1.4 - Reservoir Rock

RR > Reservoir Rock
1.4- Reservoir Rock

Sedimentary Rock Cycle, Rock Types, Igneous and Metamorphic rocks,
sedimentary rocks, Clastics, Carbonates, Porosity and Permeability,
Capillary Pressure
Dr. M. Watfa
1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Sedimentary Rock Cycle

Source Rocks
Igneous Metamorphic Sedimentary
Weathering
Mechanical and Chemical
Deposition
Sedimentary
Rock
Process
Clastics Carbonates Evaporites

Compaction Dissolution Precipitation
Diagenesis
Sedimentary Rock Layers

2
Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved
Material: M. Watfa

The start and end of all rocks is the
magma in the mantle.
This is cooled to create igneous rocks.
These can be broken down into
sediments.
The sediments are turned into
sedimentary rocks.
These can be buried deeper with heat
and pressure, turning into metamorphic
rocks.
If these are then heated we return to
the magma.
Inside this major cycle are sub-cycles.
Igneous rocks can be heated to give
metamorphic rocks.
Any rocks can be broken into
sediments to give sedimentary rocks.
3
Material: M. Watfa

Sedimentary Rock Types- Relative abundance
Rocks and Rock
Types:
Sedimentary
Characteristics
This chart shows the
relative abundance of
most sedimentary
rocks.
Material: M. Watfa

World Oil Reserves
130 billions barrels of oil

300 billions barrels of oil
Carbonate
Fraction
5
Material: M. Watfa
Rock Types
Rocks and Rock Types:

There are three main types of rock which
are classified as:
igneous,
metamorphic
sedimentary
Igneous rocks: Formed from molten
material deep in the earths crust. This
includes granite
Metamorphic rocks- Modified by high
pressure and temperature, such as
gneiss.
Igneous and metamorphic rocks are
called basement rocks. Only when highly
fractured can these rocks serve as a
reservoir.
Sedimentary Rocks: Eroded,
transported and deposited.
6
Material: M. Watfa
Rock Types
Sedimentary Rocks
These are the most important for the oil
industry as it contains most of the source
rocks and cap rocks and virtually all
reservoirs.
Sedimentary rocks come from the debris of
older rocks and are split into two categories
Clastic
and Non-Clastic.
Clastic rocks - formed from the materials of
older rocks by the actions of erosion,
transportation and deposition.
Non-Clastic rocks - Formed from chemical or
biological origin and then deposition.
7
Material: M. Watfa
Rock Types
Rock Types: Sedimentary
Clastic
Boulders/Cobbles, Granules(>2mm)
Sand (0.06 2.0 mm)
Silt (0.004 0.04 mm)
Clay (<0.004 mm)
Carbonate
Limestone / Dolomite
Evaporite
Salt / Gypsum
Material: M. Watfa
Rock Types
Sedimentary RocksDepositional Environments

The depositional environment
can be
Shallow or deep water.
Marine (sea) and lake or

continental.
This environment determines
many of the reservoir
characteristics
9
Material: M. Watfa
Rock Types

The depositional characteristics
of the rocks lead to some of
their properties and that of the
reservoir itself.
The reservoir rock types are
either clastic or non-clastic.
The type of porosity (especially
in carbonates) is determined by
the environment plus
subsequent events.
11
The structure of a reservoir can

also be determined by
deposition; a river, a delta, a
reef and so on.
This can also lead to
permeability and producibility. of
these properties are often
changed by further events.
Material: M. Watfa
11
Rock Types
The environment is not

static.
Folding and faulting change
the structure.
Diagenesis (Dissolution and
fracturing) can change the
porosity & permeability.
12
Material: M. Watfa
12
Rock Types
Sedimentary RocksDepositional Environments:

Sedimentations
Sediments settle to the
bottom of the sedimentary
basin.
As the sediments
accumulate the
temperature and
pressure increase
This process expels water
from the sediments.
13
Material: M. Watfa
13
Rock Types
Sedimentary RocksDepositional Environments:

Sedimentations
Sedimentary muds become sedimentary
rocks.
Calcareous muds become limestone.
Sands become sandstone.
Another effect involves both the grains in the
matrix and the fluids reacting to create new
minerals changing the matrix and porosity.
Fluids can also change creating a new set of
minerals.
This whole process is called Diagenesis.
14
Material: M. Watfa
14
Igneous & Metamorphic Rocks
Igneous Rocks
Granite
Comprise 95% of the Earth's

crust.
Originated from the
solidification of molten material
from deep inside the Earth.
There are two types:
Volcanic - glassy in texture
due to fast cooling.
Plutonic - slow-cooling,
crystalline rocks.
15
Material: M. Watfa
15

Igneous Rocks and
Reservoirs
Igneous rocks can be part of
reservoirs.
Granite
16
Oil could migrate up due to

geometric location
Fractured granites form
reservoirs in some parts of the
world.
Volcanic tuffs are mixed with
sand in some reservoirs.
Material: M. Watfa
16

Metamorphic Rocks
Schist
Metamorphic Rocks are formed by

the action of temperature and / or
pressure on sedimentary or
igneous rocks.
Examples of Metamorphic Rocks
Marble: formed from
limestone
Hornfels: from shale or tuff

Gneiss
17
Gneiss (pronounced- NICE):

similar to granite but formed
by metamorphosis
Material: M. Watfa
17
Clastics
18
Consist largely of quartz (silicon

oxide SiO2)
Clastic rocks formed from rock
debris
Sand grains cemented to form
rock
Commonly contain other silicate
minerals: clays, micas,
feldspars
Quartz has low reactivity due to
very low solubility in brine
Ref: T. Jones / SCR
Material: M. Watfa
Clastics
Clastic Depositional
Environments
Sandstone
19
Alluvial Fan
Lacustrine
Eolian
Fluvial
Delta
Shelf
Marine
Material: M. Watfa
19
Clastics
Clastic Rock
20
Clastic rocks are:

sands,
silts and
shales.
The difference is in
the size of the
grains.
Material: M. Watfa
20
Clastics
Clastic Rock- Depositional

Environment - DELTA
21
Sediments are transported

to the basins by rivers.
A common depositional
environment is the delta
where the river empties into
the sea.
A good example of this is
the Mississippi and the Niger
Delta.
Material: M. Watfa
21
Clastics
Clastic Rock- Depositional

Environment - RIVER
Some types of deposition occur in
rivers and sand bars.
The river forms a channel where
sands are deposited in layers.
Rivers carry sediment down from
the mountains which is then
deposited in the river bed and on
the flood plains at either side.
Changes in the environment can
cause these sands to be overlain
with a shale, trapping the
reservoir rock.
22
Material: M. Watfa
22
Clastics
Roundness and Sphericity of Clastic Grains
High
Sphericity
Low
Sphericity
SubAngular
SubRounded
Rounded
WellRounded
Very
Angular
Angular
(Geologists like their sandstones well rounded and with high sphericity)
23
Material: M. Watfa
23
Clastics
Grain-Size Sorting in Sandstone
Very Well
Sorted
24
Well
Sorted
Moderately
Sorted
Poorly
Sorted
Very Poorly
Sorted
Material: M. Watfa
24
Clastics
Types of Textural Changes Sensed

by the Naked Eye as Bedding
Sand
Shale
Change of Composition
Slow Current
Fast Current
Change of Size
River
Eolian
Beach
Fluvial
Change of Shape
Change of Orientation
Change of Packing
25
Material: M. Watfa
25
Clastics
NMR and FMI in Sandstone

X100-x110: Shaly interval. Low
T2 and hence small pores.
X110-x120: mainly clean
sandstone with small shale as
shown by small T2 values.
X120-x140: FMI shows thin
shale streaks. NMR shows more
low values of T2 confirming the
presence of shale. This is also
confirmed by the high resolution
NMR spikes on the FFV and
BFV.
X140-TD: Tight formation with
low T2 and small pores.
26
Material: M. Watfa
26
Carbonates
Carbonates encompass limestones

(largely calcite CaCO3) and
dolomites (largely CaMg(CO3)2 )
Formed by carbonate precipitation
and aggregation of animal shells
Often associated with evaporite
minerals
High reactivity due to relatively high
solubility in brines (0.15 grams/litre in
1 molar sodium chloride solution
Wide range of pore sizes, from vugs
(~ cm) to micropores (< 1 mm)
Ref: T. Jones / SCR
27
Material: M. Watfa
Carbonates
Limestone
Carbonates form a large
proportion of all permeable
sedimentary rocks ( 14%).
They consist of:
Dolomite
28
Limestone.
Dolomite.
Carbonates usually have an
irregular pore structure.
Often, a formation has a mixture
of Limestone and dolomite
Material: M. Watfa
28
Carbonates
Carbonate Types
29
Chalk is a special form of limestone

and is formed from the skeletons of
small creatures (cocoliths).
Limestone
Ca CO3
Dolomite
Ca CO3 Mg CO3
Dolomite is formed by the replacement

of some of the calcium by a lesser
volume of magnesium in limestone.
Magnesium is smaller than calcium,
hence the matrix becomes smaller
and more porosity is created.
Evaporites such as Salt (NaCl) and

Anhydrite (CaSO4) can also form in
these environments.
A dolomite is formed when one

magnesium ( Mg) molecule replaces a
Calcium (Ca) molecule
Material: M. Watfa
29
Carbonates
Porosity Types- Carbonates
Interparticle:
Pores between particles or grains
Intraparticle:
Pores within individual particles
Moldic
Pores formed by dissolution of an individual grain crystal in the

rock
Fracture:
Formed by a planar break in the rock
Vug
30
Large pores formed by indiscriminate dissolution of cements and

grains
Material: M. Watfa
30
Carbonates
Dunham Carbonate Rock Classification

Depositional Texture Recognizable
Components Not Bound Together During Deposition
Contains Mud
Lacks Mud,
(clay and silt size particles
GrainGrain
Mud Supported
Supported
Supported
<10 %
>10 %
Grains
Depositional
Texture
Original Components
Not Recognizable
Bound Together
During Deposition
Grains
Mudstone Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
Boundstone
Crystalline
Carbonate
(modified from Dunham, 1962)

31
Material: M. Watfa
31
Carbonates
Carbonate Porosity - Example
Moldic
Pores
Dolomite
Moldic
Pore
Due to dissolution
and collapse of ooids
(allochemical particles)
Isolated pores
Low effective porosity
Calcite
Thin section micrograph - plane-polarized light
Smackover Formation, Alabama
33
Low permeability
Blue areas are pores.
(Photograph by D.C. Kopaska-Merkel)
Material: M. Watfa
33
Carbonates
Carbonate Depositional Environment

Reef System
Cross section
showing complex
facies relations in a
carbonate reef
setting. Reservoir
quality varies with
facies.
35
Material: M. Watfa
35
Carbonates
Carbonate Rock Distribution

Reef; Shelf Carbonate, Deep Carbonate; Carbonate Oil Province
36
Material: M. Watfa
36
Porosity and Permeability

Sedimentary Rock Characteristics
Porosity
The percentage of pore volume or void space
that can contain fluids
Permeability
The measure of how easily fluid moves through
a rock, typically measured in Darcies or
millidarcies
Sorting
Range of sedimentary grain sizes that occurs in
sedimentary rock
37
Matrix (lithology) - major constituent of the rock
Material: M. Watfa
37
Effects of various controls on

Porosity & Permeability
How permeability is formed will
depend on many factors.
For the same porosity, a wide
range of permeabilities can
develop.
These various controls can be
grouped under various facies
categories
38
Material: M. Watfa
38
1- Definition of Porosity
Sand
The Matrix could be complex
Lime-Dol
Shale
Anhydrite
39
Material: M. Watfa
39
Porosity in sandstones: Grain Size
Different grain size- same porosity

40
A rock can be made up of small grains

or large grains but have the same
porosity.
Porosity depends on grain packing, not
the grain size.
In a clastic rock the grain size ( same
size grains ) does not affect the
porosity.
A sand, a silt and a shale can have the
same porosity .
Differences come in permeability where
the grain size has a direct effect, large
grains meaning higher permeability.
Material: M. Watfa
40
Porosity in sandstones: sorting

The porosity of a sandstone depends
on the packing arrangement of its
grains. The system can be examined
using spheres.
In a Rhombohedral packing, the pore
space accounts for 26% of the total
volume.
With a Cubic packing arrangement,
the pore space fills 47% of the total
volume. In practice, the theoretical
value is rarely reached because:
the grains are not perfectly
round, a
the grains are not of uniform
size.
41
Material: M. Watfa
41

Porosity in Carbonates: Diagenesis and secondary porosity
The environment can also involve
subsequent alterations of the rock
such as Chemical changes.
Diagenesis is the chemical alteration
of a rock after burial.
An example is the replacement of
some of the calcium atoms in
limestone by magnesium to form
dolomite.
Mechanical changes - fracturing in a
tectonically-active region.
42
Material: M. Watfa
42

Interparticle porosity:
Each grain is separated, giving a
similar pore space arrangement as
sandstone.
Intergranular porosity:
Pore space is created inside the
individual grains which are
interconnected.
Intercrystalline porosity:
Produced by spaces between
carbonate crystals.
Mouldic porosity: Pores created by
the dissolution of shells, etc.
43
Material: M. Watfa
43

Fracture porosity:
Pore spacing created by
the cracking of the rock
fabric.
Channel porosity:
Similar to fracture
porosity but larger.
44
Vuggy porosity:
Created by the
dissolution of fragments,
but unconnected.
Material: M. Watfa
44
Definition of Porosity Carbonate Porosity Types

Intergranular porosity is called
"primary porosity".
Porosity created after deposition is
called "secondary porosity".
The latter is in two forms:
Fractures
Vugs.
45
Material: M. Watfa
45

Porosity in Carbonates: Fractures
Fractures are caused when a
rigid rock is strained beyond its
elastic limit - it cracks.
The forces causing it to break
are in a constant direction,
hence all the fractures are also
aligned.
Fractures are an important
source of permeability in low
porosity carbonate reservoirs.
Fractures
46
Material: M. Watfa
46

Porosity in Carbonates: Fractures
Vugs are defined as nonconnected pore space.

They do not contribute to the
producible fluid total.
Vugs are caused by the
dissolution of soluble material
such as shell fragments after
the rock has been formed.
They usually have irregular
shapes.
47
Material: M. Watfa
47
Vugs
Carbonate
Dissolution
Cavity:
Carbonates
have dissolution
cavities- but not
as large as this
cave.
Courtesy Schlumberger
48
Material: M. Watfa
48
Permeability Definition
The rate of flow of a liquid
through a formation depends on:
The pressure drop.

The viscosity of the fluid.
The permeability.
The pressure drop is a
reservoir property.
The viscosity is a fluid
property
49
The permeability is a measure

of the ease at which a fluid can
flow through a formation.
Relationships exist between
permeability and porosity for
given formations, although they
are not universal.
A rock must have porosity to
have any permeability.
The unit of measurement is the
Darcy.
Reservoir permeability is
usually quoted in millidarcies
(mD).
Material: M. Watfa
49
Q = f(P1-P2); Q = f (1/L); Q = f( A), Q= f (1/)

Q = Constant . A . (P1-P2)/ ( . L)
Q = K . A . (P1-P2)/ ( . L)
Area: A
P2
L
50
P1
Material: M. Watfa
Darcy Experiment
The flow of fluid of viscosity m
through a porous medium was first
investigated in 1856 by Henri
Darcy.
He related the flow of water
through a unit volume of sand to
the pressure gradient across it.
In the experiment the flow rate can
be changed by altering the
parameters as follows:
50

Parameters
Pore Area: A
K = permeability, in Darcies.
P2
L
L = length of the section of rock,

in centimeters.
Q = flow rate in centimeters /
sec.
P1
P1, P2 = pressures in bars.
K = Q. . L / { A . ( P1 - P2 ) }
A = Pore area, in cm2.
= viscosity in centipoise.
51
Material: M. Watfa
51
Production rate
Radial Flow Rate
Radial flow rate is most important
qo= 7.08 ko h (Pe Pw) Require values for the following

Bo ln (re / rw)
ko = Permeability
re
rw
52
h = Net Pay
Pe = Reservoir
Pw = Bottom hole pressure
= Fluid viscosity
Bo = Formation volume factor
re/rw = Drainage & wellbore radii
Material: M. Watfa
52

Permeability and Rocks
In formations with large grains,
the permeability is high and the
flow rate larger.
In a rock with small grains the
permeability is less and the flow
lower.
Grain size has no bearing on
porosity, but has a large effect
on permeability.
53
Material: M. Watfa
53
>5 Darcy
10cm Diameter cup
50 m-Darcy
54
Same porosity 25 %
> 25 Darcy
1.5 mm Marbles
( Beach Sand)
5 mm Marbles
1 mm
500 m-Darcy
10 m-Darcy
Material: M. Watfa
54

Permeability in
Carbonates
Permeability
The relationship
between porosity and
permeability for
various carbonate
rocks.
Fractures
55
Porosity
Compaction
& Cementing
Compaction
& Leaching
After R. Nurmi- 1986
Material: M. Watfa
55

Free Fluid Index In Carbonates
Classical example of carbonates
with bi-modal porosity.
A free fluid index cutoff of 100
msec was used based on core
centrifuge.
Below X415: Sw 100%. NMR
shows low T2 distribution and
mainly BFV.
This is confirmed by the low
permeability values.
This allowed perforations to be
made to be made as low as X410
without producing high water cut.
This essentially improves the
hydrocarbon recovery.
56
Material: M. Watfa
56

Capillary Pressure
Surface Tension
57
Interaction between hydrocarbons and water in the

reservoir depends on the surface tension between them
Surface tension is the apparent film which separates two
immiscible fluids
A pressure difference exists across any curved interface
Material: M. Watfa

Capillary Pressure
Apparent Surface Film caused by
Imbalance of Molecular Forces
58
Material: M. Watfa

Capillary Pressure
Pressure in a bubble
P2
P1 P2 = 2 . / r
in dynes
P1
Where:
P2
= Pressure inside Bubble dynes / cm2
P2
= Pressure outside Bubble dynes / cm2
r
= Bubble Radius
cm
= surface tension
1 psi = 68,948 dynes / cm2

59
Material: M. Watfa
dynes/cm

Capillary Pressure
Surface tensions between some common fluids and air at 20 C
Water
72.6 dynes/cm
Benzene
28.9 dynes/cm
Cyclohexane
25.3 dynes/cm
Interfacial tension between water

and oil at 20 C - 30 dynes/cm
Interfacial tension between a liquid
and its vapor decreases with
temperature increase until at the
critical point, surface tension is
zero and differentiation between
fluid/vapor phases ceases to exist.
Contact Angle as a
measure of wettability
60
Material: M. Watfa

Capillary Pressure
Contact Angle as a Measure of Wetting
61
Material: M. Watfa

Capillary Pressure
Fluid Rise in a Capillary

Tube Bundle
Capillary Rise
62
Material: M. Watfa

Capillary Pressure
Shape of the Capillary Pressure vs.
Saturation Curve
63
Material: M. Watfa

Capillary Pressure
Shape of
Capillary
Curve
and Grain
Size
Distribution
64
Material: M. Watfa

1.4 - Reservoir Rock

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1.4 - Reservoir Rock

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

RR > Reservoir Rock

1.4- Reservoir Rock

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Sedimentary Rock Cycle

Clastics Carbonates Evaporites

Sedimentary Rock Layers

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Sedimentary Rock Cycle

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

130 billions barrels of oil

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Rocks and Rock Types:

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Rock Types: Sedimentary

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Sedimentary RocksDepositional Environments

Marine (sea) and lake or

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Sedimentary RocksDepositional Environments

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

The structure of a reservoir can

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Sedimentary RocksDepositional Environments

The environment is not

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Sedimentary RocksDepositional Environments:

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Sedimentary RocksDepositional Environments:

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Igneous & Metamorphic Rocks

Comprise 95% of the Earth's

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Igneous & Metamorphic Rocks

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

Oil could migrate up due to

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Igneous & Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic Rocks are formed by

Hornfels: from shale or tuff

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

Gneiss (pronounced- NICE):

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Consist largely of quartz (silicon

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

Ref: T. Jones / SCR

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved

1.4 : Reservoir Rock

Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved