Developing servicing strategies;

(b)

Developing Concept Plans; and

(c)

Preparing detail designs and construction documentation.

Part 1 assists Planners and Designers in understanding gravity sewerage requirements

and provides information necessary to carry out a full analysis from the property
connection point to the treatment plant. This Code does not specifically apply to the design
of customers sanitary drainage. However, plumbing Regulators could adopt the Code as a
deemed to comply solution complying with the performance requirements of
AS/NZS 3500.2.1, and could require its application to large scale private developments
such as community title subdivisions.
Sewer system design and construction requirements are presented in performance based
terms combined with deemed to comply and typical solutions. Alternative solutions,
practices, equipment and methodologies will continue to evolve and offer opportunities to
improve the design and construction of sewerage. Individual Water Agencies may specify
additional or varying requirements. Water Agency input should always be sought if an
innovative opportunity is being considered.
For out-sourced planning and/or design services, the Water Agencys contracts or
development agreements should define responsibilities of suppliers. A Water Agency may
use Part 1 of the Code, modified as necessary, as the specification for technical
requirements referenced by its contract.
1.2 PURPOSE AND APPLICATION
Part 1 Planning and Design is primarily intended for Designers, Project Managers and
Water Agency personnel involved in the planning and design of gravity sewerage. Project
Managers of the delivery of services to land developers and/or Water Agencies should
read this Part in conjunction with the procedures, instructions, quality plans, variations and
other relevant documentation provided by the Water Agency, which will ultimately own the
asset.
The requirements contained in this Part are applicable to the majority of situations.
However, variations may be necessary to meet special circumstances or to overcome other
problems not addressed. Whenever the proposed design varies in any way from the
requirements set out in this Part and the Water Agencys specific requirements, the
proposed variation should be authorised by the Water Agency.
Design flow estimation methodology impacts directly on infrastructure sizing and costs and
therefore is an important aspect of any sewerage design. In this second edition, Part 1
Planning and Design adopts a modification of the commonly accepted empirical approach.
It also recognises that there is a need to distinguish between new greenfield sewerage
design and existing system improvement design, where there may be an opportunity to
calculate dry and wet weather loading rates directly from gauged flows rather than simply
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assuming them. Substantial cost savings in sewerage schemes may result from the use of
hydraulic modelling software based on actual flows.
Waterway pollution has emerged as a new driver for overflow containment, based not only
on the ability of the waterway to tolerate pollution, but also on overflow frequency. This
requires Water Agencies to determine both the frequency and total volume of such
overflows so that pollution impacts on waterways can be assessed and controlled. The
modified empirical approach set out in this Code adopts the traditional factor DWF
approach, but varies it with frequency of incidence or design flow containment standard.
For future editions, a greater emphasis on the flow modelling approach is anticipated,
particularly for larger systems and for enabling effective design of detention storage.
1.3 PLANNING AND DESIGN RESPONSIBILITIES AND INTERFACES
1.3.1 General
Planning and design functions and processes may overlap. For a given project, the term
Planner may be applicable to the Designer. This Part assumes that the Water Agencys
contract and development agreements should specify:
(a)

Required planning outputs;

(b)

Responsibility and authority of the Planner and Designer; and

(c)

Interfaces between the Water Agency and out-sourced providers.

1.3.2 Planning responsibilities

The Water Agency is generally responsible for overall planning for the provision of
sewerage to its customers. Unless otherwise agreed between relevant parties, the Water
Agency should provide a Concept Plan setting out essential inputs to be used in design,
such as catchment area, flows, containment standard, average recurrence interval (ARI)
[environmental sensitivity factor], sizing, upstream controls, recommended sewer layout, or
particular requirements of the Water Agency.
1.3.3 Design responsibilities
The term Designer is used in this Code to mean the person(s) responsible for a design
output. Design functions include hydraulic, survey and drafting, geotechnical, structural,
mechanical, materials and other specialist functions required for a project.
The Designer shall be responsible for all aspects of sewerage design, as defined in the
Water Agencys project brief, contract or development agreement.
The Designer shall be responsible for:
(a)

translating the planning output into a detailed system/network design. The Designer
shall undertake the necessary design and prepare Design Drawings compatible with
the Water Agencys Concept Plan and the design parameters (as detailed in this
Code and/or Water Agency requirements);

(b)

identifying potential problems and providing appropriate solutions; and

(c)

justifying any variation from the requirements set out in this Code or specified by the
Water Agency.

The Designer shall obtain prior written approval from the Water Agency for any variation.
Concept Plan formats may vary, ranging from a basic layout sketch to a complete system
specification. The Concept Plan will generally provide notification of the point of connection
for a development or constraints and special requirements applicable.
If the Water Agency does not provide a Concept Plan or system specification, the Designer
shall liaise with the Water Agency, prior to commencement of design, to ensure that
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sufficient planning is completed to enable design to proceed. Alternatively, subject to

contractual or agreement terms, the Designer may determine this information by
investigation, using this Code and engineering principles, and obtain approval from the
Water Agency.
The Designer shall address at least the following aspects and, as appropriate, include in
the design:
(i)

size(s) and grades of sewers throughout the relevant portion of the proposed
transfer /reticulation system to meet Concept Plan requirements;

(ii)

appropriate pipeline material type(s) and class(es) in accordance with Concept

Plan; and

(iii)

sewer layouts and alignments including:

(A)

route selection;

(B)

topographical and environmental aspects;

(C)

easements;

(D)

foundation and geotechnical aspects;

(E)

provisions for future extensions;

(F)

types and locations of maintenance structures, overflows and vents;

(G)

locations and details of bulkheads; and

(H)

property service connection locations.

The Designer shall also document all assumptions in the Specification and the Design
Drawings and specify all relevant requirements related to the design and construction of
the sewer system.
This particularly applies to ancillary sewer structures (Refer to Section 7) and structural
design (Refer to Section 8) where the use of specialist design competencies is necessary
to mitigate against risk to both the construction process and long-term operational and
maintenance performance of the asset.
As appropriate, the Design Drawings and/or Specification shall include provision for
addressing unforeseen ground conditions arising during construction e.g. requirements and
responsibilities for reviewing and amending the Specification and Design Drawings. This is
especially applicable to foundation design and ground water control (Refer to Clause 8.5).
In the construction of the work, the Designer should also be responsible for confirming that
any assumptions made in design were correct and for revising the Specification and
Design Drawings as a result of any incorrect assumptions or changed conditions. Any
design variations should be made in accordance with the requirements of any project
specific contract.
1.3.4 Consultation with other parties
Planners and Designers shall comply with Water Agency policies with regard to
consultation with all stakeholders affected by the Works.
Stakeholders may include, but are not limited to:
(a)

Property owners served or affected by the Works.

(b)

Tenants.

(c)

Heritage groups.

(d)

Indigenous people groups.

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(e)

Municipal councils.

(f)

Other utility agencies.

(g)

Road, rail and tram authorities.

(h)

Planning authorities.

(i)

Developers of adjacent works.

(j)

Environmental and community groups.

1.4 SEWER SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH

The overall objective of the sewerage design is to provide a functional sewer system that
meets the Water Agency obligations under its operating licence and customer contract for
provision of sewerage services to its customers.
1.4.1 System design life
Buried sewer systems shall be designed for a nominal asset life of at least 100 years
without rehabilitation. Some components such as pumps, valves, flow metering and control
equipment may require earlier renovation or replacement.
Typical designed asset lives for sewer system items are shown in Table 1.1.
TABLE 1.1
TYPICAL ASSET DESIGN LIFE
ITEM

Sewers

Maintenance
structures

Pumps

Valves

SCADA

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100

20

30

15

Minimum design life, years

1.4.2 Objectives of the system design

The sewer system shall provide:
(a)

Least life cycle cost;

(b)

A single gravity connection for each property with maximum drainage of the property;

(c)

A level of service to the Water Agencys customers in accordance with the Water
Agencys policies, customer charters and operating contracts;

(d)

Minimal adverse environmental and community impact;

(e)

Compliance with environmental requirements;

(f)

Compliance with OH&S requirements;

(g)

Sufficient hydraulic capacity to service the full catchment;

(h)

Minimal maintenance;

(i)

No infiltration at commissioning;

(j)

Minimal infiltration / exfiltration over the life of the system;

(k)

Resistance to entry of tree roots;

(l)

Control of septicity;

(m)

Safe and easy access for operations and maintenance;

(n)

Resistance to internal and external corrosion and chemical degradation; and

(o)

Resistance to applied loads.

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A summary of the planning and design approach adopted in this Code is shown in
Table 1.2.
1.4.3 Design output
For each design only or design and construct project, the design output shall satisfy
requirements of this Code and the Water Agency Concept Plan, as well as other design
requirements.
The design output shall include:
(a)

Design Drawings showing, inter alia and as appropriate, pipe sizes and grades,
location and types of maintenance structures, vents, pipe materials and detailed
construction methods; and

(b)

A Specification that addresses materials, site investigation and other technical

matters as required for construction, testing and commissioning.

The Design Drawings and Specification may comprise elements of Parts 2, 3 and 4 of this
Code, modified as appropriate.

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TABLE 1.2
PLANNING AND DESIGN APPROACH
Development plan for the area (established in liaison
with the planning authority)
Identification of geographical constraints
Catchment analysis / flow modelling to determine
hydraulic loads
Network analysis using theoretical design techniques
and/or hydraulic models
Preliminary sizing of sewers
Summary of existing infrastructure capacity and need for
augmentation / replacement
Alternative servicing options, considering:
Develop servicing strategy

PLANNING

System configuration

Environmental constraints

Overflows / ERSs

Sewage septicity / detention time / ventilation

Odour control

Impact of grades / depth / hydraulic flow

Pumping stations

Trunk and branch main sizes

Reticulation network connectivity

Future system expansion

Preferred strategy using least community cost for whole

lifecycle
Develop Concept Plans

As development planning becomes more detailed, eg

local structure plans are developed, refine the servicing
strategy to develop a plan for staging creation of the
assets

Develop preliminary designs

Trunk and branch sewer size and location and staging.

(As development proceeds and

works need to be constructed,
develop major infrastructure)
preliminary designs.

Pump station location and duty points

Overflow / ERS locations (licensed) / detention storage
Odour, septicity controls
Preliminary reticulation layout

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TABLE 1.2
PLANNING AND DESIGN APPROACH
continued
Sewer layout

Pipe sizing

Determine layout of trunk and branch sewers, addressing:

Connection details to existing sewer

Geotechnical conditions

Access for construction, repairs and maintenance

Road reserves

Clearances from obstructions

Easements

Environmental impacts

Horizontal alignment / deflections via MHs

Vertical alignments / drops

Special requirements for steep grades

Crossings of other major infrastructure assets

Calculate the design flow including:

Inflow and infiltration

Peak dry (sanitary) flow

Ground water infiltration

and determine pipe sizes

Determine grade subject to constraints on min / max velocity
at design flow
DESIGN

Maintenance structures

Determine balance of maintenance structures (MSs and

MHs) and their configuration and spacing
In MH design determine:

Other measures and

structures

Type (see Standard Drawings)

Precast or cast in situ

Channel details

Drop details

Water seals (boundary trap area)

Surface covers

Ventilation
Corrosion protection
Overflows / ERSs
Detention / storage

Property connections

Location and type of property connections

Connection depthsfull lot servicing, soffit requirements etc
Junctions
Risers
Location and grade of property connection sewers
Location of TMS / rodding points
Identification of boundary trap areas
Location of boundary traps and water-sealed MHs

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2 SYSTEM PLANNING
The function of system planning is to develop servicing strategies for meeting customer
requirements, subject to business and regulatory constraints.
The design of a sewer system should be preceded by feasibility studies that justify the
development of infrastructure to service land. The outcome of system planning is a
Concept Plan that defines the structure of the hydraulic system required to service a
particular area.
The process of system planning is closely aligned to design, it is generally iterative and is
commonly preformed by the Water Agency. If out-sourced, it generally requires a high level
of interaction between the Water Agency and the service provider with regard to design
inputs. This is particularly necessary for flow estimation.
This Section of the Code provides guidance on the methodology and default design inputs
for planning sewerage schemes. Because of the complexity and imprecise nature of
system planning, the Water Agency should endorse a Concept Plan prior to commissioning
detail design or construction.
2.1 SEWERAGE SYSTEM PHILOSOPHY AND DEFINITION
2.1.1 Disaggregation
A total sewer system is composed of three basic processestransportation, treatment and
disposal / reuse. The transportation process consists of three functional elements, namely
trunk, branch and reticulation sub-systems. Each of these sub-systems may comprise of a
network of sewers, storage structures and SPSs that collect and transport sewage from
households, businesses and industries to a sewage treatment plant for treatment and
disposal of effluent and other by-products. This can be shown under a disaggregation
model as indicated in Figure 2.1.
LEVEL

1 TOTAL SYSTEM

DISPOSAL /
REUSE
TREATMENT
TRANSPORT

TRUNK
2 TRANSPORT SUBSYSTEMS

BRANCH
RETICULATION

3 OPERATING UNITS

SEWERS

SPSs

STORAGE

FIGURE 2.1 DISAGGREGATION MODEL FOR TRANSPORTATION SUBSYSTEMS

Clauses 2.1.2 to 2.1.4 inclusive describe in more detail the disaggregation model in Figure 2.1.
2.1.2 Level 1 Total system
The total sewer system is made up of transport, treatment and disposal.

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The transportation network is designed to effectively service customer properties and

convey the collected sewage to treatment plants for processing.
Sewage treatment plants are designed to treat all dry weather flows and part of or all wet
weather flows delivered by the transportation network to effluent standards commensurate
with the environmental impact of their discharges on receiving waters and any associated
reuse schemes. Disposal of treated effluent and other by-products follows and is subject to
each Water Agencys corporate and environmental goals. Effluent may be further treated
for reuse of varying quality from reuse within the plant processes to spray irrigation to
reuse in reticulated reuse schemes. Bio-solids may be reused for fertiliser and other
agricultural purposes.
2.1.3 Level 2 Transportation subsystems
The Code defines the various functional sewers as trunk, branch and reticulation
generically as follows:
(a)

Reticulation sewers are a network of pipes including property connection sewers

nominally up to and including DN 300 that receives sewage from customer properties
(residential, commercial and industrial).

(b)

Branch sewers are a network of pipes nominally DN 375 to DN 600 that connect the
reticulation pipes within a reticulation area or a group of reticulation areas. Property
connection sewers are not generally connected directly to branch sewers.

(c)

Trunk sewers are a network of pipes nominally DN 750 and greater that connect the
branch sewers and transport sewage to a treatment facility.

These descriptions are generally applicable to larger sewer systems. In smaller systems,
DN 150DN 300 pipes may be defined as branch or trunk sewers while DN 100 pipes may
be acceptable as reticulation sewers subject to the approval of the Water Agency.
The transport sub-system may also include SPSs and storage facilities.
2.1.4 Level 3 Operating units
2.1.4.1 Sewers
Each sewer comprises pipes as well as any fittings, maintenance structures and ventilation
facilities used in association with such pipes. These components are generically defined as
follows:
(a)

Maintenance structures that allow sewer pipes to be inspected and maintained, and
which are usually installed at changes of level, sewer line direction and/or sewer pipe
size.

(b)

Ventshafts that are typically above ground structures and that have a dual purpose of
admitting air to the sewer system to reduce the likelihood of sewage turning septic or
corrosive and causing offensive odours, and allowing odours to be dispersed.

(c)

Overflow or emergency relief structures (ERSs) that are used to provide controlled
overflow from the sewer system so as to protect public health by reducing the risk of
sewage being surcharged from maintenance holes, customer gully traps and fittings
such as floor wastes, sinks and toilets.

2.1.4.2 Sewage pumping stations (SPSs)

Where possible, the sewer system should be designed to use gravity to convey the sewage
away from where it is generated. However, steep terrain and other variations in the local
landscape may preclude or limit the viability of a gravity system. When this happens, one
option is to pump sewage by SPSs through pressure mains (rising mains) into the most
suitable nearby sewer, where it drains by gravity to another pumping station or a sewage
treatment plant. Other options also rely upon pumps e.g. vacuum sewerage and pressure
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sewerage systems. Structural and economical considerations may also determine the need
for pumps e.g. in very flat terrain where there is a limit on the practical depth of sewer.
SPSs should be designed and constructed to minimise adverse impacts and to provide
sewer systems that are totally integrated and perform at the lowest life cycle cost. For
planning and design of SPSs and associated pressure mains and flow control, refer to
WSA 04 Sewage Pumping Station Code of Australia. Codes on vacuum sewerage and
pressure sewerage are planned.
2.1.4.3 Storage
Sewer systems should be designed to operate separately from any stormwater system,
and ideally no rainwater should enter the system. Nevertheless, sewers can over time
develop faults, such as cracks and separated joints and can be subject to damage from
other activities and tree root intrusions. These faults and intrusions may allow rainwater
and groundwater to enter, or infiltrate, during wet weather. The extent to which water
infiltrates is variable, and dependent upon the condition of pipes, joints and maintenance
structures, rainfall, topography, soil conditions and the flow capacity of the particular sewer
system. Water may also inflow into the sewer system from illegal stormwater connections,
low house gullies and broken maintenance structure covers. Storage may therefore be
designed as part of the sewer system to manage these additional flows (surcharge) in
emergency conditions to reduce the likelihood of overflows from the system.
2.2 PLANNING PRINCIPLES
2.2.1 Planning horizon
Ideally, a sewer system should be planned and designed to convey the estimated peak
flow from its service area when the area has reached its maximum population and has
been fully developed commercially and industrially. However, it is not always economically
feasible to construct some of the major sewers in a system large enough to convey the
ultimate peak flow from its service area. Under these circumstances the sewers may be
designed to convey peak flows that are estimated to occur within an appropriate design
period, generally ranging from 10 to 30 years. Provisions should be made when planning a
system to provide augmentation of the system before the actual flows become greater than
the design flows.
2.2.2 Concept Plan
The Concept Plan is the critical starting point of the design process as it determines the
extent of sewers and the possible need for pumping stations, either pressure or vacuum. It
should incorporate the outcomes of an analysis of the catchment and the options for
servicing future development.
The Concept Plan should define asset options and their configurations, sufficiently
quantified to enable detail designs and a construction specification to be prepared.
In developing concepts, system Planners should use the technical requirements of this
Part, including those for:
(a)

Dissection of the catchment into subcatchments for efficient servicing.

(b)

Flow estimation (Refer to Section 3).

(c)

Pipe sizing and grading (Refer to Clause 4.5).

(d)

Controlled overflows (Refer to Clause 7.9).

(e)

Septicity control (Refer to Clause 2.4.1).

(f)

Horizontal and vertical alignment (Refer to Clauses 4.3 and 4.6).

(g)

Obstructions and clearances (Refer to Clause 4.4).

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(h)

Property connections (Refer to Section 5).

(i)

Lot servicing requirements (Refer to Clause 4.6.4).

(j)

Maintenance structures (Refer to Section 6).

(k)

Water seals, ventilation, syphons, overflows and storage (Refer to Section 7)

(l)

Structural and civil engineering (Refer to Section 8).

(m)

Materials and Standard Drawings (Refer to Parts 2 and 4).

2.2.3 Catchment analysis

In developing a Concept Plan for a catchment, the Planner shall carry out a catchment
analysis to determine the holistic servicing requirements. The analysis may cover a specific
new catchment area with totally new infrastructure including treatment facilities (as in a
township or remote area) or, as is in most cases, an extension to an existing sewer system.
In order to carry out this analysis, the Planner shall undertake the following actions:
(a)

Calculate the hydraulic load (anticipated total design flow) of the proposed
development and any potential future development of the subject catchment. As
necessary, conduct a system analysis or determination of Equivalent Population (EP)
(Refer to Section 3 and Appendix A).

(b)

Perform a system analysis to:

(i)

assess the adequacy of existing infrastructure to accept the additional hydraulic

load arising from the new scheme;

(ii)

determine the impacts of the new development proposal upon existing

infrastructure (both local and associated remote infrastructure); and

(iii)

determine augmentation and/or replacement needs.

(c)

Determine the extent and sizing of new infrastructure required e.g. trunk sewers,
branch sewers and pumping facilities, to service the proposal and to serve the likely
development in the entire catchment using reasonable estimates for ultimate
development scope. Design flow determination shall address constraints arising from
the design flow containment standard ARI (environmental sensitivity factor) specified
by the Water Agency.

(d)

Determine resource and financial estimates in accordance with Water Agency

requirements.

(e)

Broadly plan the localised reticulation networks for the development scheme.

2.2.4 Provision for future gauging needs

Gauging facilities should be incorporated as an integral part of the as-built system rather
than retrofitting them, since it improves their accuracy and avoids operational problems.
The Concept Plan shall include:
(a)

provision for a flow gauge network and rain gauges; and

(b)

calibration check points for the initial and the ongoing calibration of all proposed
gauging facilities.

Gauging sites should include:

(i)

major overflow points; and

(ii)

pumping stations and gravity subsystem outlets.

Appendix C provides guidance on the design of gauging systems.

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2.2.5 Terrorism
High risk infrastructure shall incorporate appropriate safeguards designed to minimise the
potential risk and impact of terrorist attack. Such measures shall be addressed during
planning and in the concept and detail design phases.
2.3 PLANNING PARAMETERS
2.3.1 Loading per serviced property
Loading rates per serviced property can be impacted significantly, both geographically and
over time, by changes in land-use, industrial processes, business relocations, climate,
holiday and seasonal factors. The Water Agency should establish and maintain a suitable
geographically based database of current and intended future land use zoning, covering all
catchments of interest.
Records of gauged sewage loading per land use type, in conjunction with water
consumption records, should be kept and analysed to determine the:
(a)

Proportion of sewage flow versus water consumption i.e. internal usage factor.

(b)

Average loading rates per serviced unit or land area (ha).

(c)

Average Equivalent Population (EP) per unit or per area rating, based on an assumed
loading rate of 180 L/EP/d.

Average loading rates shall be used as the basis for future load assessments using the
same land-use categories. Estimates of loadings must be consistent with water
consumption (internal usage) planning assumptions. The Water Agency should be
consulted regarding any specific local variation to the loading.
2.3.2 Assessment of future loads
Increases in average daily loading shall be calculated as the product of the estimated EP
draining to the point of design interest, and the residential loading rate of 180 L/EP/d.
Equivalent future population shall be calculated for each land use type to be developed by
identifying the number of units to be developed from the categories in Tables A1, A2 and
A3 (or Water Agency supplements) or from the developers or local or planning authorities.
For residential areas without density classifications or areas where future changes to
residential zonings are anticipated, a most likely density consistent with town planning
policies shall be determined. In summary:
(a)

Use the EP loadings per unit type listed in Appendix A.

(b)

Calculate EP as the sum of the products of unit numbers multiplied by EP/unit rates.

2.3.3 Assessment of existing system loads

Where existing system loads are likely to limit the spare hydraulic capacity available for
new development, the existing system loads shall be determined by gauging. Where not
practicable, the area or number of properties per land-use serviced shall be determined by
one or more of the following:
(a)

Zoning maps and planning instruments.

(b)

A field house count.

(c)

Interrogation of census data.

(d)

Interrogation of GIS system data.

Existing loads on ungauged areas shall then be estimated as the sum of the products of
unit numbers multiplied by EP/unit rates.
If catchment development is likely to be spread over a long time frame, then planning and
design of transport, pumping and treatment facilities shall be suitably phased / staged.
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2.3.4 Environmental considerations

The Planner shall consider the environmental impact of the project for design, construction
and operational phases in the light of Commonwealth, state, territory and local government
environmental and heritage laws and regulations and Water Agency policies, instructions
and guidelines. Legal requirements and Water Agency policies require the Planner to
consider the environmental impact to the fullest extent possible. In some instances, an
environmental impact assessment may need to be completed during the planning stage, in
which case it should be documented as directed by the Water Agency (Refer to
Clause 4.2.4 for a more detailed explanation of environmental considerations).
2.3.5 Geotechnical investigations
The Planner shall consider whether the nature of the ground, with respect to instability and
ground water infiltration (GWI), requires special geotechnical assessment and
consideration. Where required, assessment by a competent geotechnical engineer shall be
carried out. The Planner shall prepare a Concept Plan in accordance with any controlling
or regulatory authority.
The impact of a sewer trench on potential draining of the water table may require the
installation of bulkheads (Refer to Clause 8.10).
2.3.6 Operations and maintenance considerations
The Planner shall consider operations and maintenance requirements in the Concept Plan.
These may include:
(a)

Location of sewers to provide safe and easy access for maintenance and condition
assessment.

(b)

Location of sewers clear of other services and adjoining structures, particularly with
deep sewers under structures / facilities, heavy structural foundation loadings and
adverse trench / foundation conditions.

(c)

Control of gas generation to enhance asset life, the safety of maintenance workers,
prevention of gas flows from sewers to sanitary drains and comply with licence
requirements.

(d)

Requirements for bypassing of flows to allow maintenance and asset condition

assessment, repair and/or rehabilitation.

(e)

The impact of unstable or water charged ground.

(f)

Storage and its cleansing and odour control.

2.4 SEWAGE QUALITY

2.4.1 Septicity
One of the main factors affecting sewage quality is septicity. It is caused by the prolonged
retention of sewage under anaerobic conditions, particularly during low flow periods. It can
be avoided by limiting the retention time in pumping stations, pressure mains and syphons
and by designing for self-cleansing velocities in all sewers. Septicity of sewage leads to
offensive odours and damage to sewers and is difficult to treat.
Septic sewage may produce gases such as methane and hydrogen sulphide. When mixed
with air in certain proportions, methane is highly explosive. Hydrogen sulphide is lethal in
high concentrations and in part-full pipes may be converted into sulphuric acid by microorganisms on the damp soffit of the pipe. This acid may cause serious corrosion of work
constructed with normal Portland cement and some metallic components e.g. galvanised steel.
Hydrogen sulphide is formed under anaerobic conditions at low flow velocities and warm
temperatures. The rate of release is increased at points of high turbulence and at the
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outlets of inverted syphons and pressure mains. Corrosion of susceptible materials may
occur at these points and downstream of them.
To minimise the likelihood of septicity, the Planner / Designer shall:
(a)

use adequate grades for self-cleansing and slime control;

(b)

minimise detention periods by avoiding use of SPSs wherever practicable;

(c)

avoid any unnecessary turbulence at junctions and changes in grades, particularly

where pressure mains enter the gravity system, at drop junctions and at vortex drops

(d)

ensure adequate natural and/or forced ventilation; and

(e)

investigate and report on the use of chemical dosing, as appropriate.

Where an SPS is unavoidable, the Planner / Designer shall address septicity and its
minimisation. This may require staging of storage and pumping capacity (Refer to WSA 04).
The Hydrogen Sulphide Control Manual provides more detailed information on the impact
and control of H2S in the sewer system.
NOTE: Hydrogen Sulphide Control ManualSepticity, Corrosion and Odour Control in Sewerage Systems,
Technological Standing Committee on Hydrogen Sulphide Corrosion in Sewerage Works, Volumes 1 and 2,
Melbourne Metropolitan Board of Works, Dec 1989. Reprints available from WSAA.

2.4.2 Sewage quality / Trade waste management

The Water Agency should have strategies in place to monitor and control non-domestic
sewage entering the system from commercial and industrial sources. The methods of
control are normally managed through a trade waste program that provides commercial
and industrial i.e. non-residential customers with a liquid waste acceptance service in
accordance with the principles of environmental sustainability.
In relation to the design of a sewer, the Planner / Designer shall consider the known and
likely discharges of each industry so that the correct flows may be estimated and suitable
materials can be specified for each element of the system.
2.5 PLANNING REVIEW
Once the system has been planned and a layout established, a review shall be undertaken
to demonstrate compliance with Water Agency requirements and at least the following:
(a)

All existing and likely licence and customer contract requirements for all existing and
future customers (unless this is part of a future augmentation project) can be met.

(b)

All appropriate geotechnical considerations have been included.

(c)

Service capability is provided at the lowest property connection in each zone.

(d)

Maximum and minimum flow estimates have been made in accordance with Water
Agency requirements.

(e)

Sewer capacities and any storage capacity and/or overflow structures satisfy system
requirements.

(f)

Potential for future septicity problems and odour is minimised at the various stages of
development or as an inherent outcome of the design.

(g)

Ventilation and slime control measures are adequate within individual zones.

(h)

Sewer layout and alignment meet Water Agency requirements.

(i)

All environmental requirements have been identified and addressed.

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3 FLOW ESTIMATION
This Section specifies methodologies for determining design flows generated from a
particular area, based on the existing and/or future zoning and land usage.
3.1 DESIGN FLOW ESTIMATION
The flow in a sewer comprises domestic sewage, industrial wastes, groundwater infiltration
and storm inflows and rainfall dependent infiltration.
Flow (in L/s) is composed of the three components, illustrated in the pipe cross section in
Figure 3.1, where the overall design flow is represented by the equation:

Design flow = PDWF + GWI + IIF

NOTES:
1

Components are indicative only and will differ due to location, rainfall, strata, pipe material and jointing methods
and other factors.

The component shown as IIF is also the air space / ventilation allowance during dry weather flows.

FIGURE 3.1 FLOW COMPONENTS IN A GRAVITY SYSTEM

The estimated design flow shall be used for hydraulic design of the gravity pipeline i.e.
sizing and grading of pipes as detailed in Clause 4.5.
NOTE: For SPS design refer to WSA 04.

3.2 DESIGN FLOW ESTIMATION METHOD

3.2.1 General
Methods for determining design flow vary depending on the availability of calibrated
models that represent the area under consideration. For reticulation sewers the Water
Agency may use empirical relationships between EP and flow (Refer to Clause 4.5).
3.2.2 Traditional design flow estimation method
Where a calibrated model, applicable to the system under consideration, is not available
e.g. greenfield development sewers that will not receive upstream flows from an existing
system, the method for determining the design flow shall be in accordance with the
methodology specified by the Water Agency.
A traditional approach has been to estimate the equivalent population to be serviced by
the sewer and to calculate flows on the basis of an allowance per EP. Appendix B details a
default model for estimating the design flow, primarily for undeveloped areas, albeit it may
be used for developed areas for which gauged data is not available. The model adopts an
allowance for sanitary flow (daily average) of 180 L/d/EP (0.0021 L/s/EP) and details a
method for estimating peak flows, including GWI and IIF.
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Where the estimated or actual EP has not been provided, it shall be determined using the
methodology specified by the Water Agency. A default method for estimating EP for
undeveloped areas or ungauged systems is given in Appendix A.
Determination of design flow using Appendix B requires the Water Agency to specify the
containment standard ARI and other factors.
3.2.3 Design flow estimation incorporating existing systems
For sewers that will connect to an existing upstream system, the method for determining
the design flow shall be in accordance with the methodology, including computer models
and design inputs, specified by the Water Agency.
It is recommended that a computer model of the existing system be developed, and that it
be calibrated to actual flows. This is considered to be the best means for performing
hydraulic evaluations of the existing system capacity and for determining impacts of
infrastructure upgrades and future loading impacts. Guidelines for a flow modelling
methodology are provided in Appendix D.
3.2.4 Design flow estimationPartially pumped systems
Where pumped flows discharge into a gravity sewer upstream of a point of interest for
design, the gravity sewer shall be designed to accept the total pumped flow plus the design
flow from any gravity area contributing to the point of interest.
At such points in a system having pumped flows discharging upstream thereof, design flow
shall be calculated as follows:

Design flow = design flow Gravity + Capacities

where:
design flowGravity = design flow for the gravity drainage portion, calculated as per the
design flow estimation procedures for gravity systems given above

Capacities

= sum of the maximum capacities of all upstream pumped discharges

Where possible, a computer model of the existing system and its calibration to actual
flows, should be developed since it is considered to be the best tool for performing the
above described hydraulic evaluations, both for existing system capacity and for
determining impacts of infrastructure upgrades and future loading impacts. No detailed
description of flow modelling methodology is given in this Code, but general guidelines are
provided in Appendix D. The same approach may be used for optimising the sizing and
arrangement of new schemes by ignoring the points relating to gauge data.
3.2.5 Flow schedule
A schedule of all flows into the sewer shall be documented in a format nominated by the
Water Agency.

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4 DETAIL DESIGN
4.1 DETAIL DESIGN PROCESS
Following the definition of the servicing strategy for a catchment, detail design of the major
infrastructure for the area and the individual reticulation and property connection sewers
shall be carried out. Detail design shall ensure that the following principal requirements are
met:
(a)

the design reflects the Water Agencys servicing strategy, Concept Plan and/or other
brief for the subject catchment;

(b)

the design incorporates the most appropriate location, size, depth and grade of
sewers;

(c)

the design takes account of any physical features (buildings, underground

utilities/services, creeks etc) previously identified in the field;

(d)

projected life cycle costs are minimised;

(e)

each property has a point of connection; and

(f)

each property has the required extent of drainage.

Outputs of the detail design process shall include but not be limited to a Specification and
Design Drawings that incorporate a plan and elevation of all sewers and all necessary
construction drawings.
A typical procedure for designing a sewer is:
(i)

Initial predesign, which utilises a services search, contour plan and cadastral
information to define the route of the sewer. This is appropriate for all sizes of
sewers and may be done to different degrees of accuracy depending on the
detail available to the Designer e.g. full subdivision layout versus zoning layout.

(ii)

Field survey, carried out to ascertain the exact location of the proposed sewer,
physical features and services along the route of the sewer and the elevation of
the land. This is required to enable the sewer to be correctly graded and to
satisfy clearance requirements for services, crossings etc.

(iii)

Office-based design including plotting of plan and elevation from field records.
Proposed services should be addressed at this stage.

(iv)

Preparation of detailed construction drawings and specifications covering

materials and other technical matters relevant to design and construction.

4.2 DETAIL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

4.2.1 Catchment design
Sewers within any project area shall be designed to drain the specified catchment.
To ensure future extension of the system, it may be necessary to carry out preliminary
designs for large areas of nearby land (actual proposals or hypothetical developments) that
make up the catchment.
As appropriate, sewers within any project area shall be designed to enable future
extension of the system to service the whole physical catchment. The optimum depth and
diameter of any future extension shall be determined. Any potential stormwater systems or
other major services shall also be considered.

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4.2.2 Design accuracy

The location and final design elevations of the sewer(s) shall be determined to the
following levels of design accuracy and specified in the Design Drawings:
(a)

in plan, to 0.01 m.

(b)

in level where grade is < 0.5% (1:200) to the nearest 0.005 m.

(c)

in level where grade is > 0.5% (1:200) to the nearest 0.01 m.

Levels shall be referenced to the Australian Height Datum (AHD). Location in plan shall be
referenced either to the local cadastral boundaries, or to the Geodetic Datum of Australia
(GDA 94).
4.2.3 Sewer layout
The preferred layout / location of sewers within roads, public reserves and private property
may vary and will be dictated by the requirements of each Water Agency. Local municipal
councils, road Owners and other service Owners in each state and territory may also
influence sewer locations.
In many cases, more than one possible alignment of a sewer may be feasible. It is often
necessary to prepare alternative concepts to determine the most suitable, practicable and
lowest life cycle cost solution.
As a gravity sewer system design is generally preferred to other options, the sewer layout
shall conform to the natural fall of the land as far as practicable. The design shall address
the following factors in determining the location of sewers:
(a)

Road reserve size and layout;

(b)

Topography and geotechnical considerations;

(c)

Location of property service connections and maintenance structures;

(d)

Lot control requirements and limitations on depths of connections;

(e)

Underground services;

(f)

Operations and maintenance requirements including maintenance structure locations;

(g)

Existing / proposed building alignments;

(h)

Proposed zoning / land use;

(i)

Planning information regarding proposed or possible future development on the site

e.g. road re-alignments, landscaping;

(j)

Easements, with existing sewerage easements being used where possible;

(k)

Physical surface obstructions;

(l)

System security;

(m)

Construction methods e.g. normal excavation or trenchless methods;

(n)

Historical information regarding previous use of the site;

(o)

Environmental and heritage considerations;

(p)

Preference for sewer location in accordance with Water Agency requirements;

(q)

Preferences expressed by property owners;

(r)

Preferences of municipal councils and other authorities;

(s)

Future development plans and the need to avoid unnecessarily reducing the
development potential of adjoining lands: and
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The siting of overflow structures.

Taking all the above factors into consideration, the following list is indicative of where
sewers should be positioned (no particular order):
(i)

Within the street reserve according to the locally applicable utilities allocation
code; in the absence of a code, a location clear of carriageways is preferred.

(ii)

Within public land with the permission of the controlling authority.

(iii)

Within drainage reserves outside 1 in 100 year flood area.

(iv)

Within private property parallel to front, rear and/or side boundaries.

The final sewer alignment shall comply with Water Agency requirements, any local space
allocation code and applicable statutory requirements.
The final sewer design and layout should be flexible enough to achieve the design
requirements stated in Clause 4.1, but also be practicable when considering the most
efficient design. For example, in areas where the cross-fall is not substantial, sewers may
be designed slightly deeper to serve lots on both sides of the sewer. Where this is not
practicable, it may be necessary to locate additional sewers along the side or front
boundaries of properties to achieve acceptable lot drainage.
4.2.4 Environmental considerations
4.2.4.1 General
When selecting the route of a sewer, the Designer shall comply with the requirements of
the project EIA. Where an EIA does not exist, the Designer shall consider the
environmental impact of the project for both construction and operational phases in the
light of Commonwealth, state, territory and local government environmental and heritage
laws and regulations and Water Agency policies, instructions and guidelines.
The following sensitive areas shall be avoided wherever practicable:
(a)

National parks, nature reserves, proclaimed reserves, state forests, stands of native
vegetation etc.

(b)

Habitats of threatened species.

(c)

Steep slopes.

(d)

Waterways and floodways.

(e)

Wetlands, swamps, estuaries, sand dunes, foreshore areas.

(f)

Bushland and vegetation communities and/or fauna.

(g)

Heritage items and precincts.

(h)

Aboriginal relics and sacred sites.

(i)

Unstable areas subject to rock falls, slips and flows including areas steeper than 33%
grade.

(j)

Aggressive ground conditions e.g. mining areas, acid

contaminated land, including suspected contaminated land.

(k)

Land fill sites and mine subsidence areas.

sulphate

soils

and

Where it is not practicable to bypass sensitive areas, the following measures shall be
considered during selection of the route and construction methods so as to minimise
effects, contact, damage or disturbance:
(i)

Use of no-dig excavation methods such as tunnelling, boring, directional drilling

and micro-tunnelling.
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WSA 022002-2.3

(ii)

Use of de-watering and rock excavation less likely to cause damage or

disturbance.

(iii)

Use of construction equipment of type and size less likely to damage or disturb
sensitive areas

(iv)

Local deviations around significant flora and particularly sensitive parts of a site.

(v)

Minimising the area of disturbance.

(vi)

Undertaking construction when there would likely be drier weather and firmer
ground conditions

(vii) Minimising transport of soil borne disease and non-native flora and fauna into
sensitive areas.
(viii) Very high standard rehabilitation of the site after construction is complete.
Owners and controlling and regulatory authorities shall be consulted on proposed methods
of construction in sensitive areas and measures to avoid or minimise damage or
disturbance. Any requirements for avoiding or minimising effects, contact, damage,
disturbance and rehabilitation of sensitive areas shall be included in the Design Drawings
and/or Specification.
4.2.4.2 Urban salinity
The Designer shall consult the local planning authority to determine whether urban salinity
management strategies are in force so as to ensure that appropriate precautionary
measures are adopted.
Location of infrastructure and construction activities may contribute to the salinity problems
by affecting drainage or by disturbing native soils in salinity hazard areas. Salinity may
cause accelerated deterioration of built infrastructure. Salinity management strategies may
constrain options for positioning of infrastructure, materials, or construction methods.
4.2.4.3 Vegetation
Vegetation along the proposed route of a sewer shall not be removed unnecessarily,
particularly mature and sound stands of trees. Dead trees, either fallen or standing, shall
also be considered as they may provide a natural habitat for fauna. Trees of significance
located along the proposed route of the sewer shall be identified for protection and a
record, including details of their health, stability and importance, shall be established.
Specialist advice should be sought as a permit may be required for tree removal and the
cost and constraints of such action may be a design consideration.
4.2.4.4 Contaminated sites
If selecting the route of a sewer where a contaminated site cannot be avoided, prior written
approval to proceed shall be obtained from the environmental Regulator and the Water
Agency. Confirmation of the following issues shall be provided to the Water Agency:
(a)

Need for site contamination assessment by environmental Regulator (if applicable).

(b)

Compliance with statutory requirements.

(c)

Options to de-contaminate the area, including sites identified for disposal of

contaminated spoil.

(d)

Selection of appropriate materials and jointing techniques to maintain sewer integrity

and fulfil life expectancy.

(e)

Selection of appropriate foundation and embedment materials to maintain structural

integrity.

(f)

Safety of construction, operation and maintenance personnel.

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58

Special maintenance considerations / requirements.

The Design Drawings and Specification shall nominate details of contaminated sites and
safety precautions, as appropriate.
4.2.4.5 Tidal zones
For sewers located below high tide level, the following requirements shall be specified:
(a)

The weir crest of any ERS (Refer to Clause 7.9) to be set at least 0.5 m, and
preferably 0.8 m above maximum high tide AHD level.

(b)

The tops of maintenance structures to be at least 0.9 m above maximum high tide
AHD and fitted with watertight type metal access covers.

(c)

A sewer material and jointing system suitable for marine environments and protected
as necessary from external abrasion, vandalism and UV radiation.

(d)

A suitable installation technique for the tidal zone ground conditions (Refer to
Clause 8.6.7).

4.2.5 Easements
Where required by state or territory legislation and/or the Water Agency and where sewers
are located within private property, easements shall be created which provide access to
the Water Agency for future operations and maintenance activities and restrict any
construction over the sewer (Refer Standard Drawing SEW1105 for typical easement
installations).
Easement widths and placement of the sewer within the easement shall be as specified by
the Water Agency and detailed in the Design Drawings.
4.2.6 Disused sewers
Where a design results in the disuse of an existing sewer, the Design Drawings and
Specification shall detail proposed treatment such as demolition of top 300 mm of an MH
top and/or capping both ends of the sewer at each MH or complete removal of the sewer
and structures.
Sewers should not be designated abandoned. Disused sewers offer potential for the
placement of other utility conduits, such as telecommunications, and should not be
destroyed or filled without careful consideration. Sewers of age greater than 50 years may
have heritage protection.
4.2.7 Special design considerations
When determining the route of a sewer in difficult areas, there may be a need to identify at
the design stage some special design requirements. The detailed requirements for these
special designs are explained in Section 8 and include geotechnical considerations such
as filled, mine subsidence and slip areas as well as water charged ground.
4.3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT OF SEWERS
4.3.1 General
Subsequent to determining the preliminary location of the sewer, the following more
detailed aspects shall be incorporated into the final detail design, as appropriate.
4.3.2 Roads, reserves and open space
Sewers that are to be constructed in roads, drainage reserves and/or public open spaces
shall be located in accordance with the Water Agencys requirements.
Crossings of all roads, creeks, drains and underground services shall, as far as
practicable, be at right angles (Refer to Standard Drawings SEW1400, SEW1401, SEW

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1402, SEW1403 and SEW1404). As necessary, these drawings (or alternatives if

acceptable to the Water Agency) shall be used to develop detailed construction drawings.
Where sewers cross freeways, arterial roads and other designated major road reserves,
the following design criteria shall apply:
(a)

Size the sewer one size larger than hydraulically necessary at those crossings to
cater for future growth; or

(b)

Specify dual pipelines to avoid operational problems at a later date.

All maintenance structures shall be located outside the road pavement. In the case of
freeways they shall be outside the freeway reserve. If the maximum spacing requirements
as specified in Clause 6.2 cannot be met, the Water Agency shall be consulted.
4.3.3 Railway reserves
Sewers shall not be laid within railway reserves unless it is necessary to cross that land, in
which case, the crossing shall be in accordance with AS 4799. Consultation and approval
of the Water Agency shall be sought prior to finalisation of any design requiring sewers in
railway reserves (Refer to Standard Drawing SEW1401).
4.3.4 Public and private property
Where sewers are designed to traverse any vacant or occupied public or private
properties, the design shall as far as practicable allow for possible future building plans,
preclude maintenance structures and specify physical protection of the sewer within or
adjacent to the normal building areas and all engineering features (existing or likely) on the
site e.g. retaining walls.
The design shall allow access for all equipment required for construction and future
maintenance. Except where obstructions and/or topography dictate otherwise, sewers shall
run parallel to boundaries at minimum offsets of 1.0 m.
Where sewers are designed to traverse properties containing existing structures e.g.
retaining walls, buildings and swimming pools, the current and future stability of the
structure shall be considered. Sewers adjacent to existing buildings and structures shall be
located clear of the zone of influence of the foundations. If this is not possible, protection
of the sewer and associated structures shall be specified for evaluation and approval by
the Water Agency.
4.3.5 Changes in direction using an MH
Achievable changes in direction at an MH are dependent on the diameter of the sewer, the
physical ability of the MH to accommodate the deviation in direction and the type of
inlet / drop across the MH. The maximum allowable deflection of a sewer through an MH,
excluding horizontal bends external to the MH, shall be in accordance with Table 4.1.
Clause 4.3.7 specifies requirements for external horizontal bends.
No compensation for friction head loss through bends incorporated in the MH base is
required for MHs located on branch and trunk sewers.
4.3.6 Dead-ends
Where a sewer is to be extended in the future, the end of the sewer shall terminate at least
1.0 m past the boundary of the development to ensure that a future extension of the sewer
does not require the unnecessary excavation within lots or streetscapes already
developed.

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TABLE 4.1
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE DEFLECTIONS THROUGH A MH
Sewer size

Maximum deflection

DN

degrees

Up to 90 for internal fall along MH channelRefer to Standard Drawings SEW1303,

SEW1304 and SEW1305
150 300

Up to 120 where there is a large fall at MH using an internal or external dropRefer

to Standard Drawings SEW1303, SEW1304, SEW1305 and SEW1306
Up to 150 where there is a large fall at MH using an internal or external drop
chamberRefer to Standard Drawing SEW1306

375 750

900

Up to 45Refer to Standard Drawing SEW1309.

For >45Refer to Standard Drawing SEW1310.
Special designRefer to Water Agency

NOTES:
1

Table 4.1 does not address requirements for horizontal bends associated with an MHRefer to
Clause 4.3.7 for horizontal bend requirements.

Standard Drawing SEW1309 requires both tangents to be within the MH chamber, resulting in a
large diameter MH for >45 deflection. Standard Drawing SEW1310 enables large deflections to be
achieved more efficiently.

Refer to Clause 4.6.6.5 for limitations on steep sewers.

4.3.7 Horizontal curves in sewers

Whilst straight sewers are the preferred alignment option since they are generally less
costly to set out, construct, locate and maintain, they are not always practicable due to
bends or curves in streets, obstructions and other services. Under these circumstances,
horizontal curves may be used to achieve changes of direction. Horizontal curves may be
used on reticulation, branch and trunk sewers.
Where permitted by the Water Agency, horizontal curves shall be achieved by one or more
of the methods outlined in Clause 17.2.2.
Bends may be used independently of or close-coupled to maintenance structures (Refer to
Standard Drawings SEW1310 and SEW1315).
Only one manufactured bend (variable bend) with a deflection 30 shall be used between
adjacent maintenance structures (either two MSs or two MHs or one of each) and shall be
located on the upstream side of the MS / MH immediately adjacent to the structure.
Curves (variable bend) shall commence clear of the external wall and/or drop structure.
Where permitted by the Water Agency and additional to the one manufactured bend, a
curve, which is achieved either by cumulative joint deflection or manual cold bending, may
be used along the sewer between consecutive maintenance structures.
The minimum radii for curved sewers (horizontal and vertical) for the most commonly used
materials shall be in accordance with Table 17.1. For other materials, the Water Agency
shall be consulted.
4.4 OBSTRUCTIONS AND CLEARANCES
4.4.1 General
All underground obstructions and services, surface obstructions and structures along the
route of the proposed sewer shall be determined and shown in the Design Drawings. The
Design Drawings shall address the detail of avoiding any obstruction or service or structure
in accordance with Clauses 4.4.2 to 4.4.5 inclusive.

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4.4.2 Surface obstructions

Surface obstructions shall be located during the initial survey and inspection of the site and
by enquiries to local government and other service utilities. Consideration should be given
to factors such as whether the obstruction is inappropriately in the sewer allocation and the
effect of the item on sewer construction, operation and/or maintenance. Designers should
be mindful that the dimensions of obstructions at the surface might be different from their
underground dimensions.
4.4.3 Clearance from transmission towers and power lines
Overhead power lines are a hazard for trenching and mechanical handling of pipes.
Sewers shall be located as far as practicable away from overhead power lines and
transmission towers.
Investigations shall also be carried out, with reference to AS/NZS 4853, to determine
potential safety risks where:
(a)

welded steel sewers simultaneously run parallel and close to high voltage power lines
i.e. for more than 1 km parallel and within 500 m of powerlines >50 kV;

(b)

metal pipelines are located within 5 m of a transmission tower; or

(c)

metal pipeline access is within 50 m of a transmission tower.

NOTE: The above distances are indicative only.

Where sewers are to be located within plan distances described in (a), (b) and (c) or closer
as determined by investigation, the design shall specify the alignment, electrical protection,
corrosion protection and construction details.
Sewers shall not be laid under overhead high voltage power lines unless it is necessary to
cross that land, in which case, the crossing shall be in accordance with the electricity
authoritys requirements.
4.4.4 Clearance from structures
For sewers located close to structures such as foundations for brick walls and buildings,
the sewer shall be located clear of the zone of influence of the structure foundations to
ensure that the stability of the structure is maintained and that excessive loads are not
imposed on the sewer.
4.4.5 Underground obstructions and services
4.4.5.1 General
Details of underground services shall be obtained from the relevant Owner.
Dial Before You Dig, a One Call Service to locate underground utility services, operates in
all States and Territories. The number to call nation-wide is 1100. Nevertheless, hand
excavation (pot-holing) is recommended to determine the exact location and depth of
underground obstructions during design and again immediately prior to excavation. For
power conduits / cables, gas mains, and telecommunication conduits / cables contact the
asset owner to ascertain their individual procedures for excavation (pot-holing).
Underground services and other obstructions such as power conduits / cables, gas mains,
drains, telecommunication conduits / cables, oil / petrochemical pipelines and the
underground portions of surface obstructions (tree roots, pits, etc) may affect the proposed
alignment of the sewer both in plan and in level.
Where the sewer crosses other services, the depth of those services shall be determined
as part of the design. Services upstream of the project area may also critically affect the
design. A future extension of the sewer that will cross existing and proposed upstream
services may determine the level for the current sewer.
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4.4.5.2 Clearance requirements

For normal trenching and trenchless technology installation, clearance from other service
utility assets shall not be less than (and preferably exceed) the minimum vertical and
horizontal clearances shown in Table 4.2. Written agreement on reduced clearances and
clearances for shared trenching shall be obtained from the Water Agency and the relevant
service Owner.
The clearance shall be measured between the two closest parts of sewer and the other
underground service e.g. collar to socket.
TABLE 4.2
CLEARANCES BETWEEN SEWERS AND OTHER UNDERGROUND SERVICES
Minimum horizontal clearance
Utility
(Existing service)

mm

Minimum vertical clearance

New sewer size

mm

DN 300

>DN 300

Sewers DN 300

300

600

150 /300

Sewers >DN 300

600

600

300

600

150 /300

600

150 /300

1000

225 /300

Gas mains

300

Telecommunication
conduits and cables

300

Electricity conduits
and cables

500

Drains

300

Water mains

1000 /600

1000 /600

Kerbs

150

600

600

2
2

150

2 and 4

500

/300

150 (where practicable)

NOTES:
1

Vertical clearances apply when sewers cross one another, except in the case of water mains
when a vertical separation shall always be maintained, even when the sewer and main are
parallel. The sewer should always be located below the main to minimise the possibility of
backflow contamination in the event of a main break.

A minimum vertical clearance of 300 mm applies if the size of either the existing service or
proposed sewer is >DN 300.

Clearances can be further reduced to 150 mm for distances up to 2 m when passing

installations such as poles, pits and small structures, providing the structure is not destabilised
in the process.

Sewers should always cross under water mains and stormwater drains. For cases where there
is no alternative and the sewer must cross over a water main, construction shall be in
accordance with Standard Drawing WAT1211 of WSA 03.

When the sewer is at the minimum vertical clearance below the water main (500 mm) maintain a
minimum horizontal clearance of 1000 mm. This minimum horizontal clearance can be
progressively reduced to 600 mm as the vertical clearance increases to 750 mm.

Clearance from kerbs shall be measured from the nearest point of the kerb.

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4.5 PIPE SIZING AND GRADING

4.5.1 General
Pipe size and grade shall be based on the need to transport the design flow at the
specified level of containment and on achieving a self-cleansing velocity at least once per
day.
Design flow shall be calculated by the method nominated by the Water Agency (Refer to
Section 3).
The following requirements shall be addressed in sizing and grading of sewers:
(a)

Environmental protection requirements;

(b)

Maintenance and operational requirements; and

(c)

Planning (growth) requirements.

Sizing of pipes shall provide for sewer ventilation by ensuring a suitable air space exists in
the pipe at either peak dry weather flow (PDWF) or at design flow (Refer to Clause 4.5.3).
Excessive grades can lead to safety and maintenance problems and excessive odour
generation via hydraulic jumps.
Sewers DN 300 may require special considerations to prevent development of slimes e.g.
steeper grade requirements.
For reticulation sewers, the Water Agency may specify empirical relationships between EP,
size and grade) as an alternative to hydraulic analysis.
4.5.2 Environmental protection requirements
The grade shall be at least steep enough to ensure design flow containment i.e. without
sewage levels exceeding the pipe soffit. Hydraulic analysis shall use either the ColebrookWhite or Manning equation.
4.5.3 Minimum air space for ventilation
To ensure the efficiency of natural ventilation of a sewer, an air space shall be retained at
either the peak dry weather flow or the design flow. The Water Agency shall nominate
which of the following options shall be adopted:
Option A - Air space at peak dry weather flow (PDWF)
At PDWF, the depth of flow shall be not more than 60% of the pipe diameter i.e. a
minimum air space equivalent to 40% of pipe diameter at PDWF.
Option B - Air space at design flow
Catering for future growth or phased development may be achieved by providing an
air space in the sewer at the design.
At design flow, the depth of flow shall be not more than 70% of pipe diameter i.e. a
minimum air space equivalent to 30% of pipe diameter at design flow.
4.5.4 Minimum pipe sizes for maintenance purposes
Irrespective of other requirements, the minimum sizes of property connection and
reticulation sewers shall be not less than those shown in Table 4.3. If an unusually high
discharge is anticipated from a lot, the size of the property connection sewer shall be
determined on the basis of estimated flow.

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TABLE 4.3
MINIMUM PIPE SIZES FOR RETICULATION AND PROPERTY CONNECTION SEWERS
Sewer

Minimum size
DN

Property connection sewer servicing 1 residential lot

100

Property connection sewer servicing more than 1 residential lot

Property connection sewer servicing commercial and industrial lots 300 m

150
2

Reticulation sewers servicing residential lots

Reticulation sewer servicing commercial and industrial lots >300 m 2 and other
complexes where large flows may be expected

225

4.5.5 Maximum EP for reticulation sewers

Irrespective of hydraulic analysis, the maximum EP that may be serviced by reticulation
sewers shall be as specified in Table 4.4.
TABLE 4.4
EP CAPACITY LIMITATIONS FOR RETICULATION SEWERS
Pipe size
DN

Maximum allowable EP

150

600

225

1600

300

3200

4.5.6 Limitation on sewer size reduction

In no circumstances shall the pipe size of any reticulation sewer be reduced on any
downstream section.
4.5.7 Minimum grades for self-cleansing
4.5.7.1 General
Except as provided in Clauses 4.5.7.2 and 4.5.7.3, self-cleansing of grit and debris shall be
based on achieving a wetted cross section average velocity of 0.7m/s at PDWF+GWI.
The minimum grades required to achieve self-cleansing shall be calculated using either the
Colebrook-White equation for k = 1.5 mm or the Manning equation for n M equivalent to
k = 1.5 mm (Refer to Table 4.5).
Irrespective of outcomes using the above methodology, grades shall not be less than those
specified in Tables 4.6 and 4.7.
Where the equivalent population is low (typically less than 600), intermittent daily flows can
be expected and hydraulic analysis may not be valid. The use of empirical relationships
between EP, size and grade provided by the Water Agency may be appropriate.

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TABLE 4.5
MANNING COEFFICIENT
Pipe size
DN

Manning friction coefficient, nM

equivalent to Colebrook-White roughness ks = 1.5mm

150

0.0128

300

0.0128

600

0.0130

1000

0.0132

2000

0.0134

NOTE: n M may be linearly interpolated for intermediate sizes.

TABLE 4.6
ABSOLUTE MINIMUM GRADES
Pipe size

Absolute minimum grade

DN

150

0.55

225

0.33

300

0.25

Reticulation

Branch and trunk

375

0.17

450

0.14

525

0.12

600

0.10

750

0.08

NOTES:
1

As constructed grades i.e. design grade to allow for construction tolerances

Determining grades of branch and trunk sewers, including allowance for

slime control (Refer to Clause 4.5.8) and staged development to be assessed
by a hydraulic specialist, in consultation with the Water Agency.

Refer to Clause 8.6.5 for mine subsidence areas.

TABLE 4.7
MINIMUM GRADES FOR PROPERTY CONNECTION SEWERS AND PERMANENT ENDS
Situation

Minimum grade, %

DN 100 property connection sewers

1.65

DN 150 property connection sewers

1.2

Permanent upstream ends of DN 150, 225 and 300

sewers in residential areas with EP 20

1.0

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4.5.7.2 Reticulation sewers

Reticulation sewers shall be graded to achieve self-cleansing at least once per day in
accordance with the Water Agencys requirements.
The Water Agency should nominate grades which, from experience, have demonstrated
satisfactory self-cleansing and containment. At low values of EP, daily flows will not be
continuous but will display an intermittent pulsing pattern. Self-cleansing is generally
achieved via the mechanism of successive impulse-shunting jolts that transport grit and
debris along the sewer to sections of continuous flow.
4.5.7.3 Property connection sewers and ends of lines
To achieve self-cleansing, the minimum grade of property connection sewers and the
upstream ends of reticulation sewers shall not be less than that specified in Table 4.7.
4.5.8 Minimum grades for slime control
For sewers DN 300, the minimum self-cleansing velocity may not be sufficient to prevent
the build up of slimes. However, increased grades may not be economical and alternative
hydrogen sulphide control measures may be necessary.
Where specified by the Water Agency, the minimum grade shall ensure that a slime
stripping velocity is achieved (Refer to Hydrogen Sulphide Control Manual Volume 1,
Monograph 5.1). For branch and trunk sewers, the Designer, in consultation with the Water
Agency, shall address minimum grades and velocities and any other requirements
necessary to effectively control slime build-up and hydrogen sulphide generation.
4.5.9 Maximum grades for septicity
4.5.9.1 Branch and trunk sewers
Limitations on maximum grade in branch and trunk sewers are necessary to minimise
turbulence and hydrogen sulphide generation.
The maximum grade shall be that for which the velocity of flow is 3.0 m/s for the sewer
flowing full. The maximum grade shall be determined using the Colebrook-White equations
for a roughness coefficient (ks) of 1.5 mm, or equivalent Manning n M value from Table
4.5.
Where the grade of a branch or trunk sewer will result in a flow velocity greater than 3 m/s,
Water Agency approval shall be obtained (Refer to Clause 4.6.6.5 for general precautions
for steep sewers).
4.5.9.2 Reticulation sewers
While there is no limitation on the maximum grade of a reticulation sewer, pipe half-full
velocity shall be limited to 3 m/s wherever practicable.
At the bottom of steep grades (>7%) with an EP >100, precautions shall be taken against
surcharge arising from a hydraulic jump (Refer to Clause 4.6.6.5).
4.6 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT OF SEWERS
4.6.1 General
Vertical alignment is primarily determined by the topography and minimum pipe size and
grades required to transport the design flows. Other critical factors that influence the final
sewer size, level and grade include:
(a)

Adequate depth to service the entire individual propertysoffit requirement;

(b)

Adequate depth to service all lots by gravity;

(c)

Adequate grade for self cleansing;

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(d)

Adequate grade for slime stripping when required;

(e)

Minimum depth requirements to ensure mechanical protection of the sewer and to

avoid interference from underground services and future excavation work;

(f)

Achieving clearances between the sewer, utility services and obstructions; and

(g)

Allowance for various drops and losses through maintenance structures.

4.6.2 Long section design plan

The vertical alignment of sewers shall be shown as longitudinal sections in the Design
Drawings or may be detailed in a level schedule as specified by the Water Agency (Refer
to Standard Drawing SEW-1101).
The longitudinal section (or level schedule) shall nominate all relevant levels along the
length of the proposed sewer at prescribed intervals specified by the Water Agency.
In addition, levels shall also be provided for the following locations:
(a)

At each side of any road crossing.

(b)

At crossings of existing and proposed creeks, drains, cables and other pipes and
services.

(c)

At changes in grade including at maintenance structures and vertical bends.

(d)

At regular intervals on vertical curves so that the sewer depth is within minimum and
maximum limits below FSL.

4.6.3 Minimum cover over sewers

Minimum covers are specified to:
(a)

prevent interference with other utility pipes and cables;

(b)

provide mechanical protection; and

(c)

minimise the impact of applied loading to the pipe e.g. from construction plant and
vehicles.

Sewers shall have minimum covers measured from the top of the pipe to finished surface
in accordance with Table 4.8.
Minimum specified covers shall also provide for construction activities, areas of proposed
fill and areas of proposed cut where construction of road foundations may expose the
sewer to high loadings due to the reduced cover. Situations where additional protection is
required shall be assessed separately and additional protective measures detailed in the
Design Drawings.
Where minimum cover is not achievable, Design Drawings shall detail special protective
measures required.
In order to reduce installation costs, the Water Agency may approve lesser covers
provided structural assessment demonstrates that loading of the sewer will be within the
structural limit of the pipe (Refer AS/NZS 2566.1 or appropriate installation standard for the
pipe material).

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TABLE 4.8
MINIMUM COVER OVER SEWERS
Location

Minimum cover to top of sewer

mm

Private residential property and public land not subject to

vehicular loading

600 new developments

450 existing developments

Private residential property subject to vehicular loading

750

Footways, nature strips, industrial property, sealed road

pavements other than arterial roads subject to vehicular loading

900

Unsealed road carriageways

1200

Arterial road carriageways

1200

Future road, rail and tram pavements

1200

NOTE:
1

Water Agency minimum cover requirements shall take precedence.

4.6.4 Lot servicing requirements

4.6.4.1 General
The vertical alignment of the reticulation sewer may be controlled by the depth of the
property connection point (Refer to Clause 4.6.5). This controlling depth is the highest level
of the sewer at which full drainage of the required service area of a lot is provided by
gravity via the customer sanitary drain laid in accordance with AS/NZS 3500.2.2.
The sewer shall service the whole lot subject to the qualifications outlined in Clauses
4.6.4.2 to 4.6.4.5. The sewer and connection point shall be deep enough to enable a worst
case plumbing fixture in a serviced lot to be connected using permissible grades and
depths. The worst case plumbing fixture in a serviced lot may be at the lowest point on
the lot, the point furthest from the property connection, or a combination of both, but does
not normally include basements of buildings (Refer to Clause 4.6.4.5).
Diagonal alignments shall not be used to determine lot control.
4.6.4.2 Serviced area requirements for residential lots
If the property is to be serviced from the front, the area to be serviced shall be the total
area of the lot. If the property is to be serviced from the rear, the area to be serviced shall
be the total area of the lot excluding any front setback, or front and side setbacks in the
case of corner lots, as defined in the local planning scheme.
4.6.4.3 Serviced area requirements for industrial and commercial lots
The area to be serviced shall be the full area of the lot less any minimum setback distance.
In suburban commercial areas where the sewers are located at the rear, the area to be
serviced shall be the total area of the lot from the footway level of the frontage.
Where industrial lots slope towards the street and are to be serviced from the street
boundary, the serviced area and control shall be calculated on the premise that the
property will be graded flat to the level of the street footway for development purposes.
For large lots, consideration may be given to splitting the lot for service purposes i.e.
controlling portions of the lot to various points along the sewer. However, multiple
connection points require approval by the Water Agency.
4.6.4.4 Partial lot service
In extreme cases where it causes the sewer to be excessively deep, it is permissible to
forego normal lot control with the approval of the Water Agency.
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If the lot has potential to be subdivided in the future, the sewer shall be deep enough such
that a sewer extension designed to this Code will provide full service to the future lot(s).
In cases involving excessive depth, consideration may be given to controlling less than the
area of the entire lot where:
(a)

all existing development can be serviced; and

(b)

all possible development on the lot can be serviced by some method in the future,
e.g. by extending a sewer from another direction; and

(c)

the savings from partial lot service are substantial.

In such cases, it would be necessary for the property Owner to:

(i)

develop the lot in such a way that all plumbing installations are constructed
close enough to the sewer, or on a level high enough, to gravitate at allowable
grades; or

(ii)

pump to the property connection fitting; or

(iii)

lay customer drains at flatter than normal grades.

Reduced grades are specified in AS/NZS 3500.2.2 and are subject to approval by the
Plumbing and Drainage Regulator. They can only be assessed upon application when
fixture unit loadings are known.
Alternatively, a pressure or vacuum sewerage scheme could be considered.
The Design Drawings shall nominate lots where partial lot service is provided.
4.6.4.5 Servicing of basements
Where required by the Water Agency, sewers to serve buildings in central business
districts of towns and cities shall be designed to provide gravity drainage for the first
basement level, unless this is impractical for physical or other reasons. It is not standard to
provide for basement customer sanitary drains in other development zones. In cases
where there are existing or proposed sanitary fittings in basements, the decision as to
whether to provide gravity service to such fittings shall be referred to the Water Agency.
4.6.5 Minimum depth of sewer connection point
4.6.5.1 General
The soffit requirement is the depth from the controlling surface level on the property to the
soffit of the sewer connection point (refer Figure 4.1). The soffit requirement is based on
providing assurance that a reticulation sewer, flowing at full capacity, will not surcharge via
the customer sanitary drain.
There are two controlling factors viz. soffit and physical losses, either of which may
determine the minimum depth of the sewer connection point. Where the minimum soffit
depth is greater than the physical losses, then soffit shall be used as the minimum depth
control. Alternatively, where the physical losses are greater than the soffit depth, the
physical losses shall be used to calculate the connection level.
4.6.5.2 Soffit requirement
The soffit requirement applies to all sewered properties and shall be:
(a)

750 mm where water seals are not required as part of the customer sanitary drain;

(b)

900 mm where water seals are required as part of the customer sanitary drain; and

(c)

apply to all sewered buildings, existing and proposed.

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With the approval of the Water Agency, the soffit requirements of 750 mm and 900 mm
may be reduced by 150 mm where:
(i)

the number of properties connected upstream of the subject property does not
exceed 10 or the equivalent loading; or

(ii)

the grade of the sewer downstream of the property connection is steeper than
3.0%.

Where the minimum soffit requirement cannot be met for an existing property, alternative
means of safeguarding against surcharge shall be determined e.g. pumping system,
installation of reflux valve. Such measures shall comply with AS/NZS 3500.2.2 and the
Plumbing Regulators requirements.

WORST CASE PLUMBING FIXTURE OR FITTING

WORST CASE BUILDING

Controlling surface
level (CSL)

y
Minimum cover (c)

s sd = (100 y/x)%

Other service obstruction

x
DN of customer sanitary drain (DNsd)

Length of customer sanitary drain (Lsd)

Water seal allowance (w) if required

Minimum clearance (a)

Connection level
Diameter of reticulation
sewer ( DNrs)

FIGURE 4.1 PHYSICAL LOSSES IN CUSTOMER SANITARY DRAINS

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4.6.5.3 Physical losses in customer sanitary drains

The determination of the physical losses in customer sanitary drains is illustrated in Figure
4.2. The required connection level based on physical losses can be determined using the
following equation:
Physical losses (m) = CSL(Lsd x ssd/100) c DNsd a w 0.5DNrs
where:
CSL

controlling surface level in metres at worst case plumbing fixture of buildings

(existing or proposed)

Lsd

length in metres from that fixture to the connection, measured along a property
boundary perimeter

s sd

minimum permissible slope / grade of the customer sanitary drain in %

(Refer to AS/NZS 3500.2.2)

minimum permissible cover in metres of the customer sanitary drain from

AS/NZS 3500.2.2for mechanical protection

DNsd

nominal diameter of the customer sanitary drain, in m (generally 0.1)

allowance for clearing other services

allowance for head loss in water seal0.15 m if applicable

DNrs

nominal diameter of the reticulation sewer, in m

4.6.5.4 Depth of connection point

The requirements of Figure 4.2 and the following shall be met:
(a)

The minimum depth of point of connection to the reticulation sewer shall be the
calculated level for maximum property drainage and compliance with soffit
requirements [Refer to Clause 4.6.5.2 and case (a) in Figure 4.2].

(b)

Where lot control warrants the sewer being deeper than 1.5 m, the point of
connection shall be constructed at that level or deeper. A vertical riser (jump-up) shall
not extend higher than that level. [Refer to case (b) in Figure 4.2].

(c)

In cases where the reticulation sewer is deeper than 1.5 m and the required property
connection level is less than 1.5 m, then a vertical riser (jump-up) shall be
constructed to a depth of not more than 1.5 m below FSL [Refer to case (c) in Figure
4.2].

(d)

If the reticulation sewer is very deep and the property connection level required is
deeper than 1.5 m, a riser shall be constructed to the required property connection
level [Refer to case (d) in Figure 4.2].

Both (c) and (d) mitigate the likelihood of unsafe practices being adopted by the customers
plumber and reduces the life cycle costs of the sanitary drain to the property owner.
The Design Drawings shall detail the connection point requirements (Refer to Standard
Drawings SEW1104, SEW1105, SEW1106, SEW1107, SEW1108 and SEW1109).

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Surface level

1.5 m depth

Connection level
Connection level
Reticulation sewer

Connection level
Connection level

Vertical riser
Vertical riser

Reticulation sewer
Reticulation
sewer

Case (a)
Reticulation sewer
and
connection level are
both < 1.5 m

Case (b)
Reticulation sewer
and connection level
are both >1.5 m
(No Riser)

Case (c)
Connection level < 1.5 &
Reticulation sewer > 1.5 m
(Riser required up to 1.5 m)

Reticulation
sewer

Case (d)
Connection level and
reticulation sewer > 1.5 m
(Riser required up to
connection level

FIGURE 4.2 DEPTH OF POINT OF CONNECTION AND USE OF RISERS

4.6.6 Grading through MHs
4.6.6.1 General
The vertical alignment of a sewer is impacted by provision of MHs along the route.
Normally there is a fall across the base of the MH.
The fall through an MH shall not exceed 150 mm.
The depth of a channel through an MH shall not exceed two times the pipe internal
diameter. The sides of a channel shall be splayed and the nosing of inlets shall be rounded
(Refer to Standard Drawing SEW1302).
Falls which are too large to be accommodated in the channel and insufficient for a drop
structure should be avoided by grading out at the design phase e.g. by adjusting the
incoming and outgoing grades of the sewer or by using a vertical bend prior to the MH
(Refer to Clause 4.6.7).
4.6.6.2 Internal fall through MHs joining sewers of same diameter
For reticulation sewers (DN 300) where inlet and outlet sewers are the same diameter,
compensation for the friction head loss through bends within MHs shall be provided by
means of fall to the design gradient, evenly distributed along the channel within the MH.
The minimum internal fall through an MH for a deflection shall be not less than the values
nominated in Table 4.9.
No compensation for friction head loss through bends is required for MHs located on
branch and trunk sewers (>DN 300).

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TABLE 4.9
MINIMUM INTERNAL FALL THROUGH AN MH
JOINING RETICULATION SEWERS OF SAME DIAMETER
Deflection angle at MH

Minimum internal fall

degrees

mm

0 to 30

30

>30 to 60

50

>60

80

4.6.6.3 Internal falls through MHs joining sewers of different diameters

For reticulation, branch and trunk sewers where the outlet sewer diameter at an MH is
greater than the inlet sewer diameter, the sewers shall be designed soffit to soffit.
In special cases, where this cannot be achieved, Water Agency approval shall be obtained
to align the sewers flow-line to flow-line at PDWF.
4.6.6.4 Large falls at MHs
On reticulation sewers where the internal fall across the base of the MH is not achievable
due to a large difference between the levels of incoming and outgoing sewers (Refer to
Standard Drawing SEW1303), then internal or external drops shall be provided within the
limitations of Table 4.10.
Where grading-out is not practical, a drop structure should be provided at the junction of
a shallow and a deep sewer. In severe changes of levels, verticals may be used with the
minimum drop of the vertical at MHs being governed by the dimensions of available pipe
fittings (Refer to Standard Drawings SEW1303 and SEW1306).
TABLE 4.10
LIMITATIONS ON LARGE FALLS AT MHS USING INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL DROPS
Type of drop

Maximum number of
drops at MH

Internal

1 in 1050 diameter MH

(SEW1306)

2 in 1200 diameter MH

External
(SEW1303)

Allowable sewer size

DN

Limitations

150
Dependent on other lines coming
into MHmaximum 3 inlets into MH
150300

4.6.6.5 Effect of steep gradeshydraulic jumps

For branch and trunk sewers of grade >(1000/DN)%, a review shall be made of the
hydraulic performance of the sewer entering an MH. The design shall incorporate
measures, such as (a) and (b), that will avoid an hydraulic jump from occurring at an MH.
Where an hydraulic jump is likely for peak or other flows, the following measures shall be
considered:
(a)

Adequate educt / induct ventilation on either side of the possible hydraulic jump; and

(b)

Prevent the jump from occurring in an MH by providing horizontal and/or vertical

curves in the sewer at changes of grade and/or direction. The curve should be
located at sufficient distance from an MH such that the jump will not occur in the MH.
The radius of curvature should not be less than approximately 8 x the pipe diameter.

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For reticulation sewers of grade >7% and loadings specified by the Water Agency, either a
specialist review of the hydraulic performance shall be made and measures, such as (a)
and (b), as appropriate, incorporated into the design, or the following precautions shall be
incorporated in the design:
(i)

For DN 150 and DN 225 sewers, the depth to invert of the MH shall exceed
1.5 m;

(ii)

For DN 300 sewers, the depth to invert of the MH shall exceed 2.0 m;

(iii)

Change of direction at the MH shall not exceed 45;

(iv)

Grade through the MH shall not be reduced; and

(v)

Any curvature of the channel inside the MH shall be greater than 6 x pipe OD.

In an open channel, an hydraulic jump occurs in the transition from supercritical flow to
subcritical flow. Jumps may occur if a steeply graded sewer changes to a flatter grade.
This may occur during peak or other flows or when a pressure main discharges into a
gravity sewer.
Detrimental effects of an hydraulic jump may include:
(A)

Turbulence that will liberate gases and reduce or prevent air flow along
the sewer; and

(B)

Increased water levels in the MH that may impede flow from incoming
sewers

Estimating the location of an hydraulic jump is difficult. It depends on flow, roughness,

grades and other factors. It is difficult to predict. Feedback from field experience is most
useful. A hydraulic jump will generally occur in the MH containing an internal bend if the
flow leaves the benched channel.
4.6.7 Vertical curves
Vertical curves provide a significant cost saving where maintenance structures would be
unsuitable, inconvenient or unnecessary. Vertical curves permit gradient changes either
adjacent to MHs or MSs, or part way along the sewer between MHs and/or MSs.
Where permitted by the Water Agency, vertical curves shall be achieved using the same
means as horizontal curves (Refer to Clause 4.3.7) i.e. manufactured (long radius) bends,
cumulative joint deflection or manually bent curved pipes. They shall be used as required
either adjacent to an MS / MH or in the straight run between consecutive MSs and/or MHs.
When used adjacent to an MS, the curve shall be placed on the side of the MS that
minimises the vertical deflection of the MS riser. Alternatively, the total change of grade
may be split and a proportion of the curve placed either side of the MS.
Not more than two manufactured bends (variable bend) are permitted between adjacent
MSs / MHs. Manufactured bends shall be placed on the upstream and/or downstream side
of the MS / MH immediately adjacent to the structure i.e. one at the outlet of an MH/MS
and one at the inlet of a downstream MH/MS. The maximum deflection at each bend is 30.
Curves (variable bends) shall commence clear of the external wall and/or drop structure.
Where permitted by the Water Agency and additional to the two manufactured bends, a
vertical curve, achieved either by cumulative joint deflection or manual cold bending, may
be used along the sewer between consecutive maintenance structures.
The minimum radii for curved sewers shall be in accordance with Table 17.1. For other
materials, the Water Agency shall be consulted.

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WSA 022002-2.3

4.6.8 Compound curves

In some circumstances it may be more efficient to have both a horizontal and vertical
directional change at a maintenance structure to avoid obstructions in both planes. Under
this situation a compound bend i.e. a combination of horizontal and vertical deflection, may
achieve a significant cost saving.
Where permitted by the Water Agency, compound bends shall only be used immediately
adjacent to a maintenance structure in accordance with the limitations set out in Clauses
4.3.7 and 4.6.7. Compound bends shall be limited to DN 150 and DN 225 PVC pipes with a
maximum combined deflection of 30.
4.7 CORROSION PREVENTION
4.7.1 General
The internal and external corrosion prevention of sewers shall be addressed as part of the
detail design (Refer to Products and Materials Information and Guidance downloadable
from www.wsaa.asn.au).
The Design Drawings and Specification shall nominate corrosion protection requirements
as appropriate.
4.7.2 Internal corrosion
Septic sewage gives rise to production of hydrogen sulphide (H 2S), which, through
turbulence, is released from the flow as hydrogen sulphide gas. H2S will corrode some
metals. H2 S may be further converted to sulphuric acid on walls of the sewer by
thiobactillus bacteria, leading to attack of cementitious products. For means of controlling
the production of hydrogen sulphide, refer to WSAA publication Hydrogen Sulphide
Control Manual Volumes 1 and 2.
4.7.3 External corrosion
External corrosion of sewer items is mainly affected by aggressive environments through
which the sewer may traverse. Ground contaminated by organic compounds, such as
hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons, may have an adverse effect on:
(a)

properties of some materials, especially plastics and polymeric coatings;

(b)

permeability and durability of elastomeric seals and gaskets; and

(c)

corrosion resistance of some metallic components.

Corrosion prevention measures may include:

(i)

selection of a corrosion resistant material.

(ii)

coatings for some metallic components, suitably designed for various corrosivity
levels of soil and groundwater;

(iii)

fully sealed conduits for plastic pipes and fittings in contaminated ground; and

(iv)

fully sealed conduits for all elastomeric seal jointed pipes and fittings in
contaminated ground.

Acidic soils, very high salinity soils and sulphate bearing ground water and soils will attack
concrete pipe and maintenance structures. Sulphate resistant cement will provide
resistance to neutral sulphates. Use of calcareous aggregates combined with increased
cover will reduce the rate of attack in acidic ground conditions. Refer to AS 3735
Supplement 1 for design for concrete durability.

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4.8 STEEL SEWERS

4.8.1 Sizes and configurations
The diameter, wall thickness, joint type, length of pipes, types of fittings and the internal
and external corrosion protection shall be detailed in the Design Drawings and/or
Specification.
Standard steel pipe outside diameters shall be selected from Appendix C of AS 1579. Type
and dimensions of fittings shall be in accordance with Appendix D of AS 1579.
The Water Agency may agree to alternative sizes and fitting types and dimensions.
4.8.2 Joints
The pipe and fitting joint shall be one of the types illustrated in Appendix E of AS 1579.
Refer to the manufacturer for size availability and allowable deflection, except for plain
ended welded joints where no defection is allowed.
Depending on the size of pipe, internal access for welding and reinstatement of lining may
be required within limitations of person-entry. Refer to Standard Drawing WAT1408 of
WSA 03 for reinstatement of lining.
4.8.3 Field welding
The weld category shall be SP in accordance with AS/NZS 1554.1.
4.8.4 Flanged joints
Flanges shall comply with AS 4087. The Design Drawings shall specify the class of flange
and the type of flange gasket. Gasket types should generally be designated as either full
face (FF) or inside bolt circle (IBC) or tongue and groove (TG) or spigot and recess (SR).
Gaskets may be single flat sheet or laminated ply or moulded.

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WSA 022002-2.3

5 PROPERTY CONNECTION
5.1 GENERAL
This Section describes requirements for providing the actual connection point where the
customer sanitary drain connects to the reticulation sewer.
The design shall provide a property connection point for each existing and proposed
property serviced by the network. Where the sewer crosses unsubdivided land for which
development plans are not available, the Water Agencys requirements shall be determined
(Refer to Standard Drawing SEW1105).
The levels of property connections and requirements for vertical risers shall be shown on
the Design Drawings.
5.2 LIMITATIONS OF CONNECTION TO SEWERS
Property connections shall only be made to reticulation sewers. Properties shall not be
connected to branch and trunk sewers unless suitable inlets have been provided at an MH
at the time of sewer construction and authorised by the Water Agency.
Special precautions such as water seals may be required on these connections (Refer to
Standard Drawings SEW1409, SEW1410 and SEW1411and Clause 7.2).
5.3 METHODS OF THE PROPERTY CONNECTION
5.3.1 General
The reticulation sewer or property connection sewer shall provide a point of connection for
each customer sanitary drain. One of two standard options shall be adopted:
(a)

Inspection opening (IO) interface method (Refer to Clause 5.3.2 and Standard
Drawing SEW1106).

(b)

Buried interface method (Refer to Clause 5.3.3 and Standard Drawing SEW1107).

5.3.2 IO interface method

For the IO interface method, the main reticulation sewer is laid in public property and a
property connection sewer is constructed to provide a point of connection for the customer
sanitary drain. An IO, constructed as part of the Water Agency property connection sewer,
defines the change of ownership from Water Agency to property owner. The Water Agency
owns the IO and the property connection sewer downstream of the IO. The customer is
responsible for providing and maintaining the sanitary drain upstream of the IO in
accordance with AS/NZS 3500.2.2.
5.3.3 Buried interface method
There are two variations to the buried interface method:
(a)

The point of connection is a junction

property. The junction is plugged at the
the junction and downstream sewer.
connecting and maintaining an IO
AS/NZS 3500.2.2.

installed in the sewer within the customers

time of construction. The Water Agency owns
The customer is responsible for providing,
and sanitary drain in accordance with

(b)

The point of connection is a 45 (Y) junction installed at the end of a property

connection sewer terminating within the customers property. The Water Agency may
specify a rodding point to be connected to the Y-junction. The Water Agency owns
the property connection sewer, Y-junction and rodding point. The customer is
responsible for providing, connecting and maintaining an IO and sanitary drain in
accordance with AS/NZS 3500.2.2.

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5.4 MAXIMUM DEPTH OF PROPERTY CONNECTION

The depth of invert of the connection to the reticulation sewer generally should not be
greater than 1.5 m below FSL (Refer to Clause 4.6.5 for details on calculation of required
depth of connection). This depth of invert mitigates the likelihood of unsafe practices being
adopted by the customers plumber and reduces the life cycle costs of the sanitary drain to
the property owner.
Where lot control warrants the sewer to be deeper than 1.5 m, the point of connection shall
be lowered to the calculated level for the required property drainage and compliance with
soffit requirements (Refer to Clause 4.6.5.4).
5.5 NUMBER OF PROPERTY CONNECTIONS
5.5.1 Single occupancy lots
The design shall provide one connection point per single occupancy lot. Provision of one or
more additional connection point(s) for any such lot shall be justified by circumstances and
authorised by the Water Agency.
5.5.2 Multiple occupancy lots
For servicing the whole of a multiple occupancy lot (strata title, community title, dual
occupancy) a single point of connection shall be provided. Where connection of individual
units is by a joint customer sanitary drain owned and maintained by the community
association or body corporate, the whole multiple occupancy lot shall be regarded as a
single occupancy lot.
Alternatively, if authorised by the Water Agency, the design may provide connections to
individual titles or tenements in new developments by:
(a)

Providing an MH or MS as the point of connection to the sewer for multiple customer

sanitary drains. Such MH or MS shall be owned and maintained by the community
association or body corporate; or

(b)

Constructing reticulation sewers including points of connection in accordance with

this Code so as to serve each property within the multiple occupancy development.
On satisfactory completion and subject to prior Water Agency agreement, the
ownership of these sewers may be transferred to the Water Agency for operation and
maintenance.

Options (a) and (b) shall only apply in self-contained catchments. Where a sewer will be
required for future extensions of the sewer system to other properties external to or
upstream of the development, the design shall be to this Code and constructed as a Water
Agency sewer.
5.6 LOCATION OF CONNECTION POINTS
Generally the location of the property connection point will be determined by the status of
development of the lot.
5.6.1 Undeveloped lots
The location of property connection points on undeveloped lots shall be:
(a)

1.0 m from the side boundary unless the position of the driveway is known, in which
case the property connection shall be located clear of the driveway; and

(b)

on the low side of the property; or

(c)

on the opposite side of the lot to the driveway crossing, if known, where the fall
across the lot is small.

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WSA 022002-2.3

When sewers are constructed along the side of a lot, the connection point shall be located
1.0 m from the front or rear boundary, depending on direction of fall, as shown in Standard
Drawings SEW1104 and SEW1105.
5.6.2 Developed lots
For developed lots, or lots where a development plan is known, the property connection
point shall be located to suit the most economical layout of customer sanitary drains unless
such location significantly increases the sewerage costs. Lot owners shall be consulted
about the location of the connection point.
The connection point shall be located:
(a)

clear of obstructions e.g. trees, tree roots, paved areas;

(b)

where it is easily accessible for future maintenance;

(c)

where the connecting customer sanitary drain can be constructed clear of existing
structures and trees;

(d)

where the connecting customer sanitary drain can be constructed clear of any known
future developments e.g. swimming pools or driveways;

(e)

to avoid unnecessarily deep excavation >1.5 m where practicable; and

(f)

with consideration to any preference of property owners.

5.7 Y PROPERTY CONNECTIONS

Where permitted by the Water Agency, consideration may be given to Y property
connections i.e. those providing for connection of two lots where cost savings would result
and the property owners would not be disadvantaged. No more than two (2) properties
shall be connected to a single point on the reticulation/property connection sewer (Refer
Standard Drawing SEW1108.)
5.8 LENGTH OF PROPERTY CONNECTION SEWERS
The maximum length of a property connection sewer measured from the reticulation sewer
to the boundary of the property to be serviced shall be:
(a)

10 m for DN 100 property connection sewers.

(b)

25 m for DN 150 property connection sewers.

Where longer property connection sewers are required, they shall be designed and
constructed to the same standards as reticulation sewers and shall be provided with
maintenance access. End-of-line crossings (up to 25 m in length) of roads may be
classified as property connection sewers (Refer to Standard Drawing SEW1104).

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6 MAINTENANCE STRUCTURES
6.1 TYPES OF MAINTENANCE STRUCTURES
This Code addresses three (3) types of maintenance structures:
(a)

Maintenance Holes (MHs), which are applicable to all sewer sizes and allow
personnel and equipment access to the sewer system (Refer to Standard Drawings
SEW1300, SEW1301, SEW1302, SEW1303, SEW1304, SEW1305, SEW
1306, SEW1307, SEW1308, SEW1309, SEW1310, SEW1311, SEW1312 and
SEW1313);

(b)

Maintenance Shafts (MSs), which are currently only applicable to DN 150, DN 225
and DN 300 sewers and only allow equipment access to the sewer system (Refer to
Standard Drawings SEW1314, SEW1315 and SEW1317); and

(c)

Terminal Maintenance Shafts (TMSs), which are currently only applicable to DN 150,
DN 225 and DN 300 sewers and only allow equipment access to the sewer system
(Refer to Standard Drawings SEW1316 and SEW1317). In some situations, a TMS
may be used in lieu of the external drop of an MH subject to the agreement of the
Water Agency.

6.2 LOCATIONS OF MAINTENANCE STRUCTURES

The design shall include maintenance structures at the following locations:
(a)

Intersection of sewers, except a reticulation sewer intersecting with a property

connection sewer.

(b)

Changes of sewer size.

(c)

Changes of sewer direction, except where horizontal curves are used.

(d)

Changes of sewer grade, except where vertical curves are used.

(e)

Combined changes of sewer direction and grade, except where compound curves are
used.

(f)

Changes of sewer invert level.

(g)

Changes of pipe material, except for repair / maintenance locations.

(h)

Permanent or temporary ends of a sewer.

(i)

Discharge of a pressure main into a gravity sewer.

MSs are not permitted on branch and trunk sewers where MHs must be used. Table 6.1
summarises maintenance structure options for reticulation sewers.
6.3 SPACING OF MAINTENANCE STRUCTURES
6.3.1 General
The spacing of maintenance structures is governed by site conditions, route layout and
future maintenance access requirements. Where sewers are located within easements or
reserves and remote from direct vehicular access, additional maintenance structures may
be required.
The design shall ensure that access to every part of a sewer is achievable using
equipment installed on a service vehicle legally parked on the nearest boundary of the
nearest road or readily accessible public land. The measured distance between the service
vehicle and the maintenance structure shall be the slope distance in steep terrain, together
with an allowance for the vertical drop from ground level to sewer invert inside the
maintenance structure itself. Where these criteria cannot be met, the design shall include
appropriate provisions for maintenance access.
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Taking into account access requirements, the available positions for maintenance
structures (MHs, MSs and TMSs) may influence the sewer alignment.
TABLE 6.1
ACCEPTABLE MH, MS AND TMS OPTIONS FOR RETICULATION SEWERS
APPLICATION

ACCEPTABLE OPTIONS

MH

MS

TMS

Intersection of reticulation
sewers2 inlets at same level

YES

YES

YES

Intersection of reticulation
sewers3 inlets at any level

YES

NO

NO

Reticulation sewers / change of

grade at same level

YES

YES DN 225 pipe

only and using
vertical bend

NO

YES
Change of grade at different level

MH with
internal/external
drops

YES for DN 150 pipe only

YES
Change in sewer size

MH is the only
option

NO

NO

YES

Within permissible
deflection at MH

MS prefabricated
units or MS used
with horizontal
bendmax 30
deflection

Change of pipe material

YES

NO

NO

Permanent end of a reticulation

sewer

YES

YES

YES

Permanent end of a property

connection sewer

NO

Change in sewer horizontal

direction

YES

YES for DN 150

pipe only

Refer to specific Water Agency

requirements

YES
Sewer pressure main discharge
point
Junction of reticulation sewer and
property connection sewer
same size sewers

MH is the only
option and must
include a vent
YES

NO

NO

YES
Maximum 2 high level inlets into shaft

NOTES:
1

Where personnel entry is required down to the level of the sewer, an MH is the only option.

Not at same level. In lieu of a drop MH subject to approval by the Water Agency.

6.3.2 Maintenance structure spacingReticulation sewers

For reticulation sewers, the maximum distance between any two consecutive maintenance
structures shall be 120 m and subject to the provisions of Clause 6.3.1.
At the permanent end of line sewers, the distance from the end of line maintenance
structure to the nearest downstream MH shall not exceed 240 m (Refer to Figure 6.1).

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MH

MS

MS

TMS or MH

Flow
Up to 120 m Up to 120 m

Up to 120 m

240 m maximum spacing

FIGURE 6.1 MULTIPLE MS BETWEEN MH AND LAST MH/TMS

Where a combination of MHs and MSs is used along the same sewer, the maximum
spacing between any two consecutive MHs shall not exceed 400 m irrespective of how
many MSs are used between the two MHs (Refer to Figure 6.2).
MH

MS

MS

MS

MS

MH
Flow

Up to 120 m

Up to 120 m

Up to 120 m

Up to 120 m

Up to 120 m

400 m maximum between MH

FIGURE 6.2 MULTIPLE MSs BETWEEN CONSECUTIVE MHs

6.3.3 Maintenance structure spacingBranch and trunk sewers
Only MHs shall be used for branch and trunk sewers of sizes DN 375 and greater. The
maximum distance between any two MHs shall be 180 m.
Where DN 150, DN 225 and DN 300 sewers have been defined as branch or trunk sewers
based on functional definitions in Clause 2.1.3, the requirements shown above under
reticulation sewers shall be adopted.
6.4 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR LOCATION OF MAINTENANCE STRUCTURES
When maintenance structures are located near an existing building, a minimum clearance
of 1.0 m shall be provided between the building and the outside rim of the maintenance
structure entry point to facilitate personnel / maintenance equipment entry and rescue. The
Water Agency may determine other specific requirements subject to the individual site
characteristics.
The following locations for maintenance structures shall be avoided:
(a)

Where regulators do not permit covers.

(b)

Where the maintenance structure may clash with future services, kerbs, title
boundaries, fences and/or other structures.

(c)

Where the slope of the ground is excessive (Refer to Clause 6.6.10).

The following locations for maintenance structures shall be avoided as far as practicable:
(i)

Within freeway or tollway road reserves.

(ii)

In floodways and below high tide and 1:100 year flood levels.

(iii)

Where access to the structure is likely to be severely restricted e.g. storage

areas.

Sewers need not terminate at an MH, MS or TMS if the sewer is to be extended in the near
future. The option to not design and construct a maintenance structure in such an event
shall require approval of the Water Agency.
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6.5 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR CONNECTION OF NEW SEWERS TO EXISTING

SEWERS
A new sewer, other than a property connection sewer, shall be connected to an existing
sewer using an existing or new maintenance structure. Connection options (Refer to Table
6.1) may include construction of:
(a)

An internal drop in an existing MH (Refer to Standard Drawing SEW1306).

(b)

An external drop using a new TMS adjacent to an existing MH.

(c)

A new MH or MS over the existing sewer (Refer to Standard Drawing SEW1502).

Where specified by the Water Agency, water seals shall be installed upstream of the
junction of sewers and/or at other locations as necessary so as to prevent back venting of
gases (liberated by turbulence at sewer junctions) into upstream sewers and/or customer
sanitary drains (Refer to Clause 7.2).
The design shall nominate the method of connection in the Design Drawings, together with
other necessary construction details.
The Water Agency may impose particular conditions on connections to brick sewers,
lined / rehabilitated sewers, large sewers and where adverse conditions make construction
of a maintenance structure difficult.
Where a property connection sewer is proposed to connect to an existing sewer, the Water
Agency may also impose particular conditions on connections such as mentioned above.
6.6 MAINTENANCE HOLES (MH)
6.6.1 General
MHs are sized to provide personnel entry down to the level of the sewer. MHs are the most
versatile of the types of maintenance structures detailed in Clause 6.1, albeit more
expensive to construct.
Spacing of MHs is detailed in Clause 6.3.
6.6.2 Types of MH construction
Standard MH construction options shall be either:
(a)

Poured in situ MH comprising a poured base, channels and walls with a precast
concrete cover slab; or

(b)

Precast concrete MH with precast concrete cover slab, with either pre-formed sewer
channels or poured in situ sewer channels for sewers DN 300.

MH construction details are shown on Standard Drawings SEW1300, SEW1301, SEW

1302, SEW1303, SEW1304, SEW1305, SEW1306, SEW1307 and SEW1308.
Special MH construction options may be permitted by the Water Agency. These include
combinations of (a) and (b) but using other corrosion-resistant materials such as PVC
either as formwork or as a corrosion barrier, in conjunction with non-standard construction
techniques that may offer lower life cycle costs.
MHs may also be constructed from PE and other plastic materials.
Special MH construction details are shown on Standard Drawings SEW1309, SEW1310,
SEW1311, SEW1312 and SEW1313.
6.6.3 Design parameters for MHs
MHs may be used at the design locations detailed in Clause 6.2 and Table 6.1. MHs are
the only maintenance structure that meet all design scenarios and accommodate various

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changes of grade and direction, as the concrete sewer channels in the MH base are
usually hand formed to suit.
In areas subject to surcharge or water charged ground and where MHs are specified, only
cast in situ MHs shall be used.
6.6.4 Property connections into MHs
Where necessary, customer sanitary drains may be connected directly to an MH.
When connecting a customer sanitary drain directly to an MH, the connection shall be
either:
(a)

a direct inlet at reticulation sewer soffit level via a formed channel through the bench,
or

(b)

where authorised by the Water Agency, at a higher level using either an internal or
external drop.

6.6.5 Diameters of MHs

The standard internal diameter for MHs is 1050 mm. The range of sizes preferred by most
Water Agencies is 1050 mm, 1200 mm and 1500 mm nominal internal diameter. For
shallow sewers (less than 1.2 m to invert), 600 mm and 900 mm internal diameters may be
permitted subject to approval by the Water Agency.
When selecting the appropriate MH diameter, the Designer shall give consideration to the
base layout of the MH i.e. the number and orientation of incoming sewers and outgoing
sewer to ensure adequate working space within the MH. Internal drops may reduce the
effective working space and thus a larger diameter MH may be required. Where there are
several inlets in unusual configurations, the Designer may need to seek guidance from the
Water Agency to establish the best base layout of the chamber. Special base layouts shall
be shown in the Design Drawings.
6.6.6 MH base layout
Each MH shall have:
(a)

channels with the maximum possible radius of curvature provided that the tangent
points at each end of the curve are located within the inside diameter of the MH. The
minimum radius of curvature (to the inside channel wall) shall be not less than the
diameter of the sewer;

(b)

tangent points of the curved channel fully contained within the inside of the MH base;

(c)

two (2) unobstructed areas of at least 250 mm diameter, suitably spaced to allow a
maintenance person to stand without obstruction by drops, step-irons and/or ladders;
and

(d)

a minimum 750 mm x 750 mm working area clear of any internal obstruction such as
drops, ladders and step irons.

6.6.7 Flotation
In areas of temporary or permanent fluctuating high water table, all MHs shall be designed
to provide a factor of safety of 1.25 against flotation.
6.6.8 Ladders, step irons and landings
Where required by the Water Agency, ladders or step irons shall be specified for MHs up to
6.0 m depth to invert (Refer to Standard Drawing SEW1307). For deeper MHs, ladders
and landings shall be specified in accordance with the requirements of the Water Agency
(Refer to Standard Drawings SEW1311 and SEW1312).

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6.6.9 MH covers
Standard Drawing SEW1308 provides guidance on the selection of MH covers.
Bolt-down metal access covers (watertight type) shall be specified on MHs located:
(a)

in areas where the risk of sewer overflow is high;

(b)

along creeks subject to flooding above the level of the MH cover;

(c)

in tidal areas;

(d)

in any location where surface waters could inundate the top of an MH; and

(e)

at other locations specified by the Water Agency.

Watertight and gastight covers shall be specified for non-vented sewer systems.
In sewers subject to surcharging, the design shall specify tying together of MH
components to the cast in-situ riser e.g. precast concrete cover slab and ductile iron
frames for covers, to avoid the possibility of various components separating in the event of
a sewer surcharge (Refer to Standard Drawing SEW1301).
6.6.10 Cross-fall on MH covers
Allowable limits for cross-fall on MH covers to match FSL shall be 1 in 10 for Class D
covers and 1 in 7 for Class B covers (Refer to Standard Drawing SEW1308). Where the
natural slope exceeds these cross-falls and the MH location cannot be changed, the
design shall incorporate special provision on the Design Drawings to ensure safe
thoroughfare.
6.7 MAINTENANCE SHAFTS (MS)
6.7.1 General
MSs and TMSs may be used on DN 150, DN 225 and DN 300 sewers as an alternative to
some MHs (Refer to Table 6.1 and Standard Drawings SEW1314, SEW1315, SEW
1316 and SEW1317).
MSs are manufactured with a range of inbuilt horizontal deflections (0 to 90) and may be
used with or without variable bends. (Refer to authorised suppliers for MS and TMS
configurations).
6.7.2 Design parameters for MSs and TMSs
MSs and TMSs shall only be used at the design locations detailed in Table 6.1. Directional
and gradient changes at MSs shall be achieved by using either:
(a)

Close-coupled horizontal and/or vertical manufactured bends immediately adjacent to

the MS (Refer to Standard Drawing SEW1315); or

(b)

MS units specially manufactured for specific horizontal and/or vertical angles to suit
design requirements.

An MS shall incorporate not more than one higher-level incoming reticulation sewer.
MSs and TMSs shall not be used at discharge points of sewer pressure mains. However,
MSs and TMSs may be used at discharge points for property connection sewer pressure
mains (Refer to Clauses 4.6.4.4 and 4.6.4.5).
Depth of MSs and TMSs shall be limited as appropriate to:
(i)

The maximum depth authorised by the Water Agency;

(ii)

The minimum depth required for adequate cover and physical height of the MS
unit; and

(iii)

The MS manufacturers maximum allowable depth limit.

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The deviation from vertical of an MS or TMS riser shaft shall be kept within a vertical plane
passing through the sewer axis and shall not exceed 1:10 (horizontal : vertical), or a
maximum of 300 mm at the surface, whichever is the lesser. Notwithstanding, where
reticulation sewers and/or property connection sewers discharge directly into a riser shaft,
the riser shaft shall be vertical with the tolerance on verticality being specified in the
Design drawings such that the grade of the incoming sewer is within design tolerance.
In deep or steep sewers, a special compensatory bend shall be installed on the riser
immediately above the MS base fitting to correct verticality of the riser shaft to within the
specified verticality limit. Within the tolerance on verticality, a riser shaft shall be aligned
such that the shaft is as perpendicular as practicable to the finished ground surface.
6.7.3 Property connection sewer into MSs and TMSs
MSs and TMSs shall incorporate not more than two high-level property connection sewers
entering radially into the riser shaft. For two such property connections, each property
connection sewer shall be connected at a different level.
Where a property connection is required directly ahead of the permanent end of the sewer
e.g. connection at the end of a cul-de-sac, an MS may be used in lieu of a TMS to provide
both terminal access requirements and a straight through connection. In such a case, a
DN 100 property connection shall be provided with a flat top taper immediately adjacent to
the upstream end of the MS (Refer to Standard Drawing SEW1316).
6.8 OTHER MAINTENANCE STRUCTURES AT INTERFACE OF PROPERTY
CONNECTION SEWER AND CUSTOMER DRAINS
In addition to standard MHs and MSs, the Water Agency may require additional
access / maintenance fittings at the interface between the sewer and customer sanitary
drain (Refer to Clause 5.3).

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7 ANCILLIARY STRUCTURES
7.1 GENERAL
This Section covers other structures that may be required as part of the overall sewer
design. It states when and where those structures are required and any special design
requirements. Some of those structures may require Water Agency approval prior to
commencement of design.
7.2 WATER SEALS, BOUNDARY TRAPS AND WATER-SEALED MHs
7.2.1 General design parameters
Water seals are a means of preventing noxious gases or persistent odours back-venting
into a customer sanitary drain.
Subject to Water Agency approval, water seals, boundary traps and/or water-sealed MHs
shall be provided in the following situations:
(a)

(b)

For customer sanitary drains directly connected to sewers that are:

(i)

DN 375 and larger.

(ii)

Smaller than DN 375 which carry industrial flows.

(iii)

Smaller than DN 375 which are not protected by a water seal from downstream
sewers DN 450 and larger.

(iv)

Smaller than DN 375 which are not protected by a water seal from SPS
discharges.

In other situations where an odour problem is known to exist as determined by the

Water Agency.

As appropriate, Design Drawings shall show the location and type of water seal required
(Refer to Standard Drawings SEW1409, SEW1410 and SEW1411).
The Water Agency is responsible for defining boundary trap areas, typically by applying the
criteria of this clause. For properties located in a boundary trap area, AS/NZS 3500.2.2
specifies a boundary trap to be installed when the property is connected to the sewer i.e.
by a plumber at the property owners cost. By specifying that water seals or water-sealed
MHs be installed in a new sewer under construction, the Water Agency has the option of
either:
(A)

averting the need for customers to install a boundary trap when connecting; or

(B)

providing extra protection to customers in boundary trap areas i.e. by requiring a

water seal in addition to customers installation of a boundary trap.

7.2.2 Water seals on reticulation sewers entering branch or trunk sewers

Water seals or water-sealed MHs shall be provided on reticulation sewers connected to
branch and/or trunk sewers DN 375 and larger. Water seals shall be designed in
conjunction with an MH.
Default detailed design requirements for water seals in sewers are shown in Standard
Drawing SEW-1409 and for water-sealed MHs, both standard and twin, in Standard
Drawing SEW-1410 and SEW1411 respectively.
7.2.3 Water seals on branch sewers entering trunk sewers
Water seals or water-sealed MH shall be designed on branch sewers connected to sewers
DN 750 and larger. Water seals shall be designed in conjunction with an MH.

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Default detailed design requirements for water seals in sewers are shown in Standard
Drawing SEW-1409 and for water-sealed MHs, both standard and twin, in Standard
Drawing SEW-1410 and SEW1411 respectively.
7.3 GAS CHECK MHs
7.3.1 General
A gas check MH is a combination of two MHs separated by a water seal.
Gas check MHs are preferred by some Water Agencies in place of water seals on
reticulation sewers entering branch and/or trunk sewers and/or water seals on branch
sewers entering trunk sewers.
Gas check MHs require more maintenance than other MHs and should be designed at
easily accessible locations.
As appropriate, Design Drawings shall show the location and type of gas check MHs
required.
7.3.2 Design parameters for gas check MHs
Where specified by the Water Agency, a gas check MH shall be provided on sewers:
(a)

up to and including DN 375 and designed to serve at least 50 properties; and

(b)

immediately upstream of SPSs.

Gas check MHs shall be designed without any change of direction being incorporated into
the downstream chamber.
A maximum of one gas check MH is permitted downstream of any point on a sewer. The
throat pipe level shall be shown on the Design Drawings. Gas check MHs shall be located
in road reserves to allow for service by an eduction truck.
Gas check MHs shall not be specified where there are industrial or commercial properties
upstream. In such cases, or for sewers serving 50 properties or less, boundary traps shall
be specified for each property.
7.4 VERTICAL AND NEAR VERTICAL SEWERS
7.4.1 General
At steep rock faces or high retaining walls, vertical or near vertical pipe structures, may be
used in lieu of MHs with the approval of the Water Agency.
To avoid unnecessary turbulence and to improve operational performance and
maintenance safety, where practicable, a directional bore at steep grade shall be used in
preference to an exposed or encased vertical or near vertical sewer.
As appropriate, Design Drawings shall show all necessary construction details for vertical
and near-vertical sewers, including any additional safety measures and access structures.
7.4.2 Design parameters for bored, exposed and encased vertical and near vertical
sewers
Sewers for insertion into a directional bore shall be designed using fully welded PE pipes
inserted into the steeply graded borehole and grouted (Refer to Standard Drawing SEW1208).
As necessary, exposed vertical and near vertical sewers shall be designed using DI or
steel pipes strapped to the outside of rock faces or concrete walls. Encased vertical and
near vertical sewers shall be designed from VC, PVC or ABS pipes chased into rock faces
and concrete encased.

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WSA 022002-2.3

Bored, exposed and concealed vertical and near vertical sewers shall be located within
60 m of an MH or MS both upstream and downstream of the structure. Two consecutive
verticals or near vertical sewers are not permitted. A maintenance structure shall be
provided between any two such vertical sewers.
The use of exposed and encased vertical and near vertical sewers in a design shall be
conditional upon:
(a)

where required by regulation, the provision of safety barriers and/or fencing to

prevent falls by maintenance personnel; and

(b)

verification that the rock face / retaining wall is firm and stable.

Exposed and encased vertical and near vertical structures shall be provided with an
inspection opening at the top of the vertical. Where the inspection opening would be more
than 3 m above the normal ground level at the base of the vertical, it shall be
supplemented with an MH on the upstream section of sewer not more than 10 m from the
vertical or near vertical section.
7.5 VENTILATION
7.5.1 General
In urban developments, gravity reticulation sewers are normally ventilated adequately
through property connection sewers and domestic waste pipe stacks. Natural draft
ventilation via a series of alternately sited induct and educt vents is generally satisfactory
for venting branch and trunk sewers. Forced ventilation i.e. fan stations may be required
for some larger trunk sewers as required by the Water Agency.
The objectives of ventilation are to:
(a)

release sewer gases to atmosphere in a controlled manner and to introduce fresh air
into the system;

(b)

reduce septicity of raw sewage;

(c)

control sulphide initiated corrosion; and

(d)

reduce hazards to maintenance personnel.

Furthermore, unventilated sewers may give rise to air locks which can cause emptying of
domestic fixture traps when sewers are running full during periods of high flow.
As appropriate, Design Drawings shall show the location, type, materials and all necessary
construction details for vents, including any additional structures, equipment and protection
measures.
7.5.2 Design parameters for vents
Vent shafts shall be provided on branch and trunk sewers in urban areas where property
connection sewers are not vented or where water seals (boundary traps) are in place.
Reticulation sewers shall also be vented in the following situations:
(a)

immediately upstream of syphons;

(b)

at SPSs (Refer to WSA 04); and

(c)

at MHs where pressure mains discharge to a gravity sewer (Refer to WSA 04).

Vent shafts shall have a diameter equal to the diameter of the sewer they ventilate, up to a
maximum vent size of DN 300.
Educt vents (Refer to Standard Drawing SEW1408) shall be provided at nominal 300 m
maximum spacing along the sewer with an induct vent (Refer to Standard Drawing SEW
1407) located in between. The final locations and types of vent shafts to be used shall be
decided in consultation with the Water Agency.
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7.6 NEAR-HORIZONTAL BOREHOLES

7.6.1 General
Near-horizontal boreholes may be used to facilitate the economic installation of sewers,
usually in difficult areas such as:
(a)

environmentally sensitive areas;

(b)

built-up or congested areas to minimise disruption and reinstatement; and

(c)

areas not suitable for trenching e.g. through railway reserves and under freeways.

Because of the reliability and accuracy of trenchless technology, near-horizontal boreholes

may also be suitable for applications such as catchment consolidation and SPS
elimination.
Advice shall be obtained from specialists regarding construction tolerances and other
requirements for boreholes.
Methods of borehole construction include manned and unmanned and steerable and nonsteerable techniques. The choice of method will depend on such factors as:
(i)

Accuracy required in line and level.

(ii)

Proximity of other services.

(iii)

Diameter of bore.

(iv)

Length to be driven.

(v)

Ground conditions.

(vi)

Minimum depth of cover.

(vii) Access for equipment

(viii) Pipe lengths
7.6.2 Design requirements
The sewer shall be made one size larger than that determined by following the
requirements of Sections 3 and 4. The adopted grade shall satisfy the values given in
Table 4.7 plus 0.5%.
The following factors shall be considered in the design phase before selecting the most
appropriate pipeline system:
(a)

Sewer inside diameter.

(b)

Sewer outside diameter.

(c)

Sewer length.

(d)

Tolerances on dimensions.

(e)

Safe jacking load or pulling force.

(f)

Type and performance of joints.

(g)

Type of sewer pipe to be used.

(h)

Grouting method to be used where the sewer is laid inside a borehole liner pipe.

As appropriate, Design Drawings shall show the location, type, materials and all necessary
construction details for near-horizontal boreholes, including any additional structures,
features, equipment and protection measures.
The maximum limits of deviation from line and level shall be specified in the Design
Drawings taking into account:
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(i)

requirements of function and maintenance;

(ii)

grade of sewer;

(iii)

possible installation methods to be used;

(iv)

existing structures and obstructions; and

(v)

ground conditions.

The maximum limits of deviation from level (vertical) and from line (horizontal) measured in
millimetres shall not exceed the greater of:
(A)

the numerical value of the design grade in percent multiplied by 100,

providing no backfall greater than the figures given in Table 6.1 occurs at
any point; or

(B)

the values in Table 7.1.

TABLE 7.1

MAXIMUM LIMIT OF DEVIATION IN LEVEL AND LINE OF BOREHOLES

Sewer size

Limit of vertical deviation

Limit of horizontal deviation

DN

mm/100m length

mm/100m length

1000

30 (0.03%)

50 (0.05%)

> 1000

50 (0.05%)

100 (0.1%)

7.6.3 Maintenance requirements

The deposition of silt and rubbish in flat-graded sewers and occasional sewage blockages
necessitates maintenance. When access to one end of a bore will be restricted or
impossible, the design shall incorporate measures such as silt traps to reduce the
likelihood of blockages. The design requirements for silt traps shall be in accordance with
Table 7.2.
TABLE 7.2
DESIGN REQUIREMENT FOR SILT TRAPS
Borehole application

Silt trap

Sewers draining to tunnels

-all grades and borehole lengths

Yes

Sewers draining to SPS

-grades >minimum + 0.5%

No

Sewers draining to branch sewer

-grades <minimum + 0.5%
-grades >minimum + 0.5%
-lengths <100 m for all grades

Yes
No
No

The design shall also address other maintenance requirements to minimise the likelihood
of solids catching on protrusions in the bore and to facilitate access such as:
(a)

selecting a liner pipe that is generally seamless, light coloured for CCTV inspection
and keyed into wall of portal access or silt trap hole; and

(b)

providing all weather access to the silt trap for maintenance vehicles.

7.7 VORTEX INLETS AND WATER CUSHIONS

Typical drop inlets or vortex inlets or water cushions used for very large drops in branch
and trunk sewers are given in Table 7.3. Vortex inlets should be confined to those cases
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where the simpler and less expensive drop inlet would have a potential for damage or for
causing service difficulties.
TABLE 7.3
REQUIREMENTS FOR VORTEX INLETS AND WATER CUSHIONS
Sewer size

Drop length

DN

375 to 525

600

Requirements

<6

Drop inlet

6 20

Drop inlet with water cushion at bottom of drop

>20

Vortex inlet with water cushion at bottom of drop

<3

Drop inlet

3 10

Drop inlet with water cushion at bottom of drop

>10

Vortex inlet with water cushion at bottom of drop

Design of vortex inlets and water cushions shall be done in liaison with the Water Agency.
Vortex drops shall have one inlet only, which shall be to the access chamber at the top.
As appropriate, Design Drawings shall show the location, type, materials and all necessary
construction details for vortex inlets and water cushions, including any additional
structures, equipment and protection measures.
7.8 INVERTED SYPHONS
7.8.1 General
Inverted syphons may be used to cross under waterways, drains, roads, rail lines, utility
services or other obstacles where the sewer cannot be continued on grade for practical
and/or economic reasons (Refer Standard Drawing SEW1400). In general, inverted
syphons have high maintenance requirements and are used only where alternative
proposals result in a severe and unacceptable deepening of the downstream sewer.
7.8.2 Design parameters for inverted syphons
An inverted syphon shall be used only with the approval of the Water Agency.
The profile and geometry of the syphon must be carefully planned and designed, since the
soffit of the syphon will be below the hydraulic grade line.
The design of inverted syphons shall:
(a)

at least match the hydraulic capacity of the sewer; and

(b)

provide sufficient driving head across the syphon.

Additionally:
(i)

The flow velocity in the syphon shall be capable of transporting solids against
gravity. The flow velocity shall be not less than 0.75 m/s during ADWF and not
less than 1.0 m/s during design flow. Specialist hydraulic advice should be
obtained and design assumptions recorded on the Design Drawings [Refer to
Clause 9.2.3(l)].

(ii)

The syphon shall incorporate an inlet and outlet structure, which facilitates
maintenance and inspection.

(iii)

The minimum difference in level between the inverts of the upstream and
downstream sewers shall be equivalent to the calculated head loss through the
syphon plus 600 mm.

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WSA 022002-2.3

(iv)

A minimum of two pipes in parallel shall be used for every syphon; in some
cases three may provide better performance and higher velocities.

(v)

Pipe diameters within the syphon may be smaller than those of the sewer to
achieve self-cleansing velocities. However, the combined hydraulic capacities of
the syphon pipes shall not be less than that of the incoming sewer.

(vi)

The minimum pipe diameter in the syphon shall be DN 150.

(vii) The vertical section of pipework within the inlet structure shall extend below the
invert level of the outlet structure.
(viii) Transitions between falling grades, horizontal sections and rising grades shall
not be abrupt to ensure laminar flow. Nominal falling grade shall be 1:1 (45)
and maximum rising gradient shall be 1:1.7 (30).
(ix)

The inlet structure shall be designed so that at low flows, only one of the
parallel syphons (primary barrel) comes into operation, and at increased flows
additional pipes are brought into service progressively.

(x)

The outlet level of the secondary barrel(s) of the syphon shall be arranged at a
higher level(s) than the primary barrel (1/2 pipe diameter minimum) to prevent
reverse eddies from carrying solids back into the secondary syphon pipes.

(xi)

The syphon pipe material shall be constructed from welded PE pipe (Refer to
WSA 01).

(xii) The pressure class (PN) of the syphon pipework shall include an allowance for
high-pressure jet cleaning of the pipe during clearance of blockages.
(xiii) The HGL shall be calculated taking into consideration all losses in the syphon
and associated structures including inlet losses and internal friction losses.
(xiv) Thrust blocks shall be included to ensure the integrity of the syphon during
testing, operation and maintenance.
Some Water Agencies may require the installation of a silt trap, either preceding, or as part
of, the inlet structure of the syphon. Depending upon the size and criticality of a particular
syphon, the Water Agency may require acceptance pressure testing of the syphon.
7.9 OVERFLOWS / EMERGENCY RELIEF STRUCTURES (ERS)
7.9.1 General
Overflow or Emergency Relief Structures (ERS) on sewers permit controlled spills at
predetermined locations in order to prevent overloaded or blocked sewers from discharging
at sensitive locations, on private property and inside buildings, so endangering public
health and causing public nuisance.
As appropriate, overflow structures shall be provided:
(a)

On incoming sewers to a pumping station to enable controlled overflow during

shutdown or facility failure. Generally the Water Agency requires the provision of a
minimum number of hours storage within a pumping station and upstream sewers
(based on ADWF) before discharging via the ERS (Refer to WSA 04).

(b)

Along branch and trunk sewers to allow overflow of excessive inflow / infiltration
following rainfall events.

7.9.2 Design parameters for ERSs

Each state / territory has varying regulations controlling pollution of the environment. It is
therefore the responsibility of the Designer to confer with the Water Agency to determine
whether overflow capability should be built into the proposed sewer and if so, to obtain
approval from the Water Agency for the proposed ERS location and design.
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When an ERS is specified by the Water Agency, the Design Drawings shall show the
location and construction detail (Refer to Standard Drawing SEW1412).
An overflow structure configuration shall consist of:
(a)

A relief MH linked to the sewer via a connecting pipe (upstream) and outlet pipe
(downstream) discharging into a watercourse or stormwater pipe. Both the connecting
pipe and the outlet pipe shall be provided with adequate capacity to cater for the
excess flows.

(b)

Flap gates installed on the outlet pipe to prevent backflow of water from the
watercourse into the sewer system.

(c)

Adequate facilities to prevent gross solids entering the watercourse and to enable
collection and removal from the structure.

(d)

An alarm device linked to the Water Agencys remote monitoring system to alert when
overflows do occur. The alarm device shall be subject to individual Water Agency
requirements.

7.10 FLOW MEASURING DEVICES

Where required by the Water Agency and where the sum total of the estimated ADWF and
GWI (Refer to Appendix B) of all the past and future stages of a particular development
exceeds 5 L/s, a suitable primary flow measuring device, such as a flume or weir, shall be
designed and constructed (or installed) in the downstream MH chamber of the
development.
Guidance on pre-constructed flumes and weirs together with advice on retro-fitting of
various gauging devices is given in Appendix C.
As appropriate, Design Drawings shall show the location, type, materials and all necessary
equipment details for installation and testing of flow measuring devices, including any
additional measures related to recording and transmission of data.
7.11 WET WEATHER STORAGE
7.11.1 General
In areas where peak wet weather sewage flows exceed the capacity of existing
downstream sewers, storage facilities may be an acceptable alternative to enlarging or
duplicating the sewers. The excess flows are stored temporarily in the facilities and
released back into the system when the peak has subsided to an acceptable level.
7.11.2 Design requirements for wet weather storage
Prior Water Agency approval of wet weather storage shall be obtained.
Unless the Water Agency provides the capacity requirements for the storage facility, the
Designer shall determine the capacity and forward design calculations to the Water Agency
for approval.
The Designer shall also submit details of the following to the Water Agency for approval:
(a)

Proposed method of releasing of stored flows back into the system.

(b)

Proposed cleaning and washing arrangements.

(c)

Proposed ventilation arrangements.

(d)

Proposed alarm devices for linkage to the Water Agencys remote monitoring system
to alert when flow into the storage facility occurs.

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8 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
8.1 GENERAL
This Section covers structural design requirements to be addressed in the detail design of
gravity sewerage.
The Design Drawings and Specification shall nominate relevant requirements of Parts 2, 3
and 4. It is the Designers' responsibility to identify potential structural problems and
provide appropriate solutions (Refer to Clause 1.3.2). The commentary to the 1200 series
of Standard Drawings provides basic requirements for trench dimensions and installation
practices.
For installation conditions beyond those shown in the Standard Drawings, the sewer shall
be designed to resist structural failure under all service conditions. Selection of the
appropriate pipe class and embedment, combined with correct installation practice, shall
be undertaken to achieve this.
For sewers that cross or are within a roadway, trench fill shall be as specified by the road
Owner.
Sewers shall not be laid within railway reserves unless it is necessary to cross that land, in
which case, the crossing shall be in accordance with AS 4799.
Details of the final design requirements shall be shown in the Design Drawings and
Specification.
8.2 PRODUCTS AND MATERIALS
Products, materials and jointing methods shall be selected and specified for each location
to ensure:
(a)

Structural adequacy.

(b)

Compatibility with potentially chemically aggressive and/or abrasive flows in the

sewage and chemically aggressive and contaminated ground (if applicable).

(c)

Suitability for the geological conditions.

(d)

Appropriate construction methods.

Refer to Table 10.2 and Products and Materials Information and Guidance available from
www.wsaa.asn.au.
It is permissible for the Design Drawings and/or Specification to specify one or more
alternative pipeline materials for final selection by the Constructor. The Designer shall
have ascertained that each material is suitable and authorised by the Water Agency.
8.3 STRUCTURAL COMPUTATIONS
The pipeline design for a particular pipe material selected pursuant to Part 2 of this Code
shall be in accordance with the relevant Australian/New Zealand, international or industry
standard, such as:
(a)

AS/NZS 2566.1 for buried flexible pipelines.

(b)

BS EN 1295-1, National Annex A for buried concrete and vitrified clay pipes.

Alternatively, the following standards could be used:

(c)

AS 3725

for buried concrete pipes.

(d)

AS 4060

for buried vitrified clay pipes.

Default maximum depths to invert and design assumptions are given in Clause 30.2.

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8.4 EXTERNAL FORCES

The external forces to be taken into account in the structural design of the pipeline shall
include:
(a)

Trench fill loadings (vertical and horizontal forces due to earth loadings).

(b)

Surcharge.

(c)

Temporary and/or fluctuating groundwater levels.

(d)

Transient loads.

(e)

Dead weight of the pipe and the contained sewage, at least for DN 1000.

(f)

Other forces arising during installation and backfilling.

(g)

Traffic loads.

The consequences of external forces on local supports of pipelines shall also be

considered.
8.5 FOUNDATION DESIGN AND GROUND WATER CONTROL
As necessary, the design shall specify special precautions required to mitigate the effects
of difficult geological and foundation conditions.
If the foundation conditions and/or the groundwater conditions (present or predicted to
occur) call for special design details or construction practices, then the Designer shall
specify such requirements in the Design Drawings. Where foundation treatments are
necessary, and/or groundwater conditions affect either the design or construction of the
sewer, then the design shall specify:
(a)

Details of any special foundations treatment required.

(b)

Special methods necessary to control groundwater flow along the pipe embedment
and/or trench fill e.g. by means of bulkheads.

(c)

All sections of the sewer where the Constructor will need to pay particular attention to
controlling groundwater prior to excavation to prevent heave of or loss of density in
the trench floor material e.g. boiling sand.

(d)

Areas subject to subsidence.

(e)

Other geotechnical considerations e.g. zones of influence near structures.

8.6 GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS

8.6.1 General
Where reasonable doubts exist regarding the suitability of the ground to provide adequate
support to the sewer and for all sewers >DN 450, a specialist geotechnical assessment
shall be made of the proposed sewer route. The assessment shall address all geotechnical
aspects of the pipeline design, as well as the practicalities of construction, including
ascertaining:
(a)

The most practical and economic alignment.

(b)

Where special foundation treatments are required.

(c)

The type and condition of the native soil to determine loading conditions on pipe and
any requirements for securing excavations.

(d)

Where existing, temporary and fluctuating or potential groundwater levels / conditions

could influence the design, construction, longevity of the pipe or structure or
operation of the system itself

(e)

The stability of the site where it is a known active seismic area.

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(f)

The location and extent of any acidic soil, very high salinity soil and sulphate bearing
ground water.

(g)

The location and extent of any contaminated ground, as well as the nature of the
contaminant.

(h)

The location and extent of mine subsidence areas along the route of the pipeline.

The Design Drawings shall incorporate all geotechnical requirements including:

(i)

The extent and design details of special foundations.

(ii)

The extent and design details of methods necessary to control groundwater flow
along the pipe embedment and/or trench fill material.

(iii)

All sections of the sewer where the Constructor will need to pay particular
attention to controlling groundwater prior to excavation to prevent heave or loss
of density in the trench floor material e.g. boiling sand.

(iv)

Areas subject to mine subsidence.

(v)

Other geotechnical considerations e.g. zones of influence near adjacent

structures.

Selection of appropriate foundation and groundwater control shall be made on advice of a

specialist acceptable to the Water Agency. The special foundation shall be selected from
the options presented in Standard Drawings SEW1203, SEW1204 and SEW1205,
unless otherwise specified by the specialist or the Water Agency. Adequate construction
detail e.g. spacing of piles, concrete reinforcement, and bulkheads shall be provided in the
Design Drawings and/or Specification.
8.6.2 Sewers in engineered or controlled fill
Where sewers are to be laid in engineered or controlled fill, the critical performance
criterion requires that there be minimum long-term settlement (total or differential) of the fill
beneath the sewer for all likely future groundwater levels or imposed surface loads.
For fill material to be deemed satisfactory to provide a foundation for sewers, documentary
evidence that includes details of:
(a)

composition of the fill material;

(b)

proposed placed layer thickness;

(c)

compaction plant to be used;

(d)

compaction method to be used;

(e)

depth below the surface of each compacted layer at which each field density is to be
measured;

(f)

field density calculation sheets and results; and

(g)

any other relevant information.

shall be made available for consideration by a geotechnical specialist. The fill shall be
accepted as a satisfactory foundation for sewers when the geotechnical specialist certifies
that:
(i)

the fill contains no organic or other materials that may decompose and thereby,
or otherwise, lead to long-term settlement; and

(ii)

compaction of all fill below the inverts of the proposed sewer is capable of
achieving an in-situ density of not less than 95% of its standard maximum dry
density.

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8.6.3 Sewers in non-engineered fill

Any fill that does not meet the criteria set out in Clause 8.6.2 shall be deemed to be nonengineered fill and unsatisfactory for the purposes of sewer construction. A geotechnical
specialist shall be engaged to investigate the site and to design and supervise the
construction of an appropriate support or foundation remediation system for the sewer.
8.6.4 Filling along route of pipeline
Where it is necessary to fill an area before laying a sewer across it, or to build an
embankment in which to lay a sewer, specialist geotechnical advice shall be sought to
ensure that the weight of the fill will not cause unacceptable long-term settlement in the
ground beneath the fill after the pipeline has been laid.
Unacceptable settlement may cause failure / exfiltration / infiltration of the pipe and/or
joints.
8.6.5 Mine subsidence
Where the sewer is to be laid in an area identified as likely to be influenced by mine
subsidence, the Design Drawings shall detail the measures to be taken to ensure the
integrity of the pipeline.
The Designer shall negotiate the design requirements and gain approval from any Owner
and/or regulator e.g. Mine Subsidence Board.
Fully welded continuous pipe lengths and fittings shall be used. Alternatively, short pipe
lengths up to 3 m (maximum), employing a flexible jointing system, may be used.
The minimum grades specified in Tables 4.6 and 4.7 shall be increased by 0.2% for sizes
DN 225 and by 0.05% for sizes DN 300
8.6.6 Slip areas
Sewers located in geologically unstable (slip / talus) ground require specialist geotechnical
analysis and design. The Designer shall consider the use of restrained pipe joint pipeline
systems or piered support to the pipelines. The Water Agency shall be consulted as to its
requirements before finalisation of the design.
8.6.7 Water-charged ground
Sewers located in water-charged ground require specialist geotechnical analysis and
design. The Designer shall consider the use of special footings / support systems,
anchoring requirements and appropriate pipe material and jointing methods (Refer to
Standard Drawings SEW1203 and SEW1204 for typical designs).
8.7 ABOVE GROUND CROSSINGS
The design of aboveground crossings shall include the design of pipeline supports and
loading protection and shall address the possibility of vandalism. The design shall also
take into account exposure conditions and consider protection against things such as
external corrosion, UV light and temperature fluctuations.
Where a section of the sewer is to be laid above ground e.g. on an aqueduct, in a bridge
duct, suspended from bridge etc. the pipe materials, support and restraint for the pipes and
fittings shall be detailed in the Design Drawings and/or Specification (Refer to Standard
Drawings SEW1404, SEW1405 and SEW1406).
The Water Agency may nominate other specific requirements.
8.8 PIPE COVER
The design of the pipeline shall take account of loading from the passage of construction
plant as well as normal design loading (Refer to Clause 8.4 and Standard Drawing SEW
1201).
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8.9 TRENCH DESIGN

Pipe trench width design considerations shall be based on the minimum side clearances,
bedding and overlay specified in the relevant Standard Drawings and/or design standards
e.g. AS/NZS 2566.1, AS 3725 etc. Dimensions shall be detailed in the Design Drawings
and/or Specification. Refer to the commentary to Standard Drawing SEW1201 for default
trench design.
8.10 BULKHEADS AND TRENCHSTOPS
Bulkhead and trenchstop requirements shall be detailed in the Design Drawings and shall
be in accordance with Standard Drawings SEW1206 and SEW1207. Where located
adjacent to a road crossing, bulkheads or trenchstops shall be placed adjacent to the kerb
as shown in Standard Drawing SEW1206. Spacing of bulkheads shall be in accordance
with Table 8.1. Spacing of trenchstops shall be in accordance with Water Agency
requirements.
Given the maximum velocity / grade constraint for branch and trunk sewers, it is unlikely
that bulkheads will be required for sewers >DN 300 other than for preventing draining of
the water table in an environmentally sensitive area.
Where natural transfer of water from the trench into the surrounding ground will not provide
sufficient drainage, trench drainage shall be provided to divert the water. The outlet
location of the drain shall be determined in consultation with the relevant regulatory
authority.
In addition to the grade of the sewer, when determining the use of bulkheads and
trenchstops, trench location, annual rainfall, the occurrence of underground streams and
other Water Agency criteria shall also be taken into consideration.
Bulkheads and trenchstops may not be required if native fill embedment is used.
TABLE 8.1
REQUIREMENTS FOR BULKHEADS
Grade
%

Spacing S
m

Requirement

S = LP /Grade(%), where
L P = 80 Pipe length*, m (450 m max)

15-29

Concrete bulkhead

30-50

Continuous concrete
encasement of pipeline
and concrete bulkheads

> 50

Where L P >100 m use intermediate

trenchstops at spacing <100/Grade
S = 100/Grade(%)

Special design

* Pipe length is the standard pipe length installed.

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9 DESIGN REVIEW AND DRAWINGS

9.1 DESIGN REVIEW
Once the design has been completed, the Designer shall undertake a system review to
ensure the design complies with the requirements specified by the Water Agency in the
Concept Plan and the requirements detailed in this Code. Compliance shall cover at least
the following:
(a)

Size(s) and grades of sewers throughout the relevant portion of the proposed
transfer / reticulation system meet Concept Plan requirements.

(b)

Pipe materials are suitable for the particular application and environment.

(c)

Sewer layout and alignment meets Water Agency requirements.

(d)

Route selection meets Concept Plan requirements.

(e)

Topographical and environmental aspects have been addressed.

(f)

Easements as appropriate are specified.

(g)

Foundation and geotechnical aspects have been considered.

(h)

Provision is made for future extensions, as appropriate.

(i)

Types and locations of maintenance structures, overflows and vents meet Water
Agency requirements.

(j)

Locations and details of bulkheads are specified.

(k)

Property service connection locations meet Water Agency requirements.

(l)

The system components and configuration meet the Water Agencys occupational
health and safety requirements.

(m)

Life cycle costs are minimised.

9.2 DESIGN DRAWINGS

9.2.1 General
Design Drawings shall be prepared in accordance with the Water Agency's requirements.
Except where otherwise notified, the requirements are as set out in this Section.
The information to be shown in the Design Drawings shall include, but not be limited to,
that detailed below. The information includes that required for production of Work As
Constructed (WAC) drawings by facilitating, as far as possible, the ready incorporation or
updating of such information in the Design Drawings.
Design Drawings generally shall include the following:
(a)

A locality plan giving the overall layout and location of the works.

(b)

A detailed plan of the scheme.

(c)

Special details where the Standard Drawings are not sufficient.

(d)

Longitudinal sections

(e)

A flow schedule.

Typical design drawing arrangements are shown in Standard Drawings SEW1100, SEW
1101 and SEW1102.

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9.2.2 Real property information

Design Drawings shall include at least the following real property information:
(a)

Layout of roads, easements and lots.

(b)

Lot numbering and street names.

(c)

North point.

9.2.3 Sewers
Design Drawings shall include at least the following sewer details:
(a)

Position of sewers relative to property boundaries.

(b)

Locations and details of known utility services and stormwater drains.

(c)

Insets and diagrams (amended where necessary on WAC drawings).

(d)

Notations and standard labels indicating current status e.g. Existing end to be
extended (to be edited to Existing end extended in WAC documentation).

(e)

Ties and downstream distance.

(f)

Where sewers can only be tied to local features i.e. trees, posts, etc, bearing and
distances of sewers with azimuth of survey.

(g)

Junction distances to downstream MH shown above arrow; if a vertical riser is added,

indicate by adding a v after the distance eg. 56.6v.

(h)

Unsurveyed property connection sewers shown with downstream distance and length
e.g. 12.5 PCS 2.0, with distance shown first in all cases.

(i)

Directions for connecting to existing system.

(j)

Notes specifying that detectable tape is to be laid on top of the pipe embedment or
1 m below the surface for all non-metallic sewers and horizontal curved sewers.

(k)

Drainage limitsfull or partial.

(l)

Design assumptions for ancillary structures (Refer to Clause 1.3.3 and Section 7).

(m)

Method and type of construction if boring to be undertaken.

9.2.4 Structures
Design Drawings shall include at least the following information in respect of all structures:
(a)

Position of structures relative to property boundaries.

(b)

Survey level control points.

(c)

Ties and/or downstream distance.

(d)

Type of structure.

(e)

Details of all inlets and property connection sewers.

(f)

Water seal requirements.

(g)

Ties to additional structures.

(h)

ISG co-ordinates if available.

(i)

Vent shafts showing size, type and height.

9.2.5 Longitudinal sections (profiles)

Design Drawings shall include at least the following information on longitudinal sections:
(a)

Size and class (stiffness, SDR and/or pressure) of sewer to be laid.

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(b)

Material designation of sewer to be laid (Refer to list of acronyms on WSAA website).

(c)

Chainages of structures and other on line and nearby features.

(d)

Locations and details of known utility services and stormwater drains (additional
services located during construction to be shown on WAC drawings).

(e)

Grades (percentage) and levels of sewers.

(f)

Special features of structures e.g. fibreglass MH with solid-top, bolt-down DI Class B

watertight cover, vertical concrete encased.

(g)

Design type of structures e.g. MH, segmental MH, etc.

(h)

Types of joints and extent of each type (Refer to list of acronyms on WSAA website).

(i)

Concrete surrounds or concrete bulkheads with relevant chainages.

(j)

Protective coatings or other protective measures with relevant chainages.

(k)

Pilingsize, type and extent.

(l)

Types of pipe support usedchainage noted.

(m)

Method and type of construction if boring to be undertaken.

(n)

Strata.

9.2.6 Title block notation and standard notes

Design Drawings shall include the following or provision for the following information:
(a)

Pipe schedule showing size, material, type, class, length and joint type of all pipes to
be laid eg DN 150, PVCU, ribbed wall, SN8, 6 m, RRJ.

(b)

Name of Developer.

(c)

Name of Project Manager.

(d)

Name of Designer or agent.

(e)

Name of Constructor.

(f)

Name of quality manager (field tester).

(g)

Plan to be marked Work As Constructed on the top right corner in 5 mm text.

(h)

Date of completion of construction.

(i)

Date of drawing up of WAC documents.

9.2.7 Other
Design Drawings shall generally include the following information and features:
(a)

Municipal boundaries.

(b)

Major features eg creeks, railway lines, power transmission lines.

(c)

Additional geological, construction and safety requirements.

(d)

Geotechnical data, special foundation conditions, dewatering requirements.

(e)

Groundwater levels.

(f)

Locations and details of known and suspected sites with contaminated soil and acid
sulphate or potential acid sulphate soil (additional sites located during construction to
be shown on WAC drawings).

(g)

Amended positions and/or depths of sewers.

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(h)

If sewer is amended in position and/or depth, redefined drainage limits on WAC

drawings.

(i)

Revised status of facilities e.g. Existing end to be extended edited to Existing end
extended in WAC documentation.

9.3 DRAFTING STANDARDS

Drawings shall be prepared in accordance with the Water Agencys practices.
9.3.1 Scale
Preferred scales are 1:1000 for detail plans and the horizontal component of longitudinal
sections. Preferred scales for the vertical component of sections are 1:100. The Water
Agencys preferred scales shall be used.
9.3.2 Recording of as-constructed information
The Water Agency may require drawings to be in a certain format compatible with the later
addition of as-constructed information in the Water Agencys asset map base.

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APPENDIX A ESTIMATION OF EQUIVALENT POPULATION (EP)

A1 GENERAL
The use of this appendix requires Water Agency approval.
Determination of equivalent population (EP) may be required as an element of design flow
estimation for undeveloped areas or where an existing system does not have flow gauges.
The method detailed below differentiates between residential synchronous discharges
and commercial / industrial development discharges. Peak discharges from office blocks
and industries generally do not follow the same morning and evening peaks exhibited by
residential areas. Commercial and industrial peaks may occur at any time during working
hours and seldom synchronise. Rather than sum the EP of each industrial development, a
dispersion factor is applied to multiple industrial developments of identical classification
to avoid over-estimation of industrial flows.
A2 ESTIMATION METHOD
Equivalent population (EP) should be calculated as the sum of the residential, commercial
and industrial loadings of the proposed development:
EP = (EP Residential + EPCommercial + EPIndustrial)
Table A1 provides estimates of contributions to EP from residential and commercial
developments and special cases such as schools, parks and clubs.
A2.1 Residential component
A2.1.1 Single occupancy lots
The contribution to EP should be taken as 3.5 per single occupancy lot i.e. a single
residence or dwelling (Refer also to Clause 5.5).
If the number of single residences or dwellings is not known:
(a) assume that 70% of the gross area designated single occupancy lots will contain
single dwellings i.e. 30% allowance for parks, roads etc; and
(b)

estimate the average area, in square metres, of a single occupancy lot.

The number of single occupancy lots can then be calculated from:

Number of single occupancy lots

0.7 * Gross hectares * 10,000

Average area in m2 of a single occupancy lot

The single occupancy lot contribution to EP will be 3.5 x Number of lots.

Table A1 shows EP per hectare for typical average areas of single occupancy lots.
A2.1.2 Multiple occupancy lotsMedium density residential
The contribution to EP from medium density residential development should be taken as
3.0 per dwelling unit. Planning data generally nominates the proposed number of dwelling
units per gross hectare.
Table A1 presents EP per Hectare for medium density densities of 40 and 70 dwelling
units per gross hectare i.e. typical estimates in the absence of planning data.
A2.1.3 Multiple occupancy lotsHigh-density / multi-storey residential
The contribution to EP from high-density residential development should be taken as 2.5
per dwelling unit. The total EP contribution requires planning data or estimates of the
density of dwelling units per gross hectare.

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A2.2 Commercial and special use components

Contributions from commercial and special use properties such as schools and clubs
should be determined from records of similar developments. Table A1 provides default
values where such records are not available.
A2.3 Industrial component
A2.3.1 General
For industrial developments, for which the types of developments are known, Tables A2
and A3 apply. If there is inadequate information about the specific types of commercial and
industrial development or if Table A2 does not adequately describe the development,
Table A1 may be used i.e. 150 EP per gross hectare.
A2.3.2 Use of Tables A2 and A3
Industrial contributions to EP may be determined as follows:
(a) Locate the relevant industry type (i.e. columns 1 to 3 of Table A2) and for each
industry type identify the relevant EP classification i.e. numbers 1 to 10 from Column 4.
(i)

Assess the number of independent sewer connections of identical EP

classification e.g. 1 for 1 laundry, 3 for 3 laundries etc. This number is N in
Table A3.

(ii)

Using the EP classification number from Table A2 and the number of identical
connections, N, extract the EP per built up hectare from Table A3.

(b) For each type development, determine the built-up area (in hectares) from a plan of
the proposed site.
(c)

For each type of development, calculate the EP from:

EP = (EP per built up hectare) * (built up area, Ha)

(d) Sum the contributions of each type of development to give the total commercial /
industrial contribution to EP.
A3 WORKED EXAMPLE FOR AN INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
A business park is proposed with independent sewer connections for:
(a)

3 x pharmaceutical plants with a total developed area of 0.7 gross Ha.

(b)

4 x industrial laundries with a total developed area of 1.2 Ha.

Plans show that the pharmaceutical plants will occupy 70% of the gross area and that the
laundries will occupy 50% of the gross area.
Referring to Tables A2 and A3:
For the pharmaceutical plants:
From Table A2 the EP classification is 7
From Table A3, N = 3 and the corresponding EP density per BU hectare is 610
Built up area = the floor area portion of the property = 70% of 0.7Ha = 0.49 Ha
EPIndustrial = 610 x 0.49 = 299 EP
For the industrial laundries:
From Table A2 the EP classification is 1
From Table A3, N = 4 and the corresponding EP density per BU hectare is 8400
Built up area = the floor area portion of the property = 50% of 1.2Ha = 0.6 Ha
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EPIndustrial = 8400 x 0.60 = 5040 EP

Hence the Total EP is:
EPTotal = 299 + 5040 = 5339, say 5340 EP
TABLE A1 EQUIVALENT POPULATIONS FOR SYNCHRONOUS* DISCHARGES
*Peaks coinciding with normal residential occupancies

Classification

Unit

EP per Unit

Lot

3.5

Remarks

Residential
Single occupancy lots
Single lot 1000m2

Gross hectare

25

Gross hectare

50

Single lot 300m 2

Gross hectare

80

Single lot 500m

To be used for single occupancy lots

down to 300 m 2
Approx 70% net which takes roads,
parks etc into consideration

Multiple occupancy lots

Single occupancy medium
density dwelling units

Dwelling unit

Medium density
(Group housing)

Gross hectare

Medium density
e.g. 3 storey walk-up flats

Gross hectare

Single occupancy high

density dwelling units

Dwelling unit

High density multi storey

apartments

Gross hectare

3.0
120
210

To be used for multiple occupancy lots

2
down to 300 m
Density of 40 dwelling units/ gross ha
Density of 70 dwelling units/gross ha

2.5
3754500

Depends on locality e.g. CBD in small

capital city, CBD in Sydney, strip
development along Gold Coast

Typical for capital city CBD

Commercial/ Special Cases

High density commercial

Gross lettable
floor space,
2
10,000 m

500800

Local commercial

Gross hectare

75

Educational institutions

Student

0.2

Includes teaching staff. Treat

residential colleges and boarding
houses as medium density dwelling
units

General public
entertainment facilities

Visitor

0.05

Shows, race crowds, etc

Occupant

0.25

Use the maximum number of

occupants for which the club facilities
were designed

Hospitals and nursing

homes

Available beds

3.4

Parks / gardens / reserves

Gross hectare

20

Golf courses

Gross hectare

10

Treat club houses as above

Future industrial areas

Gross hectare

150

To be used only when the future types

of industry are unknown otherwise use
Table A2

Clubs

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Table A2 is a default list of industry types, typical of the historical approach adopted by
Water Agencies for forecasting the EP of proposed developments (or ungauged existing
developed areas). Planners and Designers, in liaison with the Water Agency, should use
available data on comparative industrial and commercial discharges to validate and
improve the reliability of forecasts. Table A2 categorises various industries under a series
of EP Classifications. Table A3 nominates a default value of EP per built-up hectare i.e.
floor area of the buildings, not gross hectare.
TABLE A2 NON-SYNCHRONOUS DISCHARGES
LIST OF INDUSTRIES AND THEIR EP CLASSIFICATIONS
EP

INDUSTRY
Meal preparation

Food manufacture

Non-Residential

Classification
Restaurant

Cafeteria

Canteen

Caterers

Milk

Cheese, butter and yoghurt

Ice cream

Cannery

Condiments and sauces

Abattoir

Rendering tallow

Gelatine and glue

Poultry

Small-goods

Flour milling

10

Starch

Edible oils and fats

Cereals

Bakery

10

Biscuits and cakes

Beer

Soft drinks and cordials

Yeast

Confectionery

Salt

Dairy

Fruit and vegetable

Meat

Grain

Beverages

Others

Textile and leather

Tannery and hides

Wool

Cotton and synthetics

Notes

Wool scour

Felt and carpet

Dyeing and spinning

Dyeing and spinning

1
continued

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EP

INDUSTRY
Chemical

Petrochemical

Classification
Oil refinery

Pharmaceutical
Organic

Others

Metal processing

Metal finishing

Battery manufacture

Engineering

Manufacture
Non-Metallic

Liquids

Resins, polymers and

plastics

Adhesives

Soaps and detergents

Paint manufacture

Electroplating

Anodising

Galvanising

Dry cell

Wet cell (lead acid)

Machine Shops

Sheet Metal

Foundry

Rolling

Extrusion

Plastics

Wood

8
Glass

Fibre cement

Concrete products

Laboratories

Industrial and research

Laundries

Industrial

Hotels, motels etc.

Others

(2)

Paper

Mining (Earth)

Services

10

Notes

Film Processing

Future Unknown

NOTES:
1

Some industries may have discharges much larger than usual. Discharges should be reviewed
against available information for the development.

Building area not applicable. Total property area is used.

For high-rise city hotels and motels use Table A1 High-density commercial areas.

Where the type of future industry is unknown use Table A1 Future industrial areas.

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TABLE A3 EP OF NON-RESIDENTIAL EP/ha CLASSIFICATIONS

INDUSTRY
EP

EP PER BUILT-UP HECTARE (BU)

N=1

N=2

N=3

N>3

15 000

10 050

9 150

8 400

10 000

6 700

6 100

5 600

8 000

5 360

4 880

4 480

6 000

4 020

3 660

3 360

4 000

2 680

2 440

2 240

2 000

1 340

1 220

1 120

1 000

670

610

560

500

335

305

280

250

168

152

140

10

100

67

61

56

CLASSIFICATION
from Table A2

NOTES:
1

In this Table, N is the number of independent industrial connections to a sewer of industries having
the same EP classification. The Table incorporates a dispersion factor for multiple connections having
equivalent loadings.

Industrial discharges may vary considerably in volume and rate of flow e.g. from dry trades where
domestic sewage only is discharged, to wet industries such as laundries where large volumes are
discharged at high peak flows. For the purpose of determining N values, factories should be grouped
so that those in each group have no more than a 10 to 1 range in peak dry weather discharges (EP).
Flows should be assumed to be non-synchronous.

The Water Agency may consider managing discharges (volume and/ or timing) by means of service
contracts.

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APPENDIX B FLOW ESTIMATION FOR UNDEVELOPED AREAS

B1 GENERAL
The use of this Appendix requires Water Agency approval.
Design flow estimates are required for designing pipe networks and input to pump station
designs. Design flow is the peak flow to be contained within the sewer system.
Design flow is the sum of the three components of flow, illustrated in Figure 3.1
(reproduced below).

Design flow = PDWF + GWI + IIF

B2 Peak dry weather (sanitary) flow

The Peak Dry Weather Flow (PDWF) is defined as the most likely peak sanitary flow in the
pipe during a normal day. It exhibits a regular pattern of usage with morning and evening
peaks related to water usage for toilets, showers, baths, washing and other household
activities.
Peak dry weather flow is related to the average dry weather flow (AWDF) by a peaking
factor, d:

PDWF = d * ADWF
where:
ADWF is the combined average daily sanitary flow into a sewer from domestic,
commercial and industrial sources. Based on empirical evidence, ADWF is deemed to
be 180 L/d/EP or 0.0021 L/s/EP.
The dry weather peaking factor, d, is a function of the gross development area in
hectares. Values of d are given in Figure B.1.
The average dry weather flow in (L/s) is:

ADWF = 0.0021 * EP
Where:
EP is based on combined residential, commercial and industrial equivalent
populations and is known or otherwise calculated in accordance with Appendix A i.e.

PDWF = d * 0.0021 * EP

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Figure B.1 "d" Factor versus Area - Areas < 40 Ha

10
9
8
7
"d"
Factor

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

0.1

10

100

Gross development area in Hectares

The curve in Figure B1 may be approximated by the following correlation and applied up to
gross development areas of 100 000 hectares:

d = 0.01(log A)4 0.19(log A)3 + 1.4(log A)2 4.66log A + 7.57

where:
A is gross plan area of the developments catchment, in hectares.
B3 GWI CALCULATION
Groundwater infiltration (GWI) is caused where the long-term non-rainfall dependent
groundwater table or seawater level exceeds pipe inverts and enters the sewer network
through pipe wall permeation and defects such as cracks, porosity, corroded and/or eroded
areas, ineffective and/or tree root penetrated joints at pipes, fittings and maintenance
structures and their displacement.
Where a map of groundwater table levels is not available, areas with fine clays and
sandstones should be classified as high groundwater table portions of the catchment, or as
otherwise advised by the responsible local agency or technical specialist.
The allowance for GWI assumes that good quality materials and workmanship have been
used for sewer system construction and that ongoing condition assessment, inspection and
maintenance is performed. The allowance for GWI should taken to be:

GWI = 0.025 * A * PortionWet

where:
GWI is groundwater ingress in L/s.
A is gross plan area of the developments catchment, in hectares.
PortionWet is the portion of the planned pipe network estimated to have groundwater
table levels in excess of pipe inverts. For example if 70% of the sewer system is
below groundwater table levels, then Portion Wet = 0.7

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B4 IIF CALCULATION
IIF is the peak (rainfall dependent) inflow and infiltration that may enter the sewer network
as inflow via localised flooding of yard gully traps, illegal stormwater connections and as
rainfall infiltration through pipe and maintenance structure defects. IIF is affected by factors
such as soil type, the condition of pipes, fittings, joints (including customer sanitary drains),
maintenance structures, surface covers and community awareness and attitudes regarding
the impact of sanitary drains and illegal stormwater connections. Control of IIF requires the
Water Agency to deploy programmed monitoring, condition assessment, inspection, testing
and maintenance of the sewer network and to cultivate community awareness to improve
the level of compliance of customer sanitary drains.
IIF is calculated in L/s by using a model similar to the National Rational Method for
stormwater flow calculation using the formula:

IIF = 0.028 * AEff *C * I

where:

AEff is the effective area capable of contributing rainfall dependent infiltration.

Calculation of AEff depends on the type e.g. residential or industrial, gross planned
area and density i.e. EP per hectare of development.
For residential developments:

AEff is a function of the development density, as follows:

AEff = A x (Density/150)0.5 for Density <150 EP/Ha
AEff = A for Density >150 EP/Ha
where:
A is gross plan area of the developments catchment, in hectares.
Density is the developments EP density per gross hectare.
For commercial and industrial developments:

AEff is a function of the expected portion of the catchment to be covered with

impervious structures, such as building roofs, sealed roads and car parks, which will
discharge rain-runoff to stormwater drains.
AEff = A x ( 1 0.75 PortionImpervious)
where:
A is gross plan area of the developments catchment, in hectares.
PortionImpervious is the portion of the gross plan area likely to be covered by
impervious structures that drain directly to the stormwater system e.g. if a
development has 20% coverage by such structures, then PortionImpervious = 0.2.
C is the IIF leakage severity coefficient (similar to the stormwater run-off
coefficient). It defines the contribution of rainfall run-off to sewer flows via IIF. C
comprises the sum of the contributions from a soil movement aspect e.g. highest
contribution for expansive clays and a defects aspect including the effectiveness of
the Water Agencys long-term strategy for maintenance and managing the impact of
sanitary sewers. With reference to Table B1, C will lie in the range from 0.4 to 1.6.
The Water Agency should nominate values of C to be adopted for design, taking
account of the likely impact of factors outlined above.

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TABLE B1
LEAKAGE SEVERITY COEFFICIENT (C)
Influencing aspect

Low impact

High impact

Soil aspect, S aspect

0.2

0.8

Network defects and inflow

aspect, N aspect

0.2

0.8

Minimum = 0.4

Maximum = 1.6

C = Saspect + N aspect

I is a function of rainfall intensity at the developments geographic location,

catchment area size and required sewer system containment standard. These
influencing factors are related by:

I = I1,2 x FactorSize x FactorContainment

where:
I1,2 is the 1 hour duration rainfall intensity at the location, for an average
recurrence interval of 2 years, as shown on the relevant Design Rainfall
Isopleth in Volume 2 of Australian Rainfall and Runoff (2001). Approximate
values for a selection of Australian cities are presented in Table B2
The Water Agency should nominate values of I 1,2 to be used.
TABLE B2
APPROXIMATE VALUES OF I(1,2) FOR VARIOUS LOCATIONS
City

ARR Map Reference

Approx. Value of I(1,2)

Adelaide

1.10

16 - 18

Alice Springs

1.13

21 - 23

Ballarat

1.8

18 - 19

Brisbane

1.5

43 - 48

Broome

1.12

44 - 46

Cairns

1.1

57 - 62

Canberra

1.7

22 - 23

Darwin

1.13

62 - 66

Dubbo

1.6

26 - 27

Geelong

1.8

18 - 20

Gold Coast

1.5

50 - 52

Gosford

1.7

35 - 40

Hobart

1.9

16 - 20

Melbourne

1.8

18 - 20

Newcastle

1.6 / 1.7

33 - 36

Perth

1.11

20 - 21

Port Headland

1.12

35 - 36

Sydney

1.7

30 - 45

Whyalla

1.10

15

NOTE: Interpolated from Australian Rainfall and Runoff, Volume 2

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FactorSize accounts for the fact that II flow concentration times are faster for
smaller catchments, calculated as:

FactorSize = (40/A)0.12
where:
A is gross plan area of the developments catchment, in hectares.
FactorContainment reflects local environmental aspects and regulations on wet
weather sewage containment (overflow frequency). The design should
incorporate the ARI of sewage overflows, specified by the Water Agency. Given
the specified ARI, FactorContainment may be either taken from Table B3, or
calculated from:
FactorContainment

0.77

10

10

0.43X
0.14X

where:
X = Log10(ARI) and ARI is the specified containment frequency in
years.
TABLE B3
CONTAINMENT FACTOR VERSUS ARI
ARI

1 month

3 months

6 months

1 year

2 years

5 years

10 years

FactorContainment

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.3

1.5

B5 WORKED EXAMPLE FOR A RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT

B5.1 Description
A low density development on a greenfields site with gross area of 50 hectares and an
average lot size of 500 m2 is proposed for North Adelaide.
B5.2 Peak dry weather flow (PDWF)
From Table A1, the EP per gross hectare for 500 m2 single occupancy lots is 50.
Calculate the design EP: = 50 x 50 (Ha) = 2500 EP
Estimate design ADWF: = 0.00208 x EP = 0.00208 x 2500 = 5.20 L/s
Determine the d factor: From Figure B.1 (b), d = 2.86
Determine PDWF: = d x ADWF = 2.86 x 5.20 = 14.9 L/s
B5.3 Ground water infiltration (GWI)
It is known that the local perennial groundwater table levels are such that half of the
proposed sewer routes will be subject to high groundwater table levels. The GWI flow
allowance is then calculated as:
GWI = 0.025 x A x PortionWet
For PortionWet = 0.5, GWI = 0.025 x 50 x 0.5 = 0.625, say 0.6 L/s
B5.4 Rainwater dependent inflow and infiltration (IIF)
IIF calculation is as noted in B4:
IIF = 0.0278 x C x I x AEff
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To determine C:
Sandy loam soils (low soil movement and good drainage) are prevalent in the route of
the sewer. Assuming that the Water Agency has a program to reduce illegal
stormwater connections and has a reasonable condition assessment, inspection and
maintenance program in place, with reference to Table B1, a C value of 0.6 is
adopted i.e. assume Saspect = 0.2 and Naspect = 0.4)
To determine I1,2:
Locating North Adelaide on Map 1.10 in AR&R, I1,2 is determined to be 16.0
To determine FactorSize :
= (40/A)0.12 = (40/50)0.12 = 0.97
To determine FactorContainment:
Regional environmental regulations for sewage spill frequency permit a 2 year ARI
containment standard. Using Table B3 this gives FactorContainment = 1.0.
To determine I:
I = I1,2 x FactorSize x FactorContainment = 16.0 x 0.97 x 1.00 = 15.5
To Determine AEff:
AEff = A x (Density / 150)0.5
AEff = 50 x (50 / 150)0.5 = 28.9 Ha
To Determine IIF:
IIF = 0.0278 x C x I x AEff = 0.0278 x 0.6 x 15.5 x 28.9 = 7.5 L/s
B5.5 Design flow
Design flow calculation is as follows:
Design flow = PDWF + GWI + IIF = 14.9 + 0.6 + 7.5 = 23.0 L/s,
which, for this example, is equivalent to 1.5*PDWF.
Note: For a given development, the ratio of Design flow:PDWF may significantly vary with
variables such as C, I1,2 and FactorContainment .

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APPENDIX C GAUGING OF SEWER OVERFLOWS, FLOWS, LEVELS AND VELOCITIES

C1 GENERAL
The effectiveness of any sewer gauging activity begins with a clear statement of the
purpose(s) that it is meant to satisfy. Based on this understanding of purpose, the required
sampling frequency, accuracy, gauge type and gauging duration may be defined.
As noted in Clause 2.2.3, this Code advocates the planning of important flow gauging
points at the time of system concept planning and subsequent detail design. This allows
full advantage to be made of the superior accuracy of flume and weir type primary devices,
with correct approach and downstream conditions incorporated.
However, retrofitting of sewer gauges is often required, both for long and short term
gauging requirements. No single guideline is currently available covering all aspects of
sewer and rain gauge types, placement, and limitations. For example, one readily available
standard relates to short-term survey purposes only, as covered in the UK document Code
of Practice for the Hydraulic Modelling of Sewer Systems published by the Wallingford
Procedure Users Group (November 1993). Nevertheless, it is worth noting that several of
the concepts given in this UK Code may equally apply to long-term gauging for sewer
system design and management.
To fill some of the gaps not covered in existing Codes and guidelines, this Appendix
describes each gauge type, its capability, suitability and limitations.
C2 PRE-CONSTRUCTED FLUMES AND WEIRS
Pre-constructed flumes and weirs are primary measurement devices planned and designed
into the system at the concept planning stage, and which should conform to the limits of
application set out in AS 3778.
Level sensing at the relevant location upstream of the point of critical flow is required so
that flows may be calculated from the predefined rating table of relationships between level
and discharge.
Flow measurement uncertainties in the range from 5% to 10% can generally be achieved
by such devices and level sensors.
Design of such installations should allow for safe and easy access to a suitable point for
checking the discharge rating of the device for verification, calibration and maintenance
purposes.
C3 RETRO-FITTING OF DEVICES
C3.1 Flumes and weirs
The main conceptual difficulty with retro-fitting of flume or weir devices is the fact that they
further constrict the flow at points in the sewer, which are usually only subject to monitoring
due to an already problematic lack of capacity, thus exacerbating the problem during the
flow monitoring period.
Level sensing at the relevant location upstream of the point of critical flow is required so
that flows may be calculated from the predefined rating table of relationships between level
and discharge.
Their advantage over HVQ (Height-Velocity-Flow) gauges is their pre-rated feature, which
avoids the need for extensive site calibration if they are correctly designed, fabricated,
installed and maintained. Their main disadvantage is that the existing sewer system was
not designed for their placement, which restricts their use to a limited range of flows in
accordance with the limits of application set out in AS 3778.
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Sites with supercritical flow conditions i.e. Fr >1 should be avoided, as these invalidate the
level to discharge relationship of such primary devices. A common solution to this limitation
is to raise the cease-to-flow point of the structure so that a substantial approach pool is
created, which often causes odour and operational problems during the flow monitoring
period.
C3.2 Doppler HVQ gauges
These instruments are commonly used where retro-fitting for flow measurement is
required. Their measurement uncertainty is generally in the range from 10% to 20%, but
they avoid the odour and operational problems created by the weir-pool and flume-pool
backups.
Local site calibration is essential for the range of flow regimes to be gauged.
These devices should not be used at sites with deep or wide cross sections, as
measurement uncertainties will exceed 20%.
For further detail on limits of application see ISO/TS 15769.
C3.3 Transit-time HVQ gauges
Transit-time HVQ gauges together with their limits of application are described in
AS 3778.3.7. They also require local site calibration to define the relationship between flow
depth and calibration factor to cover the expected range of flow regimes.
The false signal noise evident when using Doppler HVQs at large sites is significantly
reduced by transit-time instruments.
A well-calibrated site with
uncertainties as low as 7%.

good

approach

conditions

can

deliver

measurement

C3.4 Other HVQ type gauges

All velocity measuring gauges require local site calibration, covering the range of flow
regimes expected at the site. Without such local calibrations, additional measurement
uncertainties of the order of 20% could be expected.
C3.5 Using H-only and a rating table at unrated structures
This approach requires a level gauge placed just upstream of the structure or in the
structure, and a theoretically derived rating table. Although this is common practice, and
necessary on occasion to meet budgetary constraints, it will give inaccurate results when
one or more of the following occur:
(a)

Variable backwater ponding effects caused by downstream constriction or surcharge.

(b)

Loop-rating or hysteresis effects, such as is known to occur in most trunk sewers.

(c)

Where local site conditions invalidate the assumptions which support the theoretically
derived rating table relationship (for example higher roughness values, partial
blockage of an overflow discharge pipe etc).

C3.6 Flumes and weirs in conjunction with HVQ gauges

The combination of flumes and weirs with HVQ gauges, although more expensive, has
been found to be successful at overcoming the main inherent problems of the individual
devices when used alone.
The flume or weir device creates a pool in which the HVQ gauge sensor is mounted. Joint
analysis of depth and velocity records enable self-calibration of the velocity sensor, and
calculation of flow (Q) from height (H) and the primary device rating for non-surcharge
conditions, and from H, V using the velocity-area method for surcharge conditions.

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C4 FULL PIPE METERS

The design and placement of various types of measurement devices, including full pipe
meters, is covered in AS 2360 together with guides to the use of methods specified and
assessment of uncertainty in the calibration and use of flow measurement.
To ensure best results, a specified number of pipe diameters of straight pipe before and
after the measurement point should be provided. Local site calibration is also essential.
C5 OVERFLOW EVENT RECORDERS
These are relatively inexpensive recorders, involving a single pressure type sensor linked
to a basic data logger. The sensor and logger are installed in the (usually dry) overflow
discharge pipe, which tends to make their installation and servicing free of many of the
hazards associated with in-sewer gauge installations. A variety of these type of recorders
are available. Their performance can be variable depending on their design and quality of
manufacture. Overflow discharge events are indicated by the sensor reading a value other
than zero during the period of continuous overflow.
Disadvantages of this type of recorder are:
(a)

The need for manual (visual) interpretation of the gauge records to precisely define
the start and end of events.

(b)

Inability to accurately define the volume of overflow.

(c)

False overflow event indications at sites where the sensor is frequently covered as a
result of surcharge events in the receiving waters e.g. increased flow levels in creeks
during storm events.

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APPENDIX D COMPUTER FLOW MODELLING

Where possible, a computer model of the existing system and its calibration to actual
flows, should be developed since it is considered to be the best tool for performing
hydraulic evaluation of existing system capacity and for determining impacts of sewer
system upgrades and future loading impacts. No detailed description of flow modelling
methodology is given in this Code, but the following general guidelines are provided. The
same approach may be used for optimising the sizing and arrangement of new schemes by
ignoring the points relating to gauged data.
(a)

Break the catchment up into a logical set of sub-catchments, and build a hydraulic
model of the trunk sewer system that transports sewage from the sub-catchment
outlets to the overall system outlet.

(b)

Establish a suitable gauging network of rainfall and sewer flow and level gauges.

(c)

Calibrate the hydraulic behaviour of individual sub-catchments of the trunk model,

from gauge records, manufacturers pump curves, field studies, and hydraulic theory.

(d)

Calibrate the dry and wet weather inflow loading behaviour of each sub-catchment by
analysis of gauge records obtained at each sub-catchment outlet.

(e)

Verify the ability of the assembled flow model to replicate the observed flow
behaviour of the system, over a sufficiently long time series of storm events, and use
this model to define existing system performance over a reference time period.

(f)

Represent planned upgrade options and/or increased subcatchment developments in

a modified form of the model, and rerun it for the same reference time period to
define both the impacts of the do-nothing option and each improvement or upgrade
option

(g)

If upgrades include detention storages, then use the model to perform detailed
concept design of providing storage volumes versus increased transport system
capacities, optimising the balance between the two.

(h)

If required, use the model to estimate and report system behaviour and overflow
volumes in ungauged portions of the system.

(i)

If required, simplify the model to act as an "expert system" that can be used as a
"what-if" model. Use as a real-time system operational tool linked with SCADA data.

A Code of Practice for the Hydraulic Modelling of Sewer Systems, November 1993 is
published by the WRc on behalf of the Wallingford Procedure User Group.

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APPENDIX E ANALYSIS OF FLOW GAUGING RESULTS FROM EXISTING SYSTEMS

E1 GENERAL
Flow estimation for new development often requires the inclusion of existing sub-system
flow allowances. Where suitable sewer flow and rain gauges have been located in such
existing sub-systems, their records can be analysed to define design flows on the same
bases as for new developments, as described in E2 and E3.
E2 PEAK DRY WEATHER FLOW (PLUS GROUNDWATER INFILTRATION)
If at least 12 months of records are available, then select a representative year of
records, and:
(a)

Use rain gauge records to identify driest periods.

(b)

Compare representative dry weeks in each dry period.

(c)

Extract the PDWF from each of the 7 days in the week chosen as most representative
of normal dry day flow conditions i.e. not after a bad drought period, or not after a
heavy rainfall period.

(d)

Define representative PDWF as the average of the 7 day PDWFs.

Note that the PDWF defined in this way represents the some of the PDWF and GWI
components i.e. if any GWI exists.
E3 INFLOW AND INFILTRATION (WET WEATHER) FLOW (IIF)
If at least 12 months of records are available, then select a representative year of
records, and:
(a)

Use rain gauge records to identify the 20 largest storm events.

(b)

Analyse flow gauge records, and for each event, subtract the characteristic dry day
flow diurnal pattern to define the IIF flow hydrograph for each.

(c)

Extract the IIF flow peak in L/s from each of the 20 events and rank them by
magnitude in a list.

(d)

Identify the 12th ranked IIF peak flow as the best estimate of the 1 month ARI IIF i.e.
IIF0.08yrs.
To convert this to the containment standard of relevance for the new development
and to define the existing sub-systems IIF for that containment standard use:

IIFContainment = 5.6 * IIF0.08 yrs FactorContainment

where FactorContainment should be determined from Table B2.

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