CHAPTER 6A

Air Pollution:
Origin, Fate and Effects of Pollutants

Air Pollution

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this topic the students should be able
to;
recognize the importance of monitoring and
control of air pollution
implement the various rules and regulations
stipulated in the EQA 127 pertaining to the
monitoring and control of air pollution
apply the air pollution standards to monitor and
control air pollution
understand the impact of emission on the
environment and human health

Air Pollution

Indoor
Regional
Global
Stratospheric
Sources
Effects
Treatment

Air Pollution and Public Opinion

Problems in many European urban areas
in late 1800s and early 1900 due to coal
use
1000s of deaths attributed to air pollution
episodes in London
large number of pollution sources
restricted air volume
failure to recognize problem
water droplets of certain size

Photochemical smog: CO+NOx+HC+light

Air Pollution Standards

Criteria pollutants
Primary standards designed to protect
human health with an adequate margin
of safety.
Secondary standards are intended to
prevent environmental and property
damage.

A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted directly from a source.

A secondary pollutant is not directly emitted as such, but forms when
other pollutants (primary pollutants) react in the atmosphere.
Examples of a secondary pollutant include ozone, which is formed
when hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) combine in the
presence of sunlight; NO2, which is formed as NO combines with
oxygen in the air; and acid rain, which is formed when sulfur dioxide or
nitrogen oxides react with water.

Air Pollution Standards

LAW/REGULATIONS AND
STANDARDS SETTING
The Environmental Quality Act 1974
sets standards for emission sources
The EQA controls pollution through :
Licensing
Regulations, order, guidelines

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT 1974

(AMMENDMENT 2001)
Control of Industrial Emissions
Environmental Quality (Clean Air)
Regulations 1978
Environmental Quality (Compounding of
Offences) Rules 1978;
Control of Motor Vehicle Emissions
Motor Vehicles (Control of Smoke & Gas
Emission) Rules 1977
Environmental Quality (Control of Lead
Concentration in Motor Gasoline)
Regulations 1985
Environmental Quality (Control of
Emission From Diesel Engines) Regulation
1996
Environmental Quality (Control of
Emission From Petrol Engines) Regulation
1996

Malaysian Air Pollution Index (API)

The ambient air quality measurement in
Malaysia is described in terms of Air Pollutant
Index (API). The API is developed in easily
understood ranges of values as a means of
reporting the quality of air instead of using the
actual concentration of air pollutants. This index
also reflects its effect on human health ranging
from good to hazardous and also can be
categorized according to the action criteria as
stipulated in the National Haze Action Plan

Malaysia : API

The air pollutant index scale and terms used in describing the air quality levels are
as follows :

LAWS APPLICABLE TO
OPEN BURNING
Section 29A EQA (Amendment 1998)
Section 29AA EQA (Amendment 2001)
Environmental Quality (Prescribed
Activities)(Open Burning) Order,
2000
Environmental Quality (Delegation
of Powers)(Investigation of Open
Burning) Order, 2000
Environmental Quality
(Compounding of Offences)(Open
Burning) Rules, 2000

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT

1974 (AMMENDMENT 2006)
EQA SECTION 29A
No person shall allow or cause open
burning on any premises
Maximum fine RM 500,000
Maximum jail term 5 years
Or Both

Malaysia : Ambient Air Quality

Standard
Six criteria pollutants, namely Carbon Monoxide ,
Nitrogen Dioxide, Ozone, Sulphur Dioxide and Particulate
Matter (PM10) were monitored continuously at 52
locations while lead concentrations was measured once in
every six days at two locations.
The ambient air quality standard in Malaysia addressed in
terms of major pollutants including ground level ozone,
carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, total
suspended particulate (TSP), particulate matter below 10
microns (PM10), and lead. The averaging time, which
varies from 1 to 24 hours for the different air pollutants in
the MAAQS, represents the period of time over which
measurements is monitored and reported for the
assessment of human health impacts of specific air
pollutants.

Malaysian Ambient Air Quality

Guideline

Malaysia Unhealthy Days

Malaysia Air Quality Status

Malaysia Air Quality Status

Malaysia Air Quality Status

Control of Criteria Air Pollutants

A geographic area that meets or does better than
the primary standard is called an attainment
area; areas that don't meet the primary standard
are called nonattainment areas.
Although EPA has been regulating criteria air
pollutants since the 1970 CAA was passed,
many urban areas are classified as
nonattainment for at least one criteria air
pollutant. It has been estimated that about 90
million Americans live in nonattainment areas.

Air Pollutants & Sources

Nitrogen oxides

Carbon Monoxide

produced by petrol- or
diesel-burning engines and
coal/oil furnaces.

Ozone
produced by the reaction of
oxygen gas with free atoms of
oxygen which are formed from
the reactions between nitrogen
oxides and hydrocarbons in
sunlight.

produced by the incomplete

burning of carboncontaining fuels, such as
petrol, coal and wood.

Major Air
Pollutants

Particulates

Sulphur dioxide
produced
by burning
Text in
here of
fossil fuels (e.g. fuel oil and
coil). A large proportion is
produced by power stations
and metal smelters which
burn sulphur-containing
coal, and also by the
manufacturing industries
which burn fuel oil.

Hydrocarbons
formed from the
evaporation of materials
such as petrol, diesel and
solvents when exposed to
air.

produced by refuse
incineration, factories, diesel
vehicles, construction sites,
and coal/charcoal burners.
Particulates are solid or
liquid particles which are so
small that they remain
suspended in the air for a
long period of time.

Carbon Monoxide
Most abundant air
pollutant
Produced by incomplete
combustion
insufficient O2
low temperature
short residence time
poor mixing
Major source (~ 77%) is
motor vehicle exhaust

Carbon Monoxide
Colorless and odorless
When inhaled, binds to hemoglobin in
blood to form carboxyhemoglobin,
reducing the oxygen carrying capacity
brain function reduced, heart rate
increased at lower levels
asphyxiation occurs at higher levels

Carbon Monoxide

Carbon Monoxide
Typical Levels
busy roadways: 5 50 ppm
congested highways: up to 100 ppm
bars: up to 30 ppm

Vehicle emission rates:

Model year

Precontrol (before 1968)

1996-2003
2004-2006

Hydrocarbons
(grams/km)
6.59
0.155
0.0777

Carbon
monoxide
(grams/km)
52.2
2.11
1.06

Malaysia : CO

Carbon Monoxide: Trends in

Levels
Air quality still an issue:
Increasing vehicle population
Increasing travel per vehicle
1980: average 9,500 miles/year
1995: average 11,800 miles/yr
Vehicle miles of travel: Increase of 3.1%/ yr

Departures from Federal standards

Greater use of light trucks (including SUVs)

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

Primarily NO and NO2
NO3, N2O, N2O3, N2O4,
N2O5 are also known
to occur
Thermal NOx created
by oxidation of
atmospheric N2 when
T > 1000 K
Fuel NOx from
oxidation of N in fuel

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

NO has few health effects, but is oxidized
to NO2
NO2 irritates lungs and promotes
respiratory infections
NO2 reacts with hydrocarbons in presence
of sunlight to produce smog
NO2 reacts with hydroxyl radicals to
produce nitric acid acid precipitation

Malaysia : NO2

Hydrocarbons
Harmful Effects of Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons in air by themselves alone
cause no harmful effects. However, they
undergo chemical reactions in the
presence of sunlight and nitrogen oxides.
They form photochemical oxidants leading
to photochemical smog. This causes
irritation in the eyes and lungs leading to
respiratory diseases.

Photochemical Smog
hydrocarbons + NOx + sunlight
photochemical smog (oxidants)
primary
oxidants
produced:
ozone (O3)
formaldehyde
peroxyacetyl
nitrate (PAN)

Photochemical Smog

Photochemical Smog

Ozone: Health Effects

Increased incidents of respiratory distress.
Repeated exposures to ozone:
Increased susceptibility to respiratory
infection
Lung inflammation
Aggravation of pre-existing respiratory
diseases such as asthma.
Decreases in lung function and increased
respiratory symptoms such as chest pain and
cough.

Ozone: Environmental Effects

Ozone also affects
vegetation and ecosystems
reductions in agricultural and
commercial forest yields
($0.5 billion/yr in US alone)
reduced growth and
survivability of tree seedlings
increased plant susceptibility
to disease, pests, and other
environmental stresses
(e.g., harsh weather).
http://www.ncl.ac.uk/airweb/ozone/greece.jpg

Malaysia : Ozone

Sulfur Oxides (SOx)

SO2, SO3, SO42
formed during
combustion of fuel
containing sulfur
H2S released is
converted to SO2
10 Tg/yr natural
sources
75 Tg/yr
anthropogenic
sources
http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd97/brochure/so2.html

Sulfur Dioxide: Health Effects

High concentrations of SO2 can result in
temporary breathing impairment.
Longer-term exposures to high concentrations of
SO2, in conjunction with high levels of PM,
include respiratory illness, alterations in the
lungs' defenses, and aggravation of existing
cardiovascular disease
Short-term exposures of asthmatic individuals to
elevated SO2 levels may result in reduced lung
function.

Manmade SO2 Emissions

50% of electricity produced in US comes from coal.

US SO2 emissions pie.

Sfuel + O2

SO2

Sulfur Dioxide: Environmental

Effects
Acid Rain

Decreased Visibility

Acid Rain

Impacts of Acid Rain

Acid rain causes acidification of lakes and streams

and contributes to the damage of trees at high
elevations and many sensitive forest soils.
In addition, acid rain accelerates the decay of
building materials and paints, including irreplaceable
buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of our
nation's cultural heritage.
Prior to falling to the earth, sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen oxide (NOx) gases and their particulate
matter derivativessulfates and nitratescontribute
to visibility degradation and harm public health.

Malaysia : SO2

Particulate Matter
Solid or liquid particles with sizes from
0.005 100 m
General term is aerosols
Dust originates from grinding or crushing
Fumes are solid particles formed when
vapors condense
Smoke describes particles released in
combustion processes
Smog used to describe air pollution
particles

Health Impacts of
Particulate Matter

Health Efffects of Particluate

Matter
Impact depends on particle size, shape
and composition
Large particles trapped in nose
Particles >10 m removed in
tracheobronchial system
Particles <0.5 m reach lungs but are
exhaled with air
Particles 2 4 m most effectively
deposited in lungs

Particulate Matter
Original standards did not account for size
larger particles that were not problematic
dominated
PM-2.5 (1997)
PM-10 (1987)
< 2.5 m diameter
< 10 m diameter
Similar sources, but
fuel combustion
tend to be more
(45%)
toxicologically
active
industrial processing
particles
(33%)
EPA estimates new
Transportation
standard will save
(22%)
15,000 lives/yr

Particulate Matter: Revised

Standards
Two new PM-2.5 standards
15 micrograms per cubic meter (g/m3) and
65 g/m3, respectively, for the annual and 24hour standards. In addition, the form of the
24-hour standard for PM-10 was changed.
Beginning in 2002, EPA will designate areas
as nonattainment that do not meet the new
PM-2.5 standards.

Malaysia : PM10

Malaysia : PM10

Particulate Matter: Health

Effects
Inhalable PM includes both fine and coarse
particles.
Coarse particles
aggravation of respiratory conditions, such as
asthma.

Fine particles
increased hospital admissions and emergency
room visits for heart and lung disease
increased respiratory symptoms and disease
decreased lung function
premature death

Particulate Matter:
Environmental Effects
Decreased visibility
the visual range can
be reduced 70% from
natural conditions
(natural visibility can
be up to of 150 km)

Damage to paints and

building materials

http://www.epa.gov/oar/vis/bryce.html

Lead
Sources:
gasoline (historical)
metals processing

Highest air Pb
concentrations
in the vicinity of
nonferrous and ferrous
smelters, and battery
manufacturers.

Lead: Health Effects

Accumulates in the blood, bones, and soft
tissues.
Adversely affects the kidneys, liver, nervous
system, and other organs.
Excessive exposure to Pb may cause
neurological impairments, such as seizures,
mental retardation, and behavioral disorders.
May be a factor in high blood pressure and
subsequent heart disease.

Effects of Air Pollution

END