ATOMIC ENERGY:

ATOMS:
Atom
The smallest particle of an element which cannot exist independently and take part in a chemical
reaction is known as Atom.
Examples
Hexogen(H), Carbon (C), Sodium (Na), Gold (Au) etc.

MOLECULES:
Molecule
The particle of a substance (Element or Compound) which can exist independently and show all
the properties of that substance is called molecule.
Atoms of the same or different elements react with each other and form molecule.
Atoms of some elements can exist independently, since they have property of molecule so they
are called mono atomic molecule.
Examples
Examples of Molecules of the elements are Hydrogen (H2). Nitrogen (N2), Sulphur (S8) etc.
Molecules of different elements are called compounds. For example HCl, H2O, CH4 etc.

MASS NUMBER:
Mass Number
The total number of the protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is called mass
number. The protons and neutrons together are called nucleon. Hence it is also known as nucleon
number. It is denoted by A. the number of neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is
rperesented by N.
Mass Number = No of Protons + No of neutrons
A=Z+N
- See more at: http://www.guesspapers.net/404/atomic-structure/#sthash.4TVyAGfm.dpuf

ATOMIC NUMBER:
Atomic Number
The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom is called atomic number or proton
number. It is denoted by z. The proton in the nucleus of an atom is equal to number of electrons
revolving around its nucleus.

ATOMIC MASS:
Atomic Mass
The mass of an atom of the element relative to the mass of some reference or standard element is
called atomic mass. Atoms are very small particles. They have very small mass. If the masses of
atoms were to be expressed in gram. It is a very big unit for this very tiny object. Then it was
decided by the chemists that masses of the atoms were to be found after comparing with mass to
some standard form.
Hydrogen being the lightest element is taken as standard. The mass of the hydrogen atom taken
as one.
The atomic mass could be defined as
Atomic mass of an element is the mass of an atom of that element as compared to the mass of
an atom of hydrogen taken as one.
Example
The atomic mass of sodium is 23. It means that an atom of sodium is 23 times heavier than
hydrogen atom. Similarly atomic mass of oxygen is 16. It means that an atom of oxygen is 16
times heaviest than that of hydrogen.

STRUCTURE OF ATOM:
Daltons Atomic Theory
The important postulates of Daltons atomic theory are:
1. All elements are composed of atoms. Atom is too small so that it could not be divided into
further simpler components.
2. Atom cannot be destroyed or produced.

3. Atoms of an element are similar in all respects. They have same mass and properties.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in a definite simple ratio to produce compounds.
Discovery of Electron
A discharge tube is a glass tube. It has two electrode, a source of electric current and a vacuum
pump.
(Diagram)
Sir William Crooks (1895 performed experiments by passing electric current through gas in the
discharge tube at very low pressure. He observed that at 10-4 (-4 is power to 10) atmosphere
pressure, shining rays are emitted from cathode. These rays were named cathode rays. Cathode
rays are material particles as they have mass and momentum.
Properties of Cathode Rays
The properties of these particles are given below:
1. These particles are emitted from cathode surface and move in straight line.
2. The temperature of the object rises on which they fall.
3. They produce shadow of opaque object placed in their path.
4. These particles are deflected in electric and magnetic fields.
5. These particles are deflected towards positive plate of electric field.
Discovery of Proton
Gold Stein (1886) observed that in addition to the cathode rays, another type of rays were present
in the discharge tube. These rays travel in a direction opposite to cathode rays. These rays were
named positive rays. By using perforated cathode in the discharge tube the properties of these
rays can be studied. Positive rays are also composed of metered particles. The positive rays are
not emitted from anode. They are produced by the ionization of residual gas molecules in the
discharge tube. When cathode rays strike with gas molecule, electrons are removed and positive
particles are produced.
Properties of Positive Rays
1. They are deflected towards negative plate of electric field. Therefore these rays carry positive
charge.
2. The mass of positive rays is equal to the mass of the gas enclosed in the discharge tube.
3. The minimum mass of positive particles is equal to the mass of hydrogen ion (H+). These
positive ions are called Protons.
4. The charge on proton is equal to +1.60210-19 Coulomb. (-19 is power of 10)
Natural Radioactivity

The phenomenon in which certain elements emit radiation which can cause fogging of
photographic plate is called natural radioactivity. The elements which omit these rays are called
radioactive elements like Uranium, Thorium, Radium etc. There are about 40 radioactive
elements. Henri Bequrel (1896) discovered radioactivity.Madam Curei also has valuable
contribution in this field.
In natural radioactivity nuclei of elements are broken and element converted to other elements.
Natural radioactivity is nuclear property of the elements.
Rutherford Experiment and Discovery of Nucleus
Lord Rutherford (1911) and his coworkers performed an experiment. They bombarded a very
thin, gold fail with Alpha particles from a radioactive source. They observed that most of the
particles passed straight through the foil undeflected. But a few particles were deflected at
different angles. One out of 4000 Alpha particles was deflected at an angle greater than 150.
(Diagram)
Conclusion
Following conclusions were drawn from the Rutherfords Alpha Particles scattering experiment.
1. The fact that majority of the particles went through the foil undeflected shows that most of the
space occupied by an atom is empty.
2. The deflection of a few particles over a wide angle of 150 degrees shows that these particles
strike with heavy body having positive charge.
3. The heavy positively charged central part of the atom is called nucleus.
4. Nearly all of the mass of atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
5. The size of the nucleus is very small as compared with the size of atom.
Defects of Rutherford Model
Rutherford model of an atom resembles our solar system. It has following defects:
1. According to classical electromagnetic theory, electron being charged body will emit energy
continuously. Thus the orbit of the revolving electron becomes smaller and smaller until it would
fall into the nucleus and atomic structure would collapse.
2. If revolving electron emits energy continuously then there should be a continuous spectrum
but a line spectrum is obtained.
(Diagram)
Bohrs Atomic Model
Neil Bohr (1913) presented a model of atom which has removed the defects of Rutherford
Model. This model was developed for hydrogen atom which has only proton in the nucleus and
one electron is revolving around it.
Postulates of Bohrs Atomic Model

The main postulates of Bohrs Model are given below:

1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a fixed orbit.
2. As long as electron revolves in a fixed orbit it does not emit and absorb energy. Hence energy
of electron remains constant.
3. The orbit nearest to the nucleus is the first orbit and has lowest energy. When an electron
absorbs energy it jumps from lower energy orbit to higher energy orbit. Energy is emitted in the
form of radiations, when an electron jumps from higher energy orbit to lower energy orbit. The
unit of energy emitted in the form of radiations is called quantum. It explains the formation of
atomic spectrum.
4. The change in energy is related with the quantum of radiation by the equation :
E2 E1 = hv
where
E1 = Energy of first orbit
E2 = Energy of the second orbit
h = Plancks constant
v = Frequency of radiation

NUCLEAR ENERGY:
ISOTOPES:
Isotopes
The atoms of same elements which have same atomic number but different mas number are
called Isotopes. The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom remains the same but
number of neutrons may differ.
Isotopes of Different Elements
Isotopes of Hydrogen
Hydrogen has three isotopes:
1. Ordinary Hydrogen or Protium, H.
2. Heavy Hydrogen or Deutrium, D.
3. Radioactive Hydrogen or Tritium, T.
Protium
Ordinary naturally occurring hydrogen contains the largest percentage of protium. It is denoted
by symbol H. It has one proton in its nucleus and one electron revolve around the nucleus.
Number of Protons = 1
Number of Electrons = 1
Number of Neutrons = 0
Atomic Number = 1
Mass Number = 1

Deutrium
Deutrium is called heavy hydrogen. The percentage of deutrium in naturally occuring hydrogen
is about 0.0015%. It has one proton and one neutron in its nucleus. It has one electron revolving
around its nucleus. It is denoted by symbol D.
Number of Proton = 1
Number of Electron = 1
Number of Neutrons = 1
Atomic Number = 1
Mass Number = 2
Tritium
Radioactive hydrogen is called tritium. It is denoted by symbol T. The number of tritium isotope
is one in ten millions. It has one proton and 2 neutrons in its nucleus. It has one electron
revolving around its nucleus.
Number of Proton = 1
Number of Electron = 1
Number of Neutron = 2
Atomic Number = 1
Mass Number = 3

RADIOACTIVITY:
In pics
PROPERTIES OF ALPHA BETA AND
GAMMA RAYS:
Natural Radioactivity
The phenomenon in which certain elements emit radiation which can cause fogging of
photographic plate is called natural radioactivity. The elements which omit these rays are called
radioactive elements like Uranium, Thorium, Radium etc. There are about 40 radioactive
elements. Henri Bequrel (1896) discovered radioactivity.Madam Curei also has valuable
contribution in this field.
In natural radioactivity nuclei of elements are broken and element converted to other elements.
Natural radioactivity is nuclear property of the elements.
Alpha Rays
1. They are helium nuclei. They are doubly positively charged, He2+.

2. They move with speed equal to the 1/10th of the velocity of the light.
3. They cannot pass through thick-metal foil.
4. They are very good ionizer of a gas.
5. They affect the photographic plate.
Beta Rays
1. They are negatively charged.
2. They move with the speed equal to the velocity of light.
3. They can pass through a few millimeter thick metal sheets.
4. They are good ionizer of a gas.
5. They can affect the photographic plate.
Gamma Rays
1. They are electromagnetic radiations.
2. They travel with speed equal to velocity of light.
3. They carry no charge.
4. They have high penetration power than alpha and beta rays.
5. They are weak ionizer of gas.
- See more at: http://www.guesspapers.net/404/atomic-structure/#sthash.4TVyAGfm.dpuf

RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS:
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR ENERGY:

Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is a rare form of energy. It is the energy stored in the center or the nucleus of an
atom. After we bombard the nucleus into two parts, two different elements are formed along with
the emission of high energy. The process generally followed is called fission. There is another
reaction called fusion, which produces almost one tenth of the energy as produced during fission.
Fission is the chain reaction which needs uranium-235. The nuclear energy is considered as the
worthiest alternative source of energy after fossil fuels.

EFFECTS OF ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR

ENERGY (POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE):

Advantages

Extremely Efficient Power Source

Compared to fossil fuels, nuclear fission produces much more energy per unit of fuel
- more than a million times more. Due to this, larger amounts of electricity can be
produced more effectively via nuclear power. Fossil fuels release energy through
chemical reactions, i.e., the transfer of electrons. Protons, on the other hand,
contain much more energy - due to a force known as nuclear force - when clustered
together in the nucleus, and thus produce correspondingly higher amounts of
energy when separated.

'Greener' Emissions
Nuclear reactors do not produce greenhouse, or otherwise harmful gases. Since,
unlike fossil fuels, nuclear energy sources do not include hydrocarbons, gases such
as CO2, CO and methane, which are all compounds of carbon, are not produced.
CO2 and methane are the primary contributors to the global greenhouse effect,
while CO is extremely poisonous. The only gaseous exhaust produced by nuclear
reactors is water vapor.

Later Expiry Dates than Fossil Fuels

Although uranium stockpiles on the earth can hardly be termed 'inexhaustible',
thorium, which is much more abundant, could provide electricity to the world for at
least half a millennium. Fossil fuel reserves are, even by the most optimistic
predictions, expected to have been exhausted by that time. The primary drawback
with using thorium as nuclear fuel is that the naturally found form (isotope) of
thorium is not fissile, unlike the naturally found form of uranium. The natural
thorium isotope has to be converted into a fissile material before being used as a
nuclear fuel. Although uranium is currently the first-choice nuclear fuel, many
countries, primary among which is India, have set up extensive research facilities on
the suitability of thorium as a substitute for uranium, and we could soon have
thorium powering our nuclear reactors in place of uranium.

Nuclear Fusion
Ongoing research on nuclear fusion could well herald its advent as a universal
power source. Fusing two hydrogen nuclei to form a helium molecule, which is the
most commonly performed fusion reaction, produces exponentially more energy

than fission. The amount of energy produced via fusion reactions can be best
illustrated by the fact that nuclear fusion is responsible for the massive amounts of
energy produced in stars, such as our own sun. The cores of stars are violently
active regions, with continuous nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms taking place. It is
a tiny part of the energy produced from these fusion reactions that all life on Earth
depends on to survive. If nuclear fusion could be truly mastered, it would be,
without a shadow of a doubt, the single most important technological breakthrough
in human history. The abundance of hydrogen on the Earth could mean a virtually
inexhaustible power source, while the absence of radioactive by-products would
ensure safe removal of the end product, helium
Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/advantages-anddisadvantages-of-nuclear-power.html

Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy

1. Radioactive Waste : The waste produced by nuclear reactors needs to be disposed off at a safe
place since they are extremely hazardous and can leak radiations if not stored properly. Such
kind of waste emits radiations from tens to hundreds of years. The storage of radioactive waste
has been major bottleneck for the expansion of nuclear programs. The nuclear wastes contain
radio isotopes with long half-lives. This means that the radio isotopes stay in the atmosphere in
some form or the other. These reactive radicals make the sand or the water contaminated. It is
known as mixed waste. The mixed wastes cause hazardous chemical reactions and leads to
dangerous complications. The radioactive wastes are usually buried under sand and are known as
vitrification. But these wastes can be used to make nuclear weapons.
2. Nuclear Accidents : While so many new technologies have been put in place to make sure that
such disaster dont happen again like the ones Chernobyl or more recently Fukushima but the
risk associated with them are relatively high. Even small radiation leaks can cause devastating
effects. Some of the symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and fatigue. People who work
at nuclear power plants and live near those areas are at high risk of facing nuclear radiations, if it
happens.
3. Nuclear Radiation : There are power reactors called breeders. They produce plutonium. It is
an element which is not found in the nature however it is a fissionable element. It is a by-product
of the chain reaction and is very harmful if introduced in the nature. It is primarily used to
produce nuclear weapons. Most likely, it is named as dirty bomb.
4. High Cost : Another practical disadvantage of using nuclear energy is that it needs a lot of
investment to set up a nuclear power station. It is not always possible by the developing
countries to afford such a costly source of alternative energy. Nuclear power plants normally take

5-10 years to construct as there are several legal formalities to be completed and mostly it is
opposed by the people who live nearby.
5. National Risk : Nuclear energy has given us the power to produce more weapons than to
produce things that can make the world a better place to live in. We have to become more careful
and responsible while using nuclear energy to avoid any sort of major accidents. They are hot
targets for militants and terrorist organizations. Security is a major concern here. A little lax in
security can prove to be lethal and brutal for humans and even for this planet.
6. Impact on Aquatic Life : Eutrophication is another result of radioactive wastes. There are
many seminars and conferences being held every year to look for a specific solution. But there is
no outcome as of now. Reports say that radioactive wastes take almost 10,000 years to get back
to the original form.
7. Major Impact on Human Life : We all remember the disaster caused during the Second World
War after the nuclear bombs were dropped over Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Even after five
decades of the mishap, children are born with defects. This is primarily because of the nuclear
effect. Do we have any remedy for this? The answer is still no.
8. Fuel Availability : Unlike fossil fuels which are available to most of the countries, uranium is
very scare resource and exist in only few of the countries. Permissions of several international
authorities are required before someone can even thought of building a nuclear power plant.
9. Non Renewable : Nuclear energy uses uranium which is a scarce resource and is not found in
many countries. Most of the countries rely on other countries for the constant supply of this fuel.
It is mined and transported like any other metal. Supply will be available as long as it is there.
Once all extracted, nuclear plants will not be of any use. Due to its hazardous effects and limited
supply, it cannot be termed as renewable.
Various nuclear energy programs are undergoing in developed as well as developing nations like
India. Not to mention, nuclear energy advantages are far ahead of advantages of fossil fuels. That
is the reason that it has become most favored technology to produce energy.

PAKISTANS NUCLEAR ENERGY

PROGRAM:
Pakistan's Nuclear Program

A host of fascinating books have been written on Pakistans nuclear program. The story unfolds
like a work of international fictional intrigue. See Referenced Resources as well as the World
Savvy Salon Guide for titles on the subject. For the purposes of this edition of the Monitor, we
will provide only the basic narrative and issues, and hope to address nuclear proliferation as an
upcoming Issue in Focus. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto is said to have remarked that the country would
eat grass if that is what it took to finance an Islamic bomb in Pakistan. He and all his
successors enjoyed support from the Chinese as well as Saudis and other wealthy Muslim
regimes. They went on to devote enormous resources to developing Pakistans nuclear
capacities, in line with rival Indias timetable. The fact that Pakistan accomplished this by the
1990s is significant. There are technically only seven acknowledged nuclear powers in the
world: the US, UK, France, China, Russia, India, and Pakistan. Israel is considered an
unacknowledged member of this club with a policy of nuclear opacity or ambiguity, and
North Korea and Iran are seen as being on their way to joining the official list. The fact that
Pakistan joined the club at such an early date is remarkable, given that it is home to so many of
the worlds poor. This accomplishment was due largely to the efforts of one man, the notorious
Pakistani scientist and businessman A. Q. Kahn.
The Pakistani program that began in 1972 was significantly enhanced after Indias first test of
fissile material in 1974. Canada and France were both approached by Pakistan for help in
developing the technology and securing the materials, ostensibly for peaceful purposes. These
deals ultimately fell through because of the international scrutiny these powers would have
faced. The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, or PAEC, continued the work with Chinese
help. Meanwhile, Zulfikar Bhutto turned to A. Q. Kahn, a Pakistani national living and working
in the nuclear industry in Europe. Kahn ultimately returned to Pakistan with stolen blueprints
from his European employer, and set about pursuing his own program at the Kahuta Plant. This
plant would ultimately bear his name in the years to come.
The PAEC and Kahn became somewhat competitive, yet progress moved ahead much to the
dismay of the West. The West subsequently tried to use the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
(NPT) and various embargoes to shut down the Indian and Pakistani operations. In the mid1970s, the US passed a series of laws mandating sanctions on countries that pursued nuclear
weapons programs; these were not applied to Pakistan until after the defeat of the Soviet Union
in Afghanistan. When the Soviets were defeated by a covert CIA-Pakistani-Afghan operation in
1979, Washington came down on Pakistan for its violations of international nuclear nonproliferation treaties. All aid and loans were suspended (see The United States section in
External Players for more details). Yet Pakistan made the gamble that the bomb was worth it,
and received considerable help from the Saudis to mitigate the crushing economic blows. This
was especially important after the May 1998 tests that put both India and Pakistan in the center
of Western punitive sanctions. The Pakistanis went on to receive technical help from North
Korea in developing missiles that could reach India and beyond. Pakistan is now an officially
acknowledged nuclear power, albeit one that continues to operate outside the NPT. India does as

well, but was recently the beneficiary of US nuclear material exchange trade deals that
essentially allow them to circumvent NPT restrictions. Pakistan has not, as of yet, been offered
the same deal, which has caused tension and resentment.

Why Pakistans Nukes Matter

The fact that nuclear weapons are in the hands of rivals India and Pakistan is enormously
troubling to the international community, for reasons that go beyond the two nations historic
animosity and the tendency for this hostility to erupt in conflict in Kashmir. Experts also worry
about the presumed lack of adequate early warning systems, rock-solid command and control
procedures, and hotlines or measures that could prevent an accidental nuclear exchange, such
as those that existed between the US and USSR. They also worry about the safety and security
of the nuclear arsenals themselves, and the potential for the weapons to fall in to the wrong
hands, the wrong hands being radical Islamic terrorist groups operating in the region. It was
reported that A. Q. Kahn met multiple times with both Osama bin Laden and Ayman alZawahiri, the last time right before September 11, 2001.
Outside the regional implications, the international community has cause for concern about
Pakistans potential role in nuclear proliferation around the world. A.Q. Kahn made a fortune
developing Pakistans nuclear arsenal, and it is commonly believed that he became enormously
wealthy selling pieces and blueprints of it to other nuclear-aspirant countries. Experts report that
designs and components have turned up in Libya, Iran, and North Korea bearing the signature
style of the European nuclear system on which Kahn based Pakistans weapons. Under pressure
from the US and others, Musharraf was forced to remove Kahn from Pakistans official
employment in 2002. He was given an honorary advisory position in Pakistans nuclear
industry, and continued his lucrative private trade in nuclear materials without much interference
from the government. He was finally caught at the end of an enormous global dragnet
operation involving multiple countries in 2003. The BBC China, a ship containing a turn-key
nuclear weapons program, was intercepted en route to Libya from Kahns operations. No
outside countries were allowed to participate in the ensuing investigation, and Kahn ultimately
made a rueful and chagrinned admission of his proliferation efforts over the previous 15 years,
absolving the Pakistani government from any responsibility for his actions.
To this day, Kahn remains under house arrest in Islamabad, safe from international atomic
agencies questions. In a bizarre recent development, Kahn made an announcement in June 2008
recanting his admission and accusing France, Germany, and South Africa of providing Tehran
and Tripoli with nuclear designs, claiming he played only a small advisory role. He also told the
New York Times in early July 2008 that the Pakistani government did, in fact, have full
knowledge of his illegal nuclear weapons trading program, and that centrifuges had been shipped
to North Korea with Pakistani army supervision in 2000. Musharraf immediately dismissed the
revelation as all lies and false statements.

Prospects for the Future

Nuclear proliferation remains a major concern of the international community. Numerous
bodies exist within and alongside the UN system to monitor, certify, and investigate nuclear
programs worldwide for energy-producing, peaceful purposes. Experts generally maintain that
while turning a peaceful nuclear program into a weapons program is exceedingly difficult, it is
feasible. With the black market trade in materials and weapon delivery systems alive and well,
nuclear programs are no longer only the purview of wealthy states or of states at all. The rise of
what William Langeweische has called the nuclear poor is especially worrisome. The ultimate
fear is that these weapons will end up in the hands of suicidal, radical terrorist groups who seek
to wreak havoc on the West. Pakistan is seen as a major frontline state for potential nuclear
proliferation with its close ties to militants in the region and its connections with Middle Eastern
Islamist groups.
The nuclear threat coming from Pakistan could take a more traditional trajectory as well, in the
form of direct war with India (also a nuclear power) or retaliation for an attack on another
Muslim ally such as Saudi Arabia. The Saudis are watching their nemesis Iran closely as it
comes close to developing nuclear weapons capacities. While the Saudis themselves are not
thought to possess atomic bombs, they are considered by many to be covered under Pakistans
nuclear umbrella; thus Pakistan could be drawn into a conflict in that region as well. Add to this
the concern that a nuclear conflagration in Central Asia could develop from a miscalculation in
an area where ethnic and national tensions are high and weapons systems are not considered by
all to be completely secure.
Pakistan is highly nationalistic about its nuclear weapons. They are a source of pride and
security for the country in the region and internationally. Pakistan has resisted all international
pressure to scale back its program, and has refused US and Western help in securing its arsenal.
The weapons are thought to be held diffusely around the country in case of Western or Indian
attack on installations; any US pressure to inspect their safety has only led to further diffusion.
Fresh concerns were raised about the security of Pakistans bombs in the wake of Musharrafs
resignation in August 2008. This led former Pakistani Ambassador to the United States Hassan
Haqquani to state emphatically at an event in Washington the following day that this is
absolutely not an issue.

Valency
The combining capacity of all elements with other elements is called valency.

Example
H=1
C=4
Al = 3
Mg = 2
Na = 1
Chemical Formula
A brief name used for full chemical name at a compound is called Chemical Formula.
A chemical formula is used to represent an element or a compound in terms of symbols. It also
represents the number and type of atoms of elements present in the smallest unit of that
substance.
Example
The chemical formula of hydrogen sulphide is H2S. It shows two types of elements (H and S)
and number of atoms of element (2H and 1S). Similarly the formula of NaCl show number and
type of different atoms present in its smallest unit.
Empirical Formula
The formula which shows the minimum (simple) ratio between atoms present in a compound is
known as Empirical Formula.
Example
For example the empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide is HO that of water is H2O and
benzene is CH.
Molecular Formula
The formula of an element or a compound which represents the actual number of atoms present
in the molecule of these substances is called molecular formula.
Example
Water, Hydrogen Peroxide, Ethylene Benzene and Sulphur have molecular formula H2O, H2O2,
C2H4, C6H6 and S8 respectively.
Molecular Mass
Molecular mass of an element or a compound is defined as the mass of its molecule relative to
1/12th of the mass of C-12. It is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms presents in its
molecular formula.

Example
Molecular mass of water (H2O) = 2 + 16 = 18 a.m.u
Mass of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) = 2 + 32 = 34 a.m.u
Formula Mass
Formula mass of a compound is the mass of its formula unit relative to 1/12th of the mass of C12.
Example
Formula mass of Sodium Chloride NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 a.m.u
Formula mass of Calcium Chloride CaCl2 = 40 + 35.52 = 111a.m.u
Molar Mass
The mass of one mole of a substance is called molar mass.
Example
1 mole of Hydrogen atom (H) = 1.008g
1 mole of Hydrogen molecule (H2) = 2.016g
Thus mass of substance is related to the particles by mole