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CHAPTER
1
PROPERTIES OF E N G I N E E R I N G
MATERIALS
SYMBOLS
a
Aj
AU
A0
Ar
Bhn
d
D
E
L
L
F
G
H8
/f
/j
l0
Q
Rs
Rc
u
~r
* The
5,6
area of cross section, m e one) *
original area of cross section of test specimen, mm 2 (in 2)
area of smallest cross section of test specimen under load Fj, m 2
(in 2)
minimum area of cross section of test specimen at fracture, m 2
(in 2)
original area of cross section of test specimen, m 2 (in 2)
percent reduction in area that occurs in standard test
specimen
Brinell hardness number
diameter of indentation, mm
diameter of test specimen at necking, m (in)
diameter of steel ball, mm
modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus, GPa
[Mpsi (Mlb/in2)]
strain fringe (fri) value, gm/fri (gin/fri)
stress fringe value, kN/m fri (lbf/in fri)
load (also with subscripts), kN (lbf)
modulus of rigidity or torsional or shear modulus, GPa
(Mpsi)
Brinell hardness number
final length of test specimen at fracture, mm (in)
gauge length of test specimen corresponding to load Fj, mm
(in)
original gauge length of test specimen, mm (in)
figure of merit, fri/m (fri/in)
Rockwell B hardness number
Rockwell C hardness number
Poisson's ratio
normal stress, MPa (psi)
units in parentheses are U S

[e.g., fps (foot-pounds-second)].
Customary units
1.1
1.2
CHAPTER ONE
O"b
O"c
O"s
O"t
~s7
!
~s~
O'xc
O'su
O"u
O'uc
O'ut
O-A
su
O'su c
O'su t
ay
O'y c
ay,
O'sy c
O'sy t
T
~s
%
7su
5
r,y
~-'r
transverse bending stress, MPa (psi)

compressive stress, MPa (psi)
strength, MPa (psi)
tensile stress, MPa (psi)
endurance limit, MPa (psi)
endurance limit of rotating beam specimen or R R Moore
endurance limit, MPa (psi)
endurance limit for reversed axial loading, MPa (psi)
endurance limit for reversed bending, MPa (psi)
compressive strength, MPa (psi)
tensile strength, MPa (psi)
ultimate stress, MPa (psi)
ultimate compressive stress, MPa (psi)
ultimate tensile stress, MPt (psi)
ultimate strength, MPA (psi)
ultimate compressive strength, MPa (psi)
ultimate tensile strength, MPa (psi)
yield stress, MPa (psi)
yield compressive stress, MPa (psi)
yield tensile stress, MPa (psi)
yield compressive strength, MPa (psi)
yield tensile strength, MPa (psi)
torsional (shear) stress, MPa (psi)
shear strength, MPa (psi)
ultimate shear stress, MPa (psi)
ultimate shear strength, MPa (psi)
yield shear stress, MPa (psi)
yield shear strength, MPa (psi)
torsional endurance limit, MPa (psi)
SUFFIXES
axial
bending
compressive
endurance
strength properties of material
tensile
ultimate
yield
ABBREVIATIONS
AISI
ASA
AMS
ASM
ASME
ASTM
BIS
BSS
DIN
ISO
American Iron and Steel Institute

American Standards Association
Aerospace Materials Specifications
American Society for Metals
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
American Society for Testing Materials
Bureau of Indian Standards
British Standard Specifications
Deutsches Institut ffir Normung
International Standards Organization
PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
SAE
UNS
1.3
Society of Automotive Engineers

Unified Numbering system
Note: a and -1-with subscript s designates strength properties of material used in the design which will be used and
observed throughout this M a c h i n e D e s i g n D a t a H a n d b o o k . Other factors in performance or in special aspects are
included from time to time in this chapter and, being applicable only in their immediate context, are not given at
this stage.
Particular
Formula
For engineering stress-strain diagram for ductile steel,

i.e., low carbon steel
Refer to Fig. 1-1
For engineering stress-strain diagram for brittle

material such as cast steel or cast iron
The nominal unit strain or engineering strain
Refer to Fig. 1-2

c : l/ - l : A l - - 1 /
l0
l0
l0
l : A - A f
(1-1)
A0
w h e r e / f = final gauge length of tension test

specimen,
l0 -- original gauge length of tension test
specimen.
The numerical value of strength of a material
ors
F
A
(1-2)
where subscript s stands for strength.
,~ R' True fracture or

rupture strength point
True ~-~ Curve ~ .

Elastic
gll
Region
..
...
~.,
.-""
. ""
Plastic Region
,.-" ..,,,,.,.....,,~ ~ ~u~"--~
Q.
v
jl.
- -
GSy
GSe
GSp
u)
Y ~,
y',,7
Conventional or
Curve
'~ ~
"-
Engineering c-~
-'
R Fracture or rupture
strength point
GSu
O'Sy
C".B
A
--""-"--"-~ X
Strain, e, l.tm/m (iLtin/in)
1-1 Stress-strain diagram for ductile material.

* Subscript s stands for strength.
FIGURE
Point P is the proportionality

limit. Y is the upper yield limit.
E is the elastic limit, yr is the
lower yield point. U is the
ultimate tensile strength point.
R is the fracture or rupture
strength point. R' is the true
fracture or rupture strength
point.
1.4
CHAPTER ONE
Formula
Particular
F
A0
where F = applied load.
F
The nominal stress or engineering stress
O'~___m
The true stress
O ' t r u --- 0 .t _ _
(1-3)
(1-4)
A:
where Af = actual area of cross section or

instantaneous area of cross-section of
specimen under load F at that instant.
Bridgeman's equation for actual stress (O'act) during r
radius necking of a tensile test specimen
O'ca l
O'ac t
( 1 + ~ 4r
-)
All
A12
--~o + lo + A I------~
AI 3
lo + All + AI2
e'
The true strain

Etru'--
--
(1-5)
In (1 + d ) ]
(1-6a)
. . .
~ dli
=
(1-6b)
T
If
Integration of Eq. (1-6) yields the expression for true

strain
From Eq. (1-1)
/f=l+e
The relation between true strain and engineering

strain after taking natural logarithm of both sides of
Eq. (1-8)
In (//--f0)= ln(1 + e)
Eq. (1-9) can be written as
C ~-
(1-7)
(1-8)
to
e Etru - -
There is no necking at fracture for

brittle material such as cast iron or low
cast steel.
co
cd
o~
Strain, 8, tam/m (Bin/in)
rx
FIGURE 1-2 Stress-strain curve for a brittle material.
or
Ctr u =
In(1 + )
(1-9)
(1-1o)
Particular
Percent elongation in a standard tension test specimen
1.5
Formula
zl-to
(100)
lo
CIO0 =
(1-12)
Reduction in area that occurs in standard tension test

specimen in case of ductile materials
Ar = Ao - A f
Ao
Percent reduction in area that occurs in standard

tension test specimen in case of ductile materials
Arl00
For standard tensile test specimen subject to various

loads
Refer to Fig. 1-3.
A o - AU
--
(1-11)
Ao
(100)
(1-13)
o
ao
FIGURE 1-3
A standard tensile specimen subject to various
loads.
The standard gauge length of tensile test specimen
l0 = 6.56v/-a
The volume of material of tensile test specimen

remains constant during the plastic range which is
verified by experiments and is given by
Aolo=Aflf
/f A0 d2
T0=Af=~
(1-15)
Therefore the true strain from Eqs. (1-7) and (1-15)
f f ) __ln~0
/f = 21nd
e tru = l n ( ~A0
dff
(1-16)
(1-14)
or
where df = minimum diameter in the gauge length

/f of specimen under load at that
instant,
Ar - minimum area of cross section of
specimen under load at that instant.
The true strain at rupture, which is also known as the
true fracture strain or ductility
eftru = In
(1)
1
Ar
(1-17)
where AU is the area of cross-section of specimen at

fracture.
1.6
CHAPTER ONE
Particular
Formula
Refer to Table 1-1A for values of eftru of steel and

aluminum.
From Eqs. (1-9) and (1-16)
A
A_f__o0= 1 + e
Substituting Eq. (1-18) in Eq. (1-4) and using Eq. (1-3)

the true stress
O',ru
From experimental results plotting true-stress versus

true-strain, it was found that the equation for plastic
stress-strain line, which is also called the strainstrengthening equation, the true stress is given by
Crtr u = O'OCtnrup
Ao
or
Af = 1 +e
(1-18)
~(1 4- c) = ere~'~u
(1-19)
(1-20)
where cr0 -- strength coefficient,

n = strain hardening or strain
strengthening exponent,
e trup - true plastic strain.
Refer to Table 1-1A for er0 and n values for steels and
other materials.
The load at any point along the stress-strain curve

(Fig 1-1)
F = a~A0
(1-21)
The load-strain relation from Eqs. (1-20) and (1-2)
(1-22)
Differentiating Eq. (1-22) and equating the results to

zero yields the true strain equals to the strain hardening exponent which is the instability point
eu=n
The stress on the specimen which causes a given

amount of cold work W
Crw = a0(ew)" = F,,
= a o A o e i"1
true --Ctr u
(1-23)
(1-24)
mw
where Aw = actual cross-sectional area of the

specimen,
F w - applied load.
The approximate yield strength of the previously
cold-worked specimen
g,~
(a,.,,)w = A,---~,
(1-25)
where Aw = A'w = the increased cross-sectional

area of specimen because of the elastic recovery
that occurs when the load is removed.
,
The approximate yield strength since A'w = Aw
(a,.v) It' = -7~ aw

A w
(1-26)
By substituting Eq. (1-26) into Eq. (1-24)
(as),) w = cr0(ew)"
(1-27)
The tensile strength of a cold worked material
(c~,.u)w = ~
F.
A',
(1-28)
where Aw = A,, F, = Ao(asu)O,

~su -- tensile strength of the original
non-cold worked specimen,
A0 = original area of the specimen.
The percent cold work associated with the deformation of the specimen from A0 to A"
W -_
A0
A'w(100)
A0
where w =
or
w=
A0
A0
W
100
A'w
(1-29)
Particular
1.7
Formula
For standard tensile specimen at stages of loading A'w

is given by equation
A " = A0(1 - w)
(1-30)
Expression for (Osu)w after substituting Eq. (1-28)
(Cr~u)
(crsu)w = 1 - w
(1-31)
Eq. (1-31) can also be expressed as
(Osu)w = (Osu)Oe~'ru
(1-32)
Valid for Aw < Au or ew <_ eu.

The modulus of toughness
Io
Tm=
(1-33a)
ofle
~ ~.~..+ ~,s~
2
er
(1-34b)
where c r
strain associated with incipient
fracture.
--
C u
--
HARDNESS
The Vicker's hardness number ( H v ) or the diamond

pyramid hardness number (Hp)
Hv
=
2F sin (a/2)
1.8544F
d2
=
d~
(1-35)
where F -- load applied, kgf,

a = face angle of the pyramid, 136 ,
d -- diagonal of the indentation, mm,
H v in kgf/mm 2.
The Knoop hardness number
F
HK = 0.07028d 2
(1-36)
where d = length of long diagonal of the projected

area of the indentation, mm,
F -- load applied, kgf,
0.07028 -- a constant which depends on one of
angles between the intersections of the
four faces of a special rhombic-based
pyramid industrial diamond indenter
172.5 and the other angle is 130 ,
HK in kgf/mm 2.
The Meyer hardness number, HM
4F
HM = ~rd2/4
(1-37)
where F -- applied load, kgf,

d = diameter of indentation, mm,
HM in kgf/mm 2.
The Brinell hardness number HB
/-/e =
2F
rcD[D - v/D 2 - d 2]
(1-38)
where F in kgf, d and D in mm, HB in kgf/mm 2.

The Meyer's strain hardening equation for a given
diameter of ball
Ad p
(1-39)
where F -- applied load on a spherical indenter,

kgf,
d = diameter of indentation, mm,
p -- Meyer strain-hardening exponent.
1.8
CHAPTER ONE
Particular
Formula
The relation between the diameter of indentation d

and the load F according to Datsko 1'2
F = 18.8d 2"53
(1-40)
The relation between Meyer strain-hardening exponent p in Eq. (1-39) and the strain-hardening exponent
n in the tensile stress-strain Eq. a = a0 en
p-
(1-41)
The ratio of the tensile strength (as,) of a material to

its Brinell hardness number (HB) as per experimental
results conducted by Datsko 1'2
For the plot of ratio of (as,/HB) = KB against the
strain-strengthening exponent n* (1)
2= n
where p = 2.25 for both annealed pure aluminum

and annealed 1020 steel,
p = 2 for low work hardening materials such
as pH stainless steels and all cold rolled
metals,
p = 2.53 experimentally determined value of
70-30 brass.
o~.
(1-42)
KB = HB
Refer to Fig. 1-4 for KB vs n for various ratios of

(d/D).
1000 -
900
80O
d
700 KB
600
500
400
o14
0.0
o;
FIGURE 1-4
Ratio of (<,.,/HB) = K vs strain strengthening exponent n.

The relationship between the Brinell hardness number
lib and Rockwell C number R c
The relationship between the Brinell hardness number
lib and Rockwell B number RB
R C = 88H O162 - 192
(1-43)
HB --47
RB = 0.0074HB + 0.154
(1-44)
* Courtesy: Datsko, J., Materials in Design and Manufacture, J. Datsko Consultants, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1978, and Standard
Handbook of Machine Design, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1996.
1.9
Formula
Particular
MPa
SI
(1-45a)
USCS
(1-45b)
SI
(1-46a)
USCS
(1-46b)
SI
(1-47a)
psi
USCS
(1-47b)
MPa
SI
(I-48a)
psi
USCS
(1-48b)
Mea
SI
(1-49a)
USCS
(1-49b)
SI
(1-50a)
The approximate relationship between ultimate tensile

strength and Brinell hardness number of carbon and
alloy steels which can be applied to steels with a Brinell
hardness number between 200He and 3 5 0 H e only 1'2
Crsut=3.45He
The relationship between the minimum ultimate

strength and the Brinell hardness number for steels
as per ASTM
Crsut = 3. l OHe

strength and the Brinell hardness number for cast
iron as per ASTM
Crsut = 1.58He - 86.2

strength and the Brinell hardness number as per
SAE minimum strength
trout = 2.60He - 110
In case of stochastic results the relation between He

and Osut for steel based on Eqs. (1-45a) and (1-45b)
o-,ut = (3.45, 0.152)He
In case of stochastic results the relation between

He and Crsut for cast iron based on Eqs. (1-47a) and
(1-47b)
cr~,~t = 1.58He - 62 + (0, 10.3)
= 500He
= 450He
psi
MPa
psi
MPa
= 2 3 0 H e - 12500
= 237.5He - 16000
= (500, 22)He
psi
MPa
= 230He - 9000 + (0, 1500)
psi
uscs
Relationships between hardness number and tensile
strength of steel in SI and US Customary units [7]
Refer to Fig. 1.5.
The approximate relationship between ultimate

shear stress and ultimate tensile strength for various
materials
Tsu = 0.82Crsut for wrought steel

Ysu -- 0.90Osut
(~-50b)
(1-51a)
for malleable iron
(1-5 lb)
(1-51c)
T~u = 1.30~r,ut
for cast iron
Ysu = 0.90Osut
for copper and copper alloy (1-51d)
T~u = 0.65O~ut
for aluminum and aluminum alloys

(1-51e)
The tensile yield strength of stress-relieved (not coldworked) steels according to Datsko 1'2
Crsy=(O.O72o~ut-205 )
The equation for tensile yield strength of stressrelieved (not cold-worked) steels in terms of Brinell
hardness number He according to Datsko (2)
O~y=(3.62He-205)
The approximate relationship between shear yield

strength (r,y) and yield strength (tensile) ~r,y
r,y = 0.55a~y
-1.05o-sut-30
=525He-30
MPa
kpi
MPa
kpi
SI
(1-52a)
USCS
(1-52b)
SI
(1-53a)
USCS
(1-53b)
for aluminum and aluminum alloys

(1-54a)
r~y = 0.58Cr~y for wrought steel
(1-54b)
1.10
CHAPTER ONE
Formula
Particular
The approximate relationship between endurance
limit (also called f a t i g u e limit) for reversed bending
polished specimen based on 50 percent survival rate
and ultimate strength for nonferrous and ferrous
materials
F o r students' use
f
O'sfb --- 0 . 500"su t
asfo = 690 MPa
for wrought steel having

Osut < 1380 MPa (200 kpsi)
(1-55)

Osut > 1380 MPa
(1-56a)

> 200 kpsi
USCS
(1-56b)
Shore hardness
30
40
50
60 70 80 90
100
150
200
250
300
...... 350
v
o 400
450
e- 500
100
120
140
160
180
200
22O
240
260
280
30O
320
34O
360
380
40O
420
440
460
48O
50O
520
540
56O
58O
60O
620
640
660
550
600
._~ 650
700
60
70
80
~)
500
90
lOO
11o
800
1000
1200
12o
130
140
150
O'su t
.~
%
1~o~
~70 _.m
180 "~
7OO
F o r practicing engineers' use

a'sfo = 0.35as.t
crsfb = 550 MPa
1400 ] 220
230
-, 250
1600 -I 260
-, -, 270
, 280
1800 _7 290
300
a~f6 = 80 kpsi
740
850
orrib = 0.45Crsu t
2000
72
. . . 80
. . .
(10) 20
30
40
50
Rockwell C hardness, R c
. . .90
. . . . . .100
. . .
60 70
(1-58a)

200 kpsi
USCS
(1-58b)
for cast iron and cast steel when

(1-59a)
- 2200
a,fb = 275 MPa

2400 ,
2600 I
i;1 0)
as~ = 40 kpsi
!
O'd b :
0.45Crsu t
o"~:~ = 0.36Osu t
Rockwell B hardness, R B
FIGURE 1-5 Conversion of hardness number to ultimate

tensile strength of steel as, t, MPa (kpsi). (Technical Editor
Speaks, courtesy of International Nickel Co., Inc., 1943.)

SI (1-60a)
asut > 600 MPa
2800
(0)

O'su t > 1380 MPa
SI
as.t < 600 MPa (88 kpsi)
760
900
(1-57)
O'su t :>
720
800

as.t < 1380 MPa (200 kpsi)
, 240
680
750
950
asfb = 100 kpsi
o ' ~ = O. 16O'sut
O s fb = 0.38Crsu t

Crsut > 88 kpsi
USCS (1-60b)
for copper-based alloys
and nickel-based alloys
(1-61)
for wrought aluminum alloys up to a

tensile strength of 275 MPa (40 kpsi)
based on 5 x 108 cycle life
(1-62)
for cast aluminum alloys
up to tensile strength of
300 MPa (50 kpsi) based
on 5 x 108 cycle life
(1-63)
for magnesium casting alloys

and magnesium wrought alloys
based on 106 cyclic life
(1-64)
Formula
Particular
!
The relationship between the endurance limit for

reversed axial loading of a polished, unnotched specimen and the reversed bending for steel specimens
Osfa = 0.85Crsfb = 0.43Crsu t
The relationship between the torsional endurance

limit and the reversed bending for reversed torsional
tested polished unnotched specimens for various
materials
7-stf = 0.58Jsfb -- 0.29Crsu t for steel
For additional information or data on properties of

engineering materials
1.11
"rsf ~ 0.Scrsfb ~ 0.32Crsu t for cast iron

t
"rsf '~ 0.48crsfb ~ 0.22Osu t for copper
(1-65)
(1-66a)
(1-66b)
(1-66c)
Refer to Tables 1-1 to 1-48
WOOD
Specific gravity, Gm, of wood at a given moisture
condition, m, is given by
G m -- W
(1-67)
Wm
where W0 = weight of the ovendry wood, N (lbf),

Wm = weight of water displaced by the
sample at the given moisture
condition, N (lbf).
The weight density of wood, D (unit weight) at any
given moisture content
W = weight of ovendry wood and the contained water

volume of the piece at the same moisture content
(1-68)
Equation for converting of weight density D~ from

one moisture condition to another moisture condition
D2
For typical properties of wood of clear material as per

ASTM D 143
l OO + M2
D 2 -- D~ 100+ M1 + 0.0i35Dl(M2 - M1)
(1-69)
where D1 = known weight density for same

moisture condition M1, kN/m 2
(lbf/ft2),
D2 - desired weight density at a moisture
condition M2, kN/m 2 (lbf/ft2). M1 and
M2 are expressed in percent.
Refer to Table 1-47.
1.12
CHAPTER ONE
TABLE
1-1
Hardness conversion (approximate)

Brinell
29.42 kN (3000 kgf) load
10 mm ball
Rockwell hardness number
Diameter
(mm)
Hardness
number
Vickers
or Firth
hardness
number
2.25
2.30
2.35
2.40
2.45
2.50
2.55
2.60
2.65
2.70
2.75
2.80
2.85
2.90
2.95
3.00
3.05
3.10
3.15
3.20
3.25
3.30
3.35
3.40
3.45
3.50
3 55
3.60
3.65
3.70
3.75
3.80
3.85
3.90
3.95
4.00
4.05
4.10
4.15
4.20
4.25
4.30
4.35
4.40
745
712
682
653
627
601
578
555
534
514
495
477
461
444
429
415
401
388
375
363
352
341
331
321
311
302
293
285
277
269
262
255
248
241
235
229
223
217
212
207
201
197
192
187
840
783
737
697
667
640
615
591
569
547
528
5O8
491
472
455
440
425
410
396
383
372
360
35O
339
328
319
309
301
292
284
276
269
261
253
247
241
234
228
222
218
212
207
202
196
A scale
0.588 kN
(60 kgf)
load
84
83
82
81
81
8O
79
78
78
77
76
76
75
74
73
73
72
71
71
70
69
69
68
68
67
66
66
65
65
64
64
63
63
62
61
61
B scale
0.98 kN
(100 kgf)
load
C scale
1.47 kN
(150 kgf)
load
15-N scale
0.147 kN
(15 kgf)
load
Shore
Tensile strength, ~sut
scleroscope
approximate
hardness
number
MPa
kpsi
ll0
109
109
108
108
107
106
106
105
104
103
102
101
100
99
98
97
96
96
95
94
93
92
91
65
64
62
60
59
58
57
55
54
52
51
50
49
47
46
45
43
42
40
39
38
37
36
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
25
24
23
22
21
19
18
16
15
14
13
12
10
92
92
91
90
90
89
88
88
87
87
86
85
85
84
83
83
82
81
81
80
79
79
78
77
77
76
76
75
74
74
73
73
72
71
70
70
91
87
84
81
79
77
75
73
71
70
68
66
65
63
61
59
58
56
54
52
51
50
48
47
46
45
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
,,
33
32
31
30
29
2570
2455
2350
2275
2227
2192
2124
2020
1924
1834
1750
1675
1620
1532
1482
1434
1380
1338
12961255
1214
1172
1145
1103
1069
1042
1010
983
955
928
904
875
855
832
810
790
770
748
730
714
690
680
662
645
373
356
341
330
323
318
309
293
279
266
254
243
235
222
215
208
200
194
188
182
176
170
166
160
155
151
146
142
138
134
131
127
124
120
117
114
111
108
106
103
100
98
96
93
P R O P E R T I E S OF E N G I N E E R I N G M A T E R I A L S
1.13
T A B L E 1-1
Hardness conversion (approximate) (Cont.)
Brinell
29.42 kN (3000 kgf) load
10 mm ball
Rockwell hardness number
Diameter
(mm)
Hardness
number
Vickers
or Firth
hardness
number
4.45
4.5O
4.55
4.60
4.65
470
4.80
4.90
5.00
5.10
5.20
5.30
5.40
5.50
5.60
183
179
174
170
167
163
156
149
143
137
131
126
121
116
111
192
188
182
178
175
171
163
156
150
143
137
132
127
122
117
A scale
0.588 kN
(60 kgf)
load
B scale
0.98 kN
(100 kgf)
load
90
89
88
87
86
85
83
81
79
76
74
72
70
68
65
C scale
1.47 kN
(150 kgf)
load
15-N scale
0.147 kN
(15 kgf)
load
Shore
Tensile strength,
scleroscope
approximate
hardness
number
MPa
kpsi
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
631
617
600
585
576
562
538
514
493
472
451
435
417
400
383
91
89
87
85
83
81
78
74
71
68
65
63
60
58
55
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1.15
1.16
C H A P T E R ONE
T A B L E 1-2
Poisson's ratio (v)

Material
Aluminium, cast
Aluminium, drawn
Beryllium copper
Brass
Brass, 30 Zn
Cast steel
Chromium
Copper
Douglas fir
Ductile iron
Glass
Gray cast iron
Iron, soft
Iron, cast
Inconel x
Lead
Magnesium
Malleable cast iron
Material
0.330
0.348
0.285
0.340
0.350
0.265
0.210
0.343
0.330
0.340-0.370
0.245
0.210-0.270
0.293
0.270
0.410
0.431
0.291
0.230
Molybdenum
Monel metal
Nickel, soft
Nickel, hard
Rubber
Silver
Steel, mild
Steel, high carbon
Steel, tool
Steel, stainless (18-8)
Tin
Titanium
Tungsten
Vanadium
Wrought iron
Zinc
0.293
0.320-0.370
0.239
0.306
0.450-0.490
0.367
0.303
0.295
0.287
0.305
0.342
0.357
0.280
0.365
0.278
0.331
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1.22
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PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING
TABLE
MATERIALS
1.27
1-9
Mechanical properties of standard steels

Designation
New
Old
MPa
kpsi
MPa
kpsi
Elongation in
50 mm (gauge
length 5.65 v/-~-)
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
(St
(St
(St
(St
(St
(St
(St
(St
(St
(St
(St
-
290
290
310
310
330
330
360
360
410
410
490
490
540
540
620
620
690
690
770
770
870
870
42.0
42.0
45.0
45.0
47.9
47.9
52.2
52.2
59.5
59.5
71.1
71.1
78.3
78.3
90.0
90.0
100.0
100.0
111.7
111.7
126.2
126.2
170
220
180
230
200
250
220
270
250
310
290
370
320
400
380
460
410
520
460
580
520
650
24.7
32.0
26.1
33.4
29.0
36.3
32.0
39.2
36.3
50.0
42.0
53.7
46.4
58.0
55.1
66.7
59.5
75.4
66.7
84.1
75.4
94.3
27
27
26
26
26
26
25
25
23
23
21
21
20
20
15
15
12
12
10
10
8
8
290
E 220
310
E 230
330
F 250
360
F 270
410
E 310
490
E 370
540
E 400
620
E 460
690
E 520
770
E 580
870
E 650
Tensile strength, ~r~t
30)
32)
34)
37)
42)
50)
55)
63)
70)
78)
88)
Yield stress, Crsy
Note: a* area of cross-section of test specimen.

Source: IS 1570, 1978.
1-10
Chemical composition and mechanical properties of carbon steel castings for surface hardening
TABLE
Chemical composition (in ladle analysis) max, %

Designation
Si
Mn
Cr
Ni
Mo
Cu
Residual elements
Gr 1
Gr 2
0.4-0.5
0.5-0.6
0.60
0.60
1.0
1.0
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.25
0.25
0.40
0.40
0.15
0.15
0.30
0.30
0.80
0.80
Tensile strength, crst
Yield strength, ~rsy
Elongation, % min
(gauge length
Brinell
hardness
Designation
Mpa
kpsi
Mpa
kpsi
5.65 v ~ )
~/B
Gr 1
Gr 2
620
700
90.0
101.5
320
370
46.4
53.7
12
8
460
535
Notes: a* area of cross section of test specimen. All castings shall be free from distortion and harmful defects. They shall be well-dressed, fettled,
and machinable. Unless agreed upon by the purchaser and the manufacturer, castings shall be supplied in the annealed, or nomalized and tempered
condition.
Source: IS 2707, 1973.
1.28
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1.29
1.30
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1.33
1.34
CHAPTER ONE
TABLE
1-14
Mechanical properties of case hardening steels in the refined and quenched condition (core properties)
Tensile strength, ~r~t

Steel designation
MPa
kpsi
Minimum
elongation, %
(gauge length
= 5.65 x/~)a
Izod impact value,

min (if specified)
j
ft-lbf
Limiting ruling
section, mm (in)
15 (0.6)
Brinell hardness
number, max, HB
130
143
10 C 4 (C 10)
14 C 4 (C 14)
490
490
71.1
71.1
17
17
54
54
39.8
39.9
10 C 8 S 11 (10 S 11)
14 C 14 S 14
(14MnlS14)
11 C 15
(11Mn2)
15 Cr 65
17 Mn 1 Cr 95
20 Mn Cr 1
16 Ni 3 Cr 2
(16 Ni 80 Cr 60)
16 Ni 4 Cr 3
(16 Ni 1 Cr 80)
490
588
71.1
85.4
17
17
54
40
39.8
29.7
> 15 (0.6)
<30 (1.2)
30 (1.2)
30 (1.2)
588
85.4
17
54
39.8
30 (1.2)
154
588
784
981
686
85.4
113.8
142.3
99.6
13
10
8
15
47
34
37
40
34.7
25.3
27.5
29.7
30
30
30
90
(1.2)
(1.2)
(1.2)
(3.6)
170
207
217
184
834
784
735
834
784
1324
1177
1128
834
686
882
784
735
981
932
1079
932
932
1324
1177
1128
121.0
113.8
106.7
121.0
113.8
192.0
170.7
163.2
121.0
99.6
128.0
113.8
106.7
142.3
135.1
156.5
142.3
135.1
193.0
170.7
163.6
12
40
29.7
217
12
47
34.7
34
25.3
12
61
44.8
11
40
29.7
40
29.7
34
25.3
34
25.3
30 (1.2)
60 (2.4)
90 (3.6)
60 (2.4)
100 (4.0)
30 (1.2)
60 (2.4)
90 (3.6)
30 (1.2)
60 (2.4)
30 (1.2)
60 (2.4)
90 (3.6)
30 (1.2)
90 (3.6)
30 (1.2)
60 (2.4)
90 (3.6)
30 (1.2)
60 (2.4)
90 (3.6)
13 Ni 13 Cr 3
(13 Ni 3 Cr 80)
15 Ni 4 Cr 1
20 Ni 2 Mo 25
20 Ni 7 Cr 2 Mo 2
(20 Ni 55 Cr 50 Mo
20)
15 Ni 13 Cr 4
(15 Ni Cr 1 Mo 12)
15 Ni 5 Cr 4 Mo 2
(15 Ni 2 Cr 1 Mo. 15)
16 Ni 8 Cr 6 Mo 2
(16 Ni Cr 2 Mo 20)
a* area of cross section.
Source:
IS 4432. 1967.
143
154
229
241
207
213
217
217
229
PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING
TABLE
MATERIALS
1.35
1-15
Typical mechanical properties of some carburizing steels a

Hardness
Ultimate
tensile
strength,
Tensile
yield
strength,
O'sut
O'sy
Case
AISINo.
MPa
kpsi MPa
Core
Elongation
in 50 mm
Reduction Brinell,
kpsi (2in), %
of area, % HB
C1015
C1020
C1022
Cl117
Cl118
503
517
572
669
779
73
75
83
97
113
317
331
324
407
531
46
48
47
59
77
31
31
27
23
t7
71
71
66
53
45
Plain carbon
149
156
163
192
229
62
62
62
65
61
1.22
1.17
1.17
1.14
1.65
4320 b
4620 b
8620 b
100
793
897
146
115
!30
648
531
53!
94
77
77
22
22
22
56
62
52
Alloy steels
293
235
" ~
~6~
59
59
61
1.91
1.52
1.78
Izod impact
energy
Thickness
Rockwell,
ft-lbf
Machinability
0.048 123
0.046 126
0.046 110
0.045 45
0.065 22
91
93
81
33
16
Poor
Poor
Good
Very good
Excellent
0.075 65
0.060 106
0.070 89
48
78
66
Rc
mm
in
Average properties for 15 mm (1 in) round section treated, 12.625mm (0.505 in) round section tested. Water-quenched and tempered at 177C
(350F), except where indicated.
b Core properties for 14.125 mm (0.565 in) round section treated, 12.625 mm (0.505 in) round section tested. Oil-quenched twice, tempered at 232C
(450F).
Source: Modern Steels and Their Properties, Bethlehem Steel Corp., 4th ed., 1958 and 7th ed., 1972.
1.36
CHAPTER
TABLE
Minimum
ONE
1-16
mechanical
properties of some stainless steels
Tensile
strength, trst
UNS No. AISI No. MPa
kpsi
Yield
strength',o"v
Brinell
Elongation, Reduction
MPa kpsi hardness,HB %
in area, %
Weldability
Machinability
Application
Good
Poor
Good
Good
Poor
Good
Poor
General purpose, springs

Bolts, rivets, and nuts
Welded structures
General purpose
Good
Good
Poor
Poor
Heat-exchange parts
Turbine and furnace
Jet engine parts
Fasteners and cold-worked parts
Excellent
Fair
Fair
Fair to good
Fair
Screw machine parts, muffler

Machine parts subjected to hightemperature corrosion
Annealed (room temperatures)

Austenitic
$30200
S30300
$30400
$30500
$30800
$30900
$31000
$31008
$34800
$38400
302
303b
304
305
308
309
310
310 S
348
384
515
585b
515
480
515
515
515
515
515
415-550
75
85b
75
70
75
75
75
75
75
60--80
205
240b
205
170
205
205
205
205
205
30
35b
30
25
30
30
30
30
30
88
88
88
88
95
95
95
88
40
50b
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
55b
Annealed high-nitrogen
Austenitic
$20200
202
$21600
216
$30452 304HN
655
690
620
95
100
90
310
415
345
4560
50
Ferfite
$40500
$43000
$44600
405
430
446
415
450
515
60
65
75
170
205
275
25
30
40
88max
88max
95max
22e
20
Martensite
$40300
403
$41000
410
485
450
70
65
205
205
30
30
88max
95max
25c
22c
100
100
$41400
$41800d
S42000e
$43100d
414
418d
420e
431d
795
1450b
1720
1370b
115
210b
250
198b
620
1210b
1480b
1030b
90
175b
215b
149b
$44002
440 A
725b
105b
415b
60b
95b
20b
$44003
$44004
$50200
440 B
440 C
502b
740
760b
485b
107b
110b
70b
425b
450b
205b
62b
65b
30b
96b
97b
18b
14b
30b
a
b
c
d
e
52Rc b
15
18b
8b
16b
Bolts, shafts, and machine parts

Bolts, springs, cutlery, and
machine parts
45
52b
25b
55b
70b
At 0.2% offset.
Typical values.
20% elongation for thickness of 1.3 mm (0.050 in) or less.
Tempered at 260C (500F).
Tempered at 205C (400F).
Source: A S M Metals Handbook, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1988.
High-strength parts used in

aircraft and bolts
Cutlery, bearing parts, nozzles
and ball bearings
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PROPERTIES OF E N G I N E E R I N G MATERIALS
1.45
TABLE 1-24
Typical uses of tool steel
Steel designation
Type
T 140 W 4 Cr 50
T 133
Tl18
T70
Cold-Work Water-Hardening Steels

Fast finishing tool steel
Finishing tools with light feeds, marking tools, etc.
Carbon tool steels
Engraving tools, files, razors, shaping and wood-working
tools, heading and press tools, drills, punches, chisels,shear
blades, vice jaws, etc.
T 215 Cr 12
T 160Cr 12
Tll0W2Crl
T105W2Cr60V25
T 90 Mn 2 W 50 Cr 45
T 105 Cr 1
T 105 Cr 1 M 60
T85
T75
T65
T 55 Cr 70
T 55 Si 2 Mn 90 Mo 33
T 50 Cr 1 V 23
T 60 Ni 1
T 30 Ni 4 Cr 1
T 55 Ni 2 Cr 65 Mo 3
T
T
T
T
T
T
33, W 9 Cr 3 V 38
35 Cr 5 Mo V 1
35 Cr 5 Mo W 1 V 30
75 W 18 Co 6 Cr 4 V 1 Mo 75
83 Mo W 6 Cr 4 V 2
55 W 14 Cr 3 V 45 a
T 16 Ni 80 Cr 60
T 10 Cr 5 bee 75 V 23
a May also be used as hot-work steel.
Source: IS 1871, 1965.
Typical uses
Cold-Work Oil and Air-Hardening Steels

High-carbon highPress tools, drawing and cutter dies, shear blade thread
chromium tool steels
rollers, etc.
Nondeforming tool steels
Engraving tools, press tools, gauge, tape, dies, drills, hard
reamers, milling cutters, broaches, cold punches, knives, etc.
Carbon-chromium tool
steels
Lathe centers, knurling tools, press tools

Die blocks, garden and agricultural tools, etc.
Carbon tool steels

Shock-resisting tool steels
Pneumatic chisels, rivet shape, shear blades, heavy-duty

punches, scarfing tools, and other tools under high shock
Nickel-chromemolybdenum tool steels
Cold and heavy duty punches, trimming dies, scarfing tools,

pneumatic chisels, etc.
Hot-Work and High-Speed Steel

Hot-work tool steels
Castings dies for light alloys, dies for extrusion, stamping,
and forging
High-speed tool steels
Drills, reamers, broaches, form cutters, milling cutters,

deep-hole drills, slitting saws, high-speed and heavy-cut
tools
Low-Carbon Mold Steel

Carburizing steels
After case hardening for molds for plastic materials
1.46
CHAPTER ONE
T A B L E 1-25
Mechanical properties of carbon and alloy steel bars for the production of machine parts
Ultimate tensile strength, O'sut
Steel designation
MPa ##
kpsi
MPa ~
kpsi
14 C
20 C
30 C
40 C
45 C
55 C
65 C
14 C
11 C
363
432
490
569
618
706
736
432
363
52.6
62.6
71.1
82.5
89.6
102.4
106.7
62.6
52.6
441
510
588
667
696
64.0
74.0
85.3
96.7
101.0
530
481
76.8
69.7
4 (C
8 (C
8 (C
8 (C
8 (C
8 (C
6 (C
14 S
10 S
14)**
20)
30)
40)
45)
55 Mn 75)
65)
14 (14 Mn 1 S 14)
25 (13 S 25)
Minimum elongation (gauge length

= 5.65x/~), %
26
24
21
18
15
13
10
22
23
Notes: a*, area of cross section; ## minimum; ~ maximum; ** steel designations in parentheses are old designations
Source: IS 2073, 1970.
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PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.81
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
Datsko, J., Material Properties and Manufacturing Process, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1966.
Datsko, J. Material in Design and Manufacturing, Malloy, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1977.
ASM Metals Handbook, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1988.
Machine Design, 1981 Materials Reference Issue, Penton/IPC, Cleveland, Ohio, Vol. 53, No. 6, March 19,
1981.
Lingaiah, K., Machine Design Data Handbook, Vol. II (SI and Customary Metric Units), Suma Publishers,
Bangalore, India, 1986.
Lingaiah, K., and B. R. Narayana Iyengar, Machine Design Data Handbook, Vol. I (SI and Customary Metric
Units), Suma Publishers, Bangalore, India, 1986.
Technical Editor Speaks, the International Nickel Company, New York, 1943.
Shigley, J. E., Mechanical Engineering Design, Metric Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1986.
Deutschman, A. D., W. J. Michels, and C. E. Wilson, Machine Design Theory and Practice, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1975.
Juvinall, R. C.,Fundaments of Machine Components Design, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1983.
Lingaiah, K., and B. R. Narayana Iyengar, Machine Design Data Handbook, Engineering College Co-operative Society, Bangalore, India, 1962.
Lingaiah, K., Machine Design Data Handbook, Vol. II (SI and Customary Metric Units), Suma Publishers,
Bangalore, India, 1981 and 1984.
Lingaiah, K., and B. R. Narayana Iyengar, Machine Design Data Handbook, Vol. I (SI and Customary Metric
Units), Suma Publishers, Bangalore, India, 1983.
SAE Handbook, 1981.
Lessels, J. M., Strength and Resistance of Metals, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1954.
Siegel, M. J., V. L. Maleev, and J. B. Hartman, Mechanical Design of Machines, 4th edition, International
Textbook Company, Scranton, Pennsylvania, 1965.
Black, P. H., and O. Eugene Adams, Jr., Machine Design, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1963.
Niemann, G., Maschinenelemente, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Erster Band, 1963.
Faires, V. M., Design of Machine Elements, 4th edition, Macmillan Company, New York, 1965.
Nortman, C. A., E. S. Auit, and I. F. Zarobsky, Fundamentals of Machine Design, Macmillan Company, New
York, 1951.
Spotts, M. F., Design of Machine Elements, 5th edition, Prentice-Hall of India Private Ltd., New Delhi, 1978.
Vallance, A., and V. L. Doughtie, Design of Machine Members, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1951.
Decker, K.-H., Maschinenelemente, Gestalting und Bereching, Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich, Germany, 1971.
Decker, K.-H., and Kabus, B. K., Maschinenelemente-Aufgaben, Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich, Germany,
1970.
ISO and BIS standards.
Metals Handbook, Desk Edition, ASM International, Materials Park, Ohio, 1985 (formerly the American
Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1985).
Edwards, Jr., K. S., and R. B. McKee, Fundamentals of Mechanical Components Design, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1991.
Shigley, J. E., and C. R. Mischke, Standard Handbook of Machine Design, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1996.
Structural Alloys Handbook, Metals and Ceramics Information Center, Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio, 1985.
Wood Handbook and U. S. Forest Products Laboratory.
SAE J1099, Technical Report of Fatigue Properties.
Ashton, J. C., 1. Halpin, and P. H. Petit, Primer on Composite Materials-Analysis, Technomic Publishing Co.,
Inc., 750 Summer Street, Stanford, Conn 06901, 1969.
Baumeister, T., E. A. Avallone, and T. Baumeister III, Mark's Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers,
8th edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1978.
Norton, Refractories, 3rd edition, Green and Stewart, ASTM Standards on Refractory Materials Handbook
(Committee C-8).
1.82
CHAPTER ONE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Black, P. H., and O. Eugene Adams, Jr., Machine Design, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1983.
Decker, K.-H., Maschinenelemente, Gestalting und Bereching, Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich, Germany, 1971.
Decker, K.-H., and Kabus, B. K., Maschinenelemente-Aufgaben, Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich, Germany, 1970.
Deutschman, A. D., W. J. Michels, and C. E. Wilson, Machine Design--Theory and Practice, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1975.
Faires, V. M., Design of Machine Elements, 4th edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1965.
Honger, O. S. (ed.), (ASME) Handbook for Metals Properties, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1954.
ISO standards.
Juvinall, R. C., Fundaments of Machine Components Design, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1983.
Lessels, J. M., Strength and Resistance of Metals, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1954.
Lingaiah, K., and B. R. Narayana Iyengar, Machine Design Data Handbook, Engineering College Co-operative
Society, Bangalore, India, 1962.
Mark's Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 8th edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1978.
Niemann, G., Maschinenelemente, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Erster Band, 1963.
Norman, C. A., E. S. Ault, and I. E. Zarobsky, Fundamentals of Machine Design, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1951.
SAE Handbook, 1981.
Shigley, J. E., Mechanical Engineering Design, Metric Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1986.
Siegel, M. J., V. L. Maleev, and J. B. Hartman, Mechanical Design of Machines, 4th edition, International Textbook Company, Scranton, Pennsylvania, 1965.
Spotts, M. F., Design of Machine Elements, 5th edition, Prentice-Hall of India Private Ltd., New Delhi, 1978.
Vallance, A., and V. L. Doughtie, Design of Machine Members, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1951.

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CHAPTER

units in parentheses are U S

transverse bending stress, MPa (psi)

American Iron and Steel Institute

PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Society of Automotive Engineers

For engineering stress-strain diagram for ductile steel,

Refer to Fig. 1-1

For engineering stress-strain diagram for brittle

Refer to Fig. 1-2

w h e r e / f = final gauge length of tension test

where subscript s stands for strength.

,~ R' True fracture or

True ~-~ Curve ~ .

,.-" ..,,,,.,.....,,~ ~ ~u~"--~

Strain, e, l.tm/m (iLtin/in)

1-1 Stress-strain diagram for ductile material.

Point P is the proportionality

The nominal stress or engineering stress

The true stress

where Af = actual area of cross section or

The true strain

Integration of Eq. (1-6) yields the expression for true

The relation between true strain and engineering

Eq. (1-9) can be written as

There is no necking at fracture for

Strain, 8, tam/m (Bin/in)

FIGURE 1-2 Stress-strain curve for a brittle material.

PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Percent elongation in a standard tension test specimen

Reduction in area that occurs in standard tension test

Percent reduction in area that occurs in standard

For standard tensile test specimen subject to various

Refer to Fig. 1-3.

A standard tensile specimen subject to various

The volume of material of tensile test specimen

Therefore the true strain from Eqs. (1-7) and (1-15)

where df = minimum diameter in the gauge length

where AU is the area of cross-section of specimen at

Refer to Table 1-1A for values of eftru of steel and

Substituting Eq. (1-18) in Eq. (1-4) and using Eq. (1-3)

From experimental results plotting true-stress versus

where cr0 -- strength coefficient,

The load at any point along the stress-strain curve

The load-strain relation from Eqs. (1-20) and (1-2)

Differentiating Eq. (1-22) and equating the results to

The stress on the specimen which causes a given

Crw = a0(ew)" = F,,

where Aw = actual cross-sectional area of the

where Aw = A'w = the increased cross-sectional

The approximate yield strength since A'w = Aw

(a,.v) It' = -7~ aw

By substituting Eq. (1-26) into Eq. (1-24)

The tensile strength of a cold worked material

where Aw = A,, F, = Ao(asu)O,

PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

For standard tensile specimen at stages of loading A'w

Expression for (Osu)w after substituting Eq. (1-28)

Eq. (1-31) can also be expressed as

Valid for Aw < Au or ew <_ eu.

The Vicker's hardness number ( H v ) or the diamond

where F -- load applied, kgf,

where d = length of long diagonal of the projected