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Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written
language: guidelines and criteria. Part III.

Morphology, II: adjectives, pronouns,
invariables
Claudi Meneghin
Institud de studis Rhaeto-Cisalpins
<claudi.meneghin@gmail.com>
Abstract
This paper is the third one of a series aimed at reconstructing a unitary
Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language, including ISO 639-3 Piedmontese, Ligurian, Lombard, Emilian-Romagnol, Venetan, Ladin, Romansh, Istriot and
Friulian. Following the assumptions and the conclusions of Part I we
deal with the morphology of the adjective, adverb and invariables in the
Padanese varieties.
Keywords: Rhaeto-Cisalpine, Padanese, written language, parts of the
speech, morphology, Piedmontese, Ligurian, Lombard, Emilian-Romagnol,
Venetan, Ladin, Romansh, Istriot, Friulian, classical and ancient Lombard.
Received: 25.ii.2009 Accepted: 25.x.2009
Table of Contents
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Introduction
The adjective: making up the feminine inflexion
The demonstrative pronoun/adjective
The possessive pronoun/adjective
Relative and interrogative pronouns/adjectives
Indefinite pronouns/adjectives
The numerals
The adverb
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Appendix
Acknowledgements
References
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Ianua. Revista Philologica Romanica

Vol. 9 (2009): 3794
ISSN 1616-413X
http://www.romaniaminor.net/ianua/
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Claudi Meneghin
Introduction
This paper is the third one of a series aimed at reconstructing a unitary writtenlanguage system for the Rhaeto-Cisalpine (or Padanese) domain. The general
framework we are working in is described in part I (Meneghin 2007) and II
(Meneghin 2008) of this work; as far as specifically morphological issues are
concerned, the reader is specifically referred to the introduction of Part II. This
paper deals with matters related to the morphology of adjectives, pronouns and
invariables in the Padanese varieties. As usual, phonological issues concurring
to the formation of desinences will be discussed as well.
The adjective: making up the feminine inflexion
The general pattern of the adjective mostly coincides with that of the noun and,
as such, it has been discussed in section 2 of part II. Here we will discuss in
detail the formation of the feminine inflexion from the thematic root. According
to Hull (1982, 455 ff.):
adjectives derived from the Latin third declension tended to be assimilated
to the first-second pattern in Gallo-Roman, although a distinct declension
with common masculine and feminine endings survived, especially in the
speech of the educated classes. Today, third declension adjectives of popular
formation assume distinctive feminine endings throughout the Padanian
amphizone, while Italian influence has reversed this pattern in many learned
forms but the Ladin dialects, immune to Italian influence, retain intact the
analogical feminine forms of Gallo-Roman.
This analogical form consists in forming the marked feminine form of the
adjectives by adding the desinence -a to the thematic root (we deal only with
singular declension: plural formation has been discussed in section 2 of part II,
jointly with the morphology of nouns).
The AIS maps I; 186 (strong), VIII; 1578 (green) and VIII; 1583 (tender) essentially confirm the above view: the feminine inflexions of the above adjectives
are: frta (everywhere except in Ligurian and southern Venetan, where we find
the italianate frte instead), verda (almost everywhere: exceptions are Genova
and Venice hinterlands, where we find verde) and the virtually universal mlla
/mOla/.
The AIS map VII, 1410 records the types la Piemontisa, la Francisa (in the
Piedmontese, resp. French way) at point 181. Of course the title of Brero (1967)
conforms to the above types.
Also interesting, as to this issue, the AIS table VII; 1266: here the adjective
under scrutiny is dol / dola sweet, soft, but the lexical item investigated is
a sweet apple. Now apple admits the translation types pom (m.), poma (f.),
meil (m.) and meila (f.), so the information conveyed by the table about the
formation of the feminine inflexion is partial (the types pom and meila largely
prevail). However, when the feminine vernacular forms of apple are in force,
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only the adjective dola is attested (Lombardy, Piedmont, Emilia-Romagna and

the Ligurian AIS point 190: /na mera du:sa/): this agrees with Milanese
too, see here below.
Local contemporary grammatical treatises confirm the above view:
Romansh: Puter, Vallader; (Ganzoni 1983b, 54; Ganzoni 1983a, 55): n cudesch frances distorgia a French book about history; n cudesch distorgia francesa
a book about French history; ella tuorna trista she comes back sad; Romansh:
Sursilvan (Spescha 1989, 279): La fuorma feminina digl adjectiv anflan ins partend dalla fuorma predicativa digl adjectiv masculin. Enstagl digl -s predicativ
aschuntan ins in -a. For instance, we have the following Sursilvan forms for
green: attribuitive adjective verd, predicative adjective verds, feminine verda;
analogously grond, gronds, gronda big, large. Standard Rumantsch Grischun of
course fully retains this feature (Caduff, Caprez & Darms 2006, 91): las furmas regularas dals adjectivs vegnan furma das cun: agiuntar in -a al masculin
singular per designar il feminin: curt-curta, brin-brina [short, brown]. See
also Stich (2007, 75): le fminin des adjectifs est form par ladjonction dun
-a, mais avec quelques amnagements orthographiques, en particulier pour les
masculins proparoxytons.
The situation in Dolomitic Ladin is completely analogous (Valentini 2001,
38): La formazion dl feminin: sciche regola de basa per la formazion dl feminin
vlel: feminin = mascolin + -a [...] Ejempli de agetifs: bel / bela, fort / forta,
dur / dura, curious / curiousa, bon / bona, cuecen / cuecena [nice, strong, hard,
curious, good, red]; also according to Schmid (1994, 68):
die Bildung der Femininform ist insofern relativ einfach und unproblematisch, als -a (fas- sanisch -) in allen Talschaften als spezifische Endung des
Femininums dient (nur Ampezzo und in einigen Fllen Buchenstein verwenden daneben noch den wesentlich selteneren Typus forte m. = forte f.).
Wo die Talschaften in der Behandlung einzelner Adjektive differieren, empfiehlt sich die Wahl jener Variante, die am besten dem genuin- ladinischen
Laut- oder Formenstand entspricht, zB. franch / franca (so grd. fas.), nicht
franco / franca (gad. fod. anp.), ebenso gop / goba, nicht gobo / goba oder
gobe / goba, ferner cer / cera, nicht cere / cera, usw.
Friulian generally conforms to this model too (Zof 2008, 77), with the relevant
exception of the adjectives with suffix -l, which stay uniflected when turned
to the feminine (but form the plural by adding -s and do not conform to the
masculine model -i). Of course, it should be kept into account that the singular
feminine marker in Friulian is -e: une impleade regionl, ds impleiadis regionls
a regional (female) employee, two regional (female) employees, atent / atente
careful, dificil / dificile difficult, sutl / sutle thin, blanc / blancje white...
The situation in the Cisalpine subdomain is similar, but locally more variegated: for Piedmontese we have, from Brero (1967, 44, 34, 35), that the adjectives
a formo l feminin [...] second le rgole studi pr l nm sostantiv, which
forms the feminine pijand una -a a la fin. However, Italian influences are
recorded, because the adjectives in -al stay uninflected when turned to feminine
and those in -il admit both the feminine forms -ila and -il: postal, trivial, carnal
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Claudi Meneghin
postal, trivial, carnal; vos sutila / sutil light voice, na cosa til / tila a useful
thing. The transitional dialect of Casale Corte Cerro (toward western Lombard) constructs the feminine inflexion always by adding -a (here phonetically
realised as /6/) to the thematic root (Weber Wetzel 2002, 110).
As to western Lombard, in the Swiss domain (Tessin and Grisons) the feminine inflexion is carried out by the regular addition of the desinence -a (Giovanna
Ceccarelli and Dario Petrini, p.c.).
According to Johannes Galfetti (p.c.), the suffix -al is a partial exception:
some speakers could use -al as a feminine inflexion too, in in some contexts
(compare Friulian above). The Swiss scholar proposes the following efficacious
explanation: if a word is taken from the Italian superstartum (e.g. normale
normal, both masc. and fem.), then it undergoes a first phonological adaptation
to Ticinese by the elimination of the final -e (tcc i vocaj finaj diferent de -a i
crda), inasmuch as a final vowel different from -a. This yields the feminine
form in -al. Only if the current use of the word makes it organic to a local
dialect, then an elaboration follows and a final -a is added to carry out feminine
declension.
As a matter of fact, only a few items (less than 90 out of more than 57,000 in
LSI 2004) display the suffix -al in Swiss Lombard, confirming that this desinence
is somewhat extraneous to the present situation of the above linguistic system
(this can be in turn imputed to the loss of the scientific ambit, where this kind
of suffixes are rather important: this importances is of course carried over the
context of language planning, see 2.1.2).
The situation can be locally more regular notwithstanding: for instance the
feminine of bestial bestial is bestiala according to VSI (1957, vol. 2, 403); also,
in Poschiavo valley (Grisons), adjektiva der 3. Dekl. nehmen im Fem. die
Endung -a an: forta (fort), granda, sitila, dulza, verda (Michael 1905), while in
Bregaglia valley the adjectives follow the scheme of nouns, with the desinence
-a when turned to feminine (Giacometti 2003, 4244), with the usual adaptation
in case of epenthesis in a muta cum liquida group: mt / mta mute, groi / groia
rough, tevi / tevia tepid (cf. Fr. tide), blecc / blecia very wet, idel / idela
ideal, legl / legla legal, gar / gra sour, combal / combla full and convex (cf.
Fr. comble), fleival / fleivla feeble. By contrast, the suffixed adjectives in -l / -la
are accounted to tend to be replaced by the corresponding Italian ones in -ale
without adaptation.
Milanese (Nicoli 1983, 116 ff) forms the feminine of the adjectives generally
by adding -a to the thematic root (apart from the usual orthographical particularities), but it surrenders to the Italian superstratum for the adjectives ending
in -al, -l, -il, -z when masculine (invariable when inflected to the feminine), with
the following exception, worth citing: dolz / dolza sweet, soft. Examples: grand
/ granda big, large, smrt / smrta pale, verd / verda green.
In eastern Lombard (Bergamasque), the feminine inflexion of the adjective
ending by consonant is formed by adding the desinence -a for the singular
(Zanetti 2004, 48); of course a denasalised thematic -n appears again in the
feminine inflexion: s / sana healthy. Examples: bl / bla nice, longh / longa
long, crt / crta short, fess / fessa dense; see also Razzi (1984, 130) and Bazzani
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& Melzani (2002, 29).

In Emilian Romagnol (Bolognese: Vitali & Lepri 2000, 16; Lepri & Vitali
2007, xiii, xiv) we find again the usual Padanese way of forming of the feminine
inflexion by adding -a to the thematic root, but Italian influences are recorded for
the adjectives ending in -el, -il which tend to become invariable when inflected
to the singular. Examples: grand / granda big, large, bl / bla nice, sutl / sutla
thin.
As to Venetan, an Italian-like two-class declensional pattern is accounted
for in Brunelli (2005, 910) for central dialects, but more peripheral ones show
Gallo-Roman analogical patterns: for instance, in the dialects of Valsugana
(Prati 1917, 28) feminine inflexion is always formed by means of the desinence
-a.
In Istrian, according to Deanovic (1954, 28), adjectives follow a one class
declensional pattern (-o for masculine and -a for feminine) in the dialect of
Rovigno dIstria, and according to Ive (1900, 49, 82, 117) similar conditions hold
for the dialects of Rovigno, Pirano, Dignano and Gallesano.
The Ligurian situation is more complex: in Genoese, many adjectives follow
an Italian-like two-class declensional pattern, but according to Toso (1997, 73),
the Gallo-Roman analogical pattern comes to be re-established in the plural
inflexions: e.g. lommo forte, a dnna forte, i mmi forti, dnne frte the strong
man, the strong woman, the strong men, the strong women. Also, grande is
the common masculine and feminine singular form for the adjective big, but the
plural ones are grndi / grnde, both displaying metaphonic evolutions (Toso
1997, 73).
It is also worth noting that the Latin suffixation -ale yields - for the masculine
and -a for the feminine, thus matching the Gallo-Roman pattern of analogical
declension (Toso 1997, 281).
In the western Ligurian dialect of Olivetta San Michele (Azaretti 1989, 145),
the Gallo-Roman analogical pattern is stronger: we have first class feminine
adjectives with sing. in -a and pl. in -e: /bela, bele/, and also /tSena,
haraja, krya, byjenta, duha, forta, iJuranta, verda/ nice, full, salty,
raw, boiling, sweet, strong, ignorant, green.
To envisage the standard formation of the feminine for the Padanese adjective, we will make a departure from the usual elasticity which these pieces of
language planning are inspired to. Indeed, in this framework, our major concern should be the reversal of language shift to Italian which is running, in this
framework, by impairing the naturally established Gallo-Roman declensional
pattern of the adjective.
Thus we recommend the standard Padanese singular feminine inflexion
to be formed by adding -a to the thematic root of the adjective. The standard
feminine plural will be -es, as for nouns: the localised variants -a / -as (Romansh)
and -e / -is (Friulian) will be also allowed.
Of course, appropriate linguistic policy measures should be put in place to
facilitate the convergence of the various local forms to the above proposed ones.
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Claudi Meneghin
2.1
Miscellaneous examples
2.1.1
Granda
The Rhaeto-Cisalpine toponym Granda (meaning large feminine) is rather

vital: the following list of toponyms is a result of a query in the database
of the Tessiner state archive (Archivio dei nomi di luogo Archivio di stato
Repertorio toponomastico Ticinese). We first record municipalities, identified by
their numebr in VSI followed by their official names (in Italian). Local toponyms
follow (in Lombard, LSI fully accented broad-phonetic orthography):1
Table 1. Ticinese local toponyms containing granda.
10
12
15
22
Medeglia
S. Antonio
Camorino
Montecarasso
23
24
Carasso
Gorduno
25
26
32
33
Gnosca
Preonzo
Dar
Arbedo-Castione
34
40
41
Lumino
Glaro
Cresciano
42
45
Lodrino
Biasca
51
Malvaglia
62
68
Prugiasco
Torre
71
Aquila
bola grnda
val grnda
val grnda
stla grnda di gides, er
pcinca de cargagrnda, er
pastura grnda
mto grnda
vasca grnda
val grnda
via grnda
strada grnda, la
Cpela Grnda, la Capelna, la
Crus Magna, la Crus Grnda, la
Cava Grnda, la Cava dal Ambrosin, la
Scra Grnda, la
cpele grnda
Cava Grnda, la
Vigna Grnda, la
Slva Grnda, la
mnda grnda
Crs Grnda, ra
Pzza Grnda, ra
cassna da spnda grnda,ra
brsda grnda
r piscia grnda
cara grnda, la
boca dval grnda, la
bzz val grnda, i
val grnda, ra
pass val grnda, ul
valgia grnda
scra grnda
scra grnda
1 Ticinese toponyms, as recorded by the state archive, in the local variety of the Rhaeto-Cisalpine
language, ISO 639-3 Lmo (Lombard) (Stefano Vassere, p.c. 2008).
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Olivone
80
Pollegio
81
Personico
82
83
Bodio
Giornico
84
Sobrio
85
86
Cavagnag
Anzonico
90
Chironico
91
Chiggiogna
93
94
95
96
Rossura
Campello
Calpiogna
Faido
97
98
100
Mairengo
Osco
Dalpe
101
Prato Lev.
102
Quinto
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bola grnda, la
crss grnda
dcia grnda, ra
fura grnda
val grnda
val grnda
monda grnda, la
riva grnda, la
pastra grnda
val grnda
zta grnda
gana grnda
schra grnda
stla grnda
crusc grnda, la
gsgi grnda, la
rivi grnda, la
gsgi grnda
val grnda, la
val grnda
biezz grnda
funtna grnda
qua grnda, a l
lncia grnda
lita grnda
rivi grnda, la
cava grnda
strda grnda
val grnda
gra grnda
gra grnda
piazza grnda; (piazza grnda, la)
gsa grnda, la
val grnda, la
val grnda
val grnda
cpela grnda
lna grnda, la
ri det la lna grnda, u
sutro de la lna grnda
bola grnda, la
furnsa grnda, la
mota grnda
brsda grnda, la
bola grnda
lita grnda
lita grnda
43
44
Claudi Meneghin
110
Airolo
111
Bedretto
120
Fusio
121
Feccia
124
130
Menzonio
Cavergno
131
133
134
135
Bignasco
Linescio
Cerentino
Campo VMa.
140
143
Someo
Lodano
145
147
Moghegno
Gordevio
148
152
154
Avegno
Berzona
Russo
156
157
Vergeletto
Crana
158
170
173
Comologno
Brissago
Losone
180
181
Solduno
Locamo
dcia grnda, la
fpa grnda
pzza grnda
sera grnda
lita grnda, la
pzza grnda, la
lita grnda
corona grnda, la
zta grnda bssa
zta grnda alta
pizz da zta grnda, lu
corona grnda
schia grnda; (sca grnda)
mtt da schia grnda, el
zta grnda
zta grnda
valmla grnda
valgia grnda
corna grnda
corna grnda
sstan grnda
prta grnda
corna grnda
cpela grnda
sgrssa grnda
fada grnda
buchta grnda
cpela grnda
cpela grnda
fada grnda
mtt da lrta grnda, al
Sgrbia Grnda, la
Csta Grnda, la
Lta Grnda, la
pzza grnda
csta grnda, la
bssa grnda, la
sulva grnda, la
Campagna Grnda, la
Stt la Campagna Grnda
val grnda
Fmla Grnda, la
Srta Grnda, la - Serta, la
Curna Grnda, la
bola grnda, la
bola grnda
vlta grnda
tana grnda, la
piazza grnda
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204
215
216
221
Orselina
Gerra Verz.
Piazzogna
Vira Gamb.
Bironico
235
236
Breno
Miglieglia
241
Sessa
255
Curio
273
273a
275
280
284
289
293
333
Vezia
Savosa
Canobbio
Origlio
Cagiallo
Corticiasca
Colla
Arogno
352
Novazzano
360
363
372
Coldrerio
Mendrisio
Balerna
45
spnda grnda
Stla Grnda di Svampdri, er
vigna grnda, la
strada grnda
valgia grnda
zta grnda
cort de grnda
grnda, ra pinca
pinca grnda, ra
gsa grnda, ra
grnda, ra gsa
val grnda
piazza grnda
piazza grnda
slva grnda
Partida Grnda, la
strada grnda, ra
val grnda, ra
piazza grnda
val grnda, la
piazza grnda
piazza da la grnda
val grnda
pina grnda
crus grnda, la
crus grnda
Gsa Grnda, la
The following toponyms, containing the adjective granda (or its companion
gronda) are official:
(1)
Piazza Granda, Morcote; Piazza Granda, Sonvico; Strada Granda, Origlio

(Ticino, Switzerland); Plazza Gronda, Lavin; Plazza Gronda, Almens
(Grisons, Switzerland).
(2)
Piazza Granda, Cles (province of Trent, Italy); Strada Granda, Colico

(province of Lecco, Italy); Strada Granda, Nago-Torbole (province of
Trent, Italy);
(3)
Via Granda, Faver (province of Trent, Italy); Via Granda, Marano di

Valpolicella (province of Verona, Italy); Via Ca Granda, Milan.
We cite also: the Cisa Granda museum at Stampa (Bregaglia valley, GR

CH) and the Piedmontese idiomatic expression provincia granda (/pruvintS@
graNd@/), or simply la granda used to refer to Cuneo Province. This locution percolated in Italian, mostly with the orthographical pronunciation
/provintSa granda/ (thus via written language).
According to the web site Bulgnais and confirmed by Vitali (p.c.), the official
Italian Piazza Maggiore in Bologna is traditionally named piza granda (/pja:T@
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Claudi Meneghin
graNd@/) in Bolognese (ORS: plaa granda); Via XX Settembre in Conegliano

(province of Treviso, Italy) is traditionally known as Contrada Granda (see Khler
& Romor 2007), as well as Via Garibaldi in Monticelli dOngina (province of
Piacenza, Italy; see this municipalitys website: Monticelli DOngina, accessed
on 2008 August).
The feminine granda also appears within commercial names, often mixed
with Italian words: as a matter of fact, a google search for granda returned
30,700 results from Switzerland (Google 2008 Granda CH, accessed on 2008
July) and 437,000 from Italy (Google 2008 Granda IT, accessed on 2008 July).
The Romansh form gronda yielded 94,200 results from Switzerland (Google 2008
Gronda CH, accessed on 2008 July).
2.1.2
Feminine adjectives in mathematics
We propose some examples of standard mathematical idioms, featuring feminine declensed adjectives, for Rhaeto-Cisalpine: Latin suffix -alis can yield both
-ala (lesser used words) and -ela (high frequency words), matching French diachronic development. Of course, the final choice will be necessarily up to the
users of the language.
Table 2. Some mathematical idioms containing feminine adjectives.
Continuation maximala
Frontera naturela/naturala
Derivada partiala
Derivada covarianta
Geometria diferentiala
Convergena absoluda et conditionala
Analysa complexa
Seqena convergenta
Curva regulera
Transformation inversibla
Forma quadrtiga
La partida prinicipala del desenvilupament de Taylor arent una singularitat
essentiala islada
Maximal continuation
Natural boundary
Partial derivative
Covariant derivative
Differential geometry
Absolute and conditioned
convergence
Complex analysis
Convergent sequence
Regular curve
Invertible transformation
Quadratic form
The principal part of the Taylor
development near an isolated essential
singularity
The demonstrative pronoun/adjective
No particularly problematic issues are at stake about this item, so we confine ourselves in showing our proposed ORS orthographical standard, alongside with some local pronunciations and morphological features. We will also
shortly discuss the leveling dynamics of this kind of pronouns / adjectives. The
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diachronical development of the Padanian demonstrative pronoun has been

efficaciously described in Hull (1982, 490 ff.).
3.1
First and third person forms

Table 3. The Rhaeto-Cisalpine demonstratives.
First person
Type quest < *eccu iste
singular
plural
masc. fem.
masc.
fem.
Third person
Type quel < *eccu illu
singular
plural
masc. fem.
masc. fem.
quest
quel
questa
quistg
questg
quist
quests
questes
questas
quela
quiy
quilh
quels
queles
quelas
The orthographical groups que / qui will account for the various kind of
pronunciations attested in Padania, like /ke, ki/, /kwe, kwi/, /ku/, /kve, kvi/
and so forth (Hull 1982, 490); as usual, the group st will admit the pronunciations
/st/ or /St/ according to the corresponding Indoeuropean isogloss (see Schmid
1956, maps).
Consonant l in third person forms has been degeminated in the ORS forms
due to high-frequency character of these words.
The Occitano-Catalan demonstrative types aquest < *accu-iste and aquel <
*accu-ille are sometimes attested in the Rhaeto-Cisalpine domain: if, on the
one hand, the Old Piedmontese aquest and aquel, alternating with quest and quel
in the Subalpine Sermons, are doubtless Occitanisms, on the other hand the
forms aquaist, aquel [are] used in one Engadinish text of the early seventeenth
century alongside the more usual quaist, quel (Gartner 1883, 121 quoted in Hull
1982, 489); Hull (1982, 489) also accounts for aquest /akwest/ in the Bregaglia
Valley, not accounted instead by Giacometti (2003).
Locally, there exists the first person type est < iste too: according to Hull
(1982, 490), it persists in its integral form only in Western Liguria and adjacent
areas of Piedmont and Monferrat (Lig. estu, esti, esta, este; Monf. ist, isti, ista,
iste). Elsewhere this pronoun, generally restricted to the adjectival function,
was reshaped on the model of the definite article.
3.2
Second Person Forms
The type ess < ipse too is a Rhaeto-Cisalpine local type, persisting in the
Valsesia-Ossola zone, Piedmont, Monferrat and Western Liguria; its vernacular outcomes are: Valses. /is/ (/jes/) m. sg.pl., /isa/ (/jesa/) f.sg, /isi/
(/jesi/) f. pl., Monf. /is/ (/jis/) m. sg., /itS/, /its/ m. pl., /isa/
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Claudi Meneghin
(/jisa/) f. sg., /ise/ (/jise/) f. pl., VLig. (Pigna) /esu, -i, -a, -e/ (Hull
1982, 490).
This pronoun, like est, has often been assimilated to the definite article,
e.g. Pm. /@s mantel/ that mantle, /sa vaka/ that cow, /si prEive/
that priests, /se tOte/ those girls, Valses. /is paN/ that piece of bread,
/isa rova/ that wheel (Hull 1982, 490).
Also, su, si, sa, se have assumed first person functions in the modern vernacular of Ventimglia, e.g. /su strunku/ this twig, /sa stansja/ this
room (Azaretti 1977, 174, quoted in Hull (1982, 490)).
3.3
Neuter Forms
We recommend the generalised adoption of the neuter pronouns /n < *ecce

hoc and l/ln < illu hoc still widespread in Liguria and Piedmont (here sn
/sON/ and ln /lON/), preserving the semantic distinction between (1st person) and l (3rd person), e.g. Piedmontese: i veuj sn e pa ln (classical Piedmontese orthography), /iv2jsON epa lOn/ I vuelh (n) et pas l(n) (ORS
orthography), I want this and not that, Fr. Je veux ceci et non pas cela.
3.4
Leveling of demonstrative pronouns/adjectives
According to Wartburg (1950, 100 ff.) the Teutonic superstratum led to the
elimination of the second person demonstratives; also Hull (1982, 493):
The South German substitution of a common demonstrative form (d in
Swiss German) for the traditional first and third person pronouns dieser
and jener is reflected in the general replacement of quest by quel in the
vernacular of the Vorderrhein Valley and the recently extinct Ladin dialect of
Samnauntal, e.g. Surs(ilvan) [/kwela kaza/] this house ([/kweSta kaza/]
in the literary language), compare the substitution of cest for cel in Late Old
French .
A similar leveling of demonstratives is taking place in the Cisalpine domain, raising the need for the qualified nouns to be suffixed with adverbs of
place compensating the loss of information: quela cadrega-quil this chair, quela
cadrega-l that chair, compare Fr. cette chaise-ci and cette chaise-l. This point of
view is shared by Hull (1982, 493): adverbs of place, suffixed to the pronoun or
placed after qualified nouns, are regularly used to compensate for the loss of the
three demonstrative degrees; many examples are offered (quoted verbatim):
Vent. sta karega ki this chair, stu ki this one (compare Fr. celui-ci), stu
li that one, sta dOna la that woman (compare Fr. cette femme-l); Lom.
kwest kurtEl ki this knife (compare Fr. ce couteau-ci), kwi: pjat-li
those dishes, kwela tOla la that table (compare Fr. cette table-l), Sernis
kwesta ki miga kwela-li choose this one and not that one; cf. Surs.
kwel-keu e tSel-leu this and that (compare Fr. celui-ci et celui-l); Fri.
kest frut ka e kel la this child and that one.
c Romania Minor

49
See also Nicoli (1983, 174 ff.) accounting for this leveling in contemporary
Milanese.
The possessive pronoun/adjective
The structure of the Proto-Padanian possessive pronoun/adjective has been

reconstructed by Hull (1982, 495 ff.). As to 1st , 2nd and 3rd person adjective
pronouns, their declensional pattern was:
Table 4. The Rhaeto-Cisalpine demonstratives.
Nom. sg.
Obl. sg.
Nom. pl.
Obl. pl.
Nom. sg.
Obl. sg.
Nom. sg.
Obl. sg.
Nom. pl.
Obl. pl.
Nom. sg.
Obl. sg.
Masculine
meus > ms
meus > mieu
mei
> miei
meos > ms
tous
> ts
tou
> tuou
toi
> tuoi
toos
> ts
sous
> ss
sou
> suou
soi
> suoi
soos
> ss
mea
Feminine
> me(i)a
meas
>
me(i)as
tua
>
toa
tuas
>
toas
sua
>
soa
suas
>
soa
(me(i)es)
(tes)
whereas the Padanian forms of nostru and *vostru (C.L. vestru) fit into the
normal adjectival patterns and for the sixth person possessive the medieval
dialects could use either the traditional suou [...] or the invariable genitive-dative
pronoun lor (Hull 1982, 497498).
Today, a ususal amount of linguistic variation notwithstanding, the structure
of this part of the speech is essentially unitary and the above pattern mostly
preserved.
In the following table we display some local contemporary forms:
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Claudi Meneghin
Table 5. Possessive adjectives/pronouns in Padania.

ROH
(1)
LLD
(2a)
LLD
(2b)
E-LMO
(3)
W-LMO
(4)
1st m
1st f
2nd m
2nd f
3rd m
3rd f
4th m
mes
mia/mias
tes
tia/tias
ses
sia/sias
noss
mi
mia/mies
ti
tia/ties
si
sia/sies
nost
mie/miei
mia/mies
tie/tiei
tia/ ties
sies/siei
sia/ sies
nost/nosc
m
mia/m
t
tua/ t
s
sua/ s
nst
4th f
nossa/
nossas
voss
nosta/
nostes
vost
nosta/
nostes
vost/ vosc
vossa/
vossas
lur
lur
vosta/
vostes
si
sia/sies
vosta/
vostes
sie/siei
sia/ sies
m
ma/me
t
t
s
s
nst/
ns-cc
nsta/
nste
vst/
vs-cc
vsta/
vste
s
s
PMS
(5)
LIJ
(6)
EML
(7)
VEC
(8)
FUR
(9)
m
mia/mie
t
toa/toe
s
soa/soe
nstr/
nstri
nstra/
nstre
vstr/
vstri
vstra/
vstre
s
soa/soe
m
m
t
t
s
s
nstro/
nstri
nstra/
nstre
vstro/
vstri
vstra/
vstre
s
s
m
m
t/t
t/tu
s/s
s/su
nster/
nster
nstra/
nstri
vster/
vster
vstra/
vstri
s/s
s/su
m
m
t
t
s
s
nostro/
nostri
nostra/
nostre
vostro/
vostri
vostra/
vostre
s
s
gno/miei
m/ms
to/tiei
t/ts
so/ siei
s/ss
nestri/
nestris
nestre/
nestris
vuestri/
vustris
vuestre/
vuestris
lr
lr
5th m
5th f
6th m
6th f
1st m
1st f
2nd m
2nd f
3rd m
3rd f
4th m
4th f
5th m
5th f
6th m
6th f
nsta/nst
vst
vsta/vst
s
s
m = masculine; f = feminine; in each column plural forms follow the singular ones
unless the two forms coincide; in western Lombard, plural feminine forms may be
used for the singular ones too. Language ISO 639-3 code.
2 (1)
Rumantsch Grischun, Rumantsch orthography (Caduff, Caprez & Darms 2006, 82); (2a)
attr. adjetives and (2b) pronouns and pred. adjectives, Ladin Dolomitan, Ladin Dolomitan orthography (Valentini 2001, 49); (3) Bergamasque dialect, Dcat orthography (Zanetti 2004, 53 ff.); (4)
Mendrisiot dialect, LSI orthography (Lur 1987, 142); (5) Turinese dialect, classical Piedmontese
orthography (Brero 1967, 4647); (6) Genoese dialect, classical Ligurian orthography (Toso 1997,
c Romania Minor

51
As an overall comment, we note the usual Rhaeto-Cisalpine distribution of

plural forms (mainly feminine in-es and masculine in -i, sometimes in metaphonetic conditions). These local forms do not prevent mutual intelligibility,
so they could be fully retained in global usage according to the principle of
the respect of linguistic variation (compare Linell 2005, 11.1). Since there are
no apparent most conservative forms, two series of leveled common forms,
using ORS orthography could be envisaged instead. This would follow the
principles of Rumantsch Grischun (cf. Stich 2007, 136: le Romanche Grison est,
dun certain point de vue, une forme plus volue que lensemble des varits
dont il est issu):
Table 6. Common forms for possessive adjectives/pronouns.
Masculine
st
1
2nd
3rd
m/mes
t/tes
s/ses
Feminine
m/mes
t/tes
s/ses
th
4
5th
6th
Masculine
Feminine
nost/nostg (nosts)
vost/vostg (vosts)
s/ses
nosta/nostes
vosta/vostes
s/ses
Plural forms follow singular ones.
We will not discuss here the various possible combinations of articles and
possessives: this will be carried out in the part of this article dealing with syntax.
Relative and interrogative pronouns/adjectives
5.1
Outcomes of qui, quis
According to Hulls (1982, 502) reconstruction, the Proto-Padanian declension

of this pronoun was:
Table 7.
Nom. m.f.
Acc. m.f.
Nom. Acc. neuter
Gen. Dat.
qui
quem
quid
cui
>
>
>
>
Tonic (Interrogative)
qu
qin
qe(i), que(i)
cui
Atonic (Relative)
qu
que
cui
In the above scheme we have used ORS orthography.

99); (7) Bolognese dialect, Vitali-Lepris orthography (Vitali 2005, 58); (8) supradialectal Venetan,
Brunellis orthography (Brunelli 2005, 5); (9) standard Friulian, standard orthography (Zof 2008,
67).
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Claudi Meneghin
While Monferrat, Norther Piedmont and Valsesia retained the Latin group
/kw/ in the form /kwe/ and Sursilvan in the form /kwin/ (<quem?), the types qu
(/ki/ < qu) and que (/ke/ < quid) are mostly widespread in Padania alongside
whith their palatalised counterparts tgi /tSi/ and tge /tSe/, typical of the
Alpine domains (tgi de nous? /tSi da nu:s/ who of us?, Sursilvan).
Also widespread in western Padania are compound expressions like quecsa, simplified to csa, then sometimes crossed with es < est and simplified
further to give the interrogative particle se: se veu-tu que a faga? /sev2t ka
faga/ what do you want me to do? (western Lombard). Que-rba /kerOba/
and que-laour /kelau:r/ may also be found, the former being typical of eastern
Piedmontese / western Lombard and the latter of the Bressan dialect.
According to Hull (1982, 504), the ancient distinction between the nominative
relative pronoun qui and its accusative counterpart que has been lost today, with
the exception of Engadine dialects (see also Ganzoni 1983a, 71; 1983b, 70); this
feature has not been retained in Rumantsch Grischun (Caduff, Caprez & Darms
2006, 29).
5.2
Outcomes of qualis
The interrogatives que or tge can be replaced, following the French pattern,
by qual/qel: in qela tgesa stest-tu? (/in kwela tSeza SteSt ty/ in which
house do you live?, upper Engadinian; qual leit? /kwal letS/ which bed?,
Lombard; quales carriegues /kwale karjege/ which chairs?, Venetan, Hull
(1982, 507)).
Also, the relative qual can be preceded by the definite article to replace a
relative pronoun if semantic details are needed: this constructions fully parallels
the French or the Italian ones.
Indefinite pronouns/adjectives
No particularly problematic issues are at stake concerning this item, so we

confine in drawing a table with vernacular forms and proposed common ones,
indexed on an English basis (source: Hull 1982, 510518):
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53
Table 8. Indefinite adjectives/pronouns.

English
Source
a little
paucus
Ors RhaetoCisalpine
type (ORS)
pauc/pauque
all
*tottu
tot
all
*tottu
tut/dut
any
Padanian
internal
construction
qu-se-seia /
qu-que-seia /
etc.
any
Padanian
internal
construction
Padanian
internal
construction
que-se-seia
certain
certus
crt
every
omnis
onyi / onhi /
onya / onha
every
Provenal
chasque
omniunquam
chaque
any
everyone
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qual-se-seia
onyonca /
onhonca /
omionca /
minca
Vernacular types and examples

(Sampa, except ancient scripta, in
original form)
Sursilvan pauk (pauks, pauka, -s),
UEng. poc (-s, -a, -as), LEng. pak (-s, -a,
-as); Lom. pOk, Pm. pOk (m. pl. pOki),
Lig. pOku (<pouku), Rom. poak (m. pl.
puk); Ven. pOko, Anaun. p2c, Gard.
puek (puetS, puetSa, -es), Bad. pyk
(pytS, pytSa, -es); Fri. po:k (-s, -a/e,
-is), Istr. puoko.
Rhen. tut, -s, -a, -as; Eng. tuot, -s, -a,
-as.
Lig. tytu, Pm.WEm.Wlom. tyt,
ELom. t2t, EEm.Plav. tut, Rom. tot,
Ven. tuto Dol. dut, dyt, Cad. duto,
Fri. dut, Triest. duto, Istr. douto.
Lom. Trent. Ven. kisesia, Pm.
kisisia, ks@sia, Eng. ci ci saja,
Nov. kikasia, Gard. ki ke sibe,
Rom. kikasEja, Fri. kui kal sEi,
Lig. ki ke se sedZe.
Eng. ce ci saja, Lom. kesesia, Fri.
tSe kal sEi.
Pm.
kwals@sia sydEnt,
Lom.
kwalsesia prublema,
Ven.
kwalsesia serva, Venetian
kwalsesia.
SVen.
na serta kOsa, serti
maistri. Friulan una tal fEmine,
un tal Omp,
una rissorsa tala,
+(ed)un Istr.
sertidouN (pl.
sertidouni
certuni),
Rom.
tsarton,
Eng.
tSertyns
(tSertadyns) diZan.
OLom. ogno ben, ogno tenor, ogna le, omnia cossa; OVen. ogno corno, ogna femena;
OVer. ogna tempo, ogna mal, ogna cortesia (Giacomino), OFri. ogna anno, ogna
domenica (Statuti di Cividale); OMil. onna
gran, ognia bono, ugni fructo (Barsegape);
OGen. ogni greco.
WLig. tSake.
OLom.
omiunca, ognunca, modern Rhaetian minca and Piedmontese
minka, cf. Eng. minca di, Pm. minka
di.
54
Claudi Meneghin
everyone
*omniuncana
onyoncana/
onhoncana
everyone
Old French
chascun and
Old Occitan
cadaun
chascun/
cadaun
many
*ego non
sapio quanti,
-os
enaquantg/
enaquants
many
milliariu
milyer/bler
much
multu
molt
much,
many
tantu
tant
much,
many
*troppu
truop / truep /
trp
nobody/
no
*nec-unus
negun
nobody/
no
*ne-ipsi-unus
neixun
OGen. ognunchana fornimento, OVer.

dognuncana gramea. +(ed)un: Pm.Lom.
uJidyN, Lig. uJyN, Em. oJid2(i)N,
oJid2uN, Rom.
iJon, Ven.
oJi(d)uN, Gard. uJoN, Bad. viJyN,
Fri. oJiduN; Rhen. minciN, Eng.
mincyn, (Pm. miNka yn). +homo
OVen. ognom, OMil. omihomo, OGen.
Ognomo.
OLom. ascun, zascaun, ascaun, chascun; OVer. cascun, cascaun; OBol. zascuno, cascuno, zaschauno, OPm. zaschaun; OFri.
zaschaduno, Piedmontese tSaskyN, tSaskedyN, Ligurian
tSaskyN, Friulan kadauN.
Surs. entsakOns, entsakOntas; Eng.
varsakwants, -as (x. diversos), Em.
insokwant, emsokwant (-i, f. pl.),
Ven. rekwanti, -e (x. ?aliquanti), Fri.
nasikwaJ, nasikwantS;
Rhen. bia (biars, biara, -s), UEng.
bJ\er (-s, -a, -as), LEng. bler (-s, -a,
-as);
OLom. molt, OVen. molto, OGen. monto,
OPm. mult, Em-Rom. dimondi, Pm.
mutubin @d; un molt de (Fri. unmOnt di
formadi, unmOnte di paste, unmOntS
di lo:r, unmOntis di fEminis); una
uovra de (Fri. une vOre di rOba).
Lig. tantu viN, tanta Egua, tanti
drapi; Lom. tant amu:r, tantS
ami:s, tanta bira; Ven. tanto
paN, tanti ani, tante tOle.
Gard. truep (-(e)s, -a, -es), Bad. tr2p
(m. pl. tr2c, f. tr2pa, -es), Fod. trOp
(m. pl. trOp, trOpa, -e), Fri. trOp (trOs,
trOpe/trOpa, trOpis).
Surs. neJN, Surm. Eng. inJn, ynJn,
UValt. neguN, niguN, JuguN, JiguN,
Lom. negyN, nigyN, OPm. neun,
Pm. niyN, OBol. negono, OVen. negun, Dol. degyN (with dissimilation of
the initial n-), Mar. dangyJ, Fri. niuN,
Istr. iJiouN, niNgouN.
OLom. OVen. nesun, nexun, WLom.
nesyN, nisyN), VBlen.
ontsyJ,
ELom. nisy, nis2, Lig. niSyN, Em.
(a)ns2N, Lun. nsyN, OBol. nesono, Bol.
intSON, Rom. anso, Pol. JisuN, Ven.
Trent. nesuN, nisuN, Anaun. ansyN,
Fri. nisuN, JisuN.
c Romania Minor

nothing
*nullia
(res)
nulya/nulha
nothing
*ne gutta (lit.

not a drop)
negota
one
homo
om
one
unus
uns
other
alter /
altera /
alteri /
alteros /
alteras
aultre /
ailtre /
aultres /
aultra /
aultras /
aultres
same
*metipsimu
medem
same
*ist-ipsu
estess
so great
tam magnus
tamany
so much /
so many
tantu
tant
some
qualis + *que
(cf. Fr. quelque,
Occ. qualque,
It. qualche)
qualque
some
*alicunus
(aliquis +
unus)
alcun
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55
OVen. nuja, Eng. nyL\a, n2L\a, Posch.

nyL\a, Dol. Plav. nia, Fri. nuja, nuje,
nue, nije, nie; to the Gallo-Roman
negota correspond the OLom. negota,
OPm. neota, Surs. nuot, Eng. iNgwota,
yNgwota, Valt. nigOt, Tic. nagut,
nigut,
NWLom.
nota, nuta, not, Mil.
nagOt(a), Em. nguta, Bol. Rom.
ngOta, ELom.
angot, Anaun.
engota.
OLom. q maior de negun como vedhes ancor (Uguon, 18), qe vol ben com ie nsegne
(Pateg, 38); OPm. aquela gent que hom
apelava Philistiim (Sermons, XVI): OGen.
mester como li caze; OVen. como po omo
credere. Berg. am kanta, cf. pop. Fr. on
chante = nous chantons.
Rhen. ins di, ins plidava romOntS
a Kwera; Engadinish yn, cf. yn pO.
Surs. auter (auters, autra, -s), Eng.
Oter (Oters, Otra, -s), Valt. Oltru
(Oltri, Oltra, Oltri), Berg. Oter
(Oter, Otra, Otre), Fra. auter
(autri, autra, -e), Lig. atru, i, -a, -e; Rom. Etar (etar, Etra,
-i); Ven. altro, -i, -a, -e; Gard.
auter (autri, autra, -es); Fri. altri
(altris, altre/altra, altris).
OLom.
OVen.
med(h)esemo, OPm.
meesme, meisme, Pm.
midem (also
medezim, cf. Lig. meiZimu), Lom. Em.
medEm, Rhet. medem, Ven. medemo,
Dol. medem(o), Istr. madimo.
Pm. listesa stOria (for la midema
stOria), jistesi dutur; RoM. e
stEs kr, al stEsi pigvar; Fri.
listEs pi:t, lis istEsis cazis,
Engadinish
(liStes),
Cisalpine
(linstEs, listEs, listeso, etc.).
OGen. OLom. tamagno, Bol. tamOJ,
Fri. tamaJ, tomaJ, Carn. tavaJ; tale
(Pirona).
Pm.
taNte peNe, Surs.
tOn
pauN, tOntas gadas, Fri. tant timp,
tantis lagrimis e tantS dolors.
Fri. kwalki, Istr. k(w)alko, Ven.
kwalke, Em-Rom.
kvElk, Lun.
k(w)ark, Lom. kwai, kwei, kwak,
Eng. kwalce, Pm. kwaik, kwEik,
kEik, Gen. kwarke, WLig. kaike;
bon, ben + quagl = many Valtellinese
bonakwai, benkwai.
OLom. alcun, OGen. alcum, Rhen.
anciN, Eng. alcyN (m. pl. alcyns).
56
Claudi Meneghin
some
*alicunu
algun
some
talis
tal
some/
someone
aliquid
alc/alg
someone/
something
qual
quaydun/
quaycs
someone
*ego non
sapio qui
vera gutta
enaqu,
enatg
vergota
(cf. negota)
something
*ego non sapio quid
enaquei,
enatg
too much
*troppu
trp
something
OLom. algun, OBol. OVen. algun(o) and

Dol. valguN.
Surs.
in tal kudiS, ina tala
lavur, talas tSontSas; SVen. un
talo birbante,
na tala toza,
tai pensieri, tale parsone.
LEng. myst. Alc, Gard. vElk, Bad.
valk, Cad. algo, Fri. alk, OLom alget,
Engadinish alcet.
qual, quagl + un someone UValt.
kwaluN, kwajuN, Lom.
kwaidyN,
Pm. kwaidyN, kwaikadyN, kwaikyN,
Gen. kwarkedyN, Vent. kaikyN, Rom.
valkadon, Ven.Trent. kwalke(d)uN,
Fod.
kelkeuN, Plav.
kalkeuni,
Fri.
kwalkiduN, Istr.
kwalkouN,
kwalkudouN; + cOsa Eng. ynkwalcosa,
Lom.
kwaikOs(a), kweikOs(a), Pm.
kwaikOz(a), keikOz(a), Lig. kwarkOza,
kaikOza, WEm. kwaikOza, kwarkOza,
EEm. kval(k)kOza, Rom. kvalkoza, Pol.
kolkOsa, Ven. Trent. kwalkOsa, Lun.
kwarkO. Istrian kalko, west Lombard un
kwaikOs and na kwai rOba.
Rhen. entsaci.
OLom. vergota, WLom. vergut(a),
vargOt, ELom.
ergot(a), argot,
Trent. vergota qualcosa; vergyN
(ergy) by analogy of vergota.
Rhen. entsacei, Istrian noske, noske,
Gardenese tseke and Badiot cetse,
citse (cf. Fr. je ne sais quoi) un soke,
Valses. un sokwE (cf. Fr. un truc, un
machin).
Lom. trOp Odi, trOpa payra.
Finally, even if, according to Hull (1982, 550), the declinable nul did not
outlive the Old Padanian period (OPm. OLom. nul, OBol. nulo) [nonetheless],
a variant, nugl, derived from a Vulgar Latin *nullius,
was represented in the
Middle Ages by the declinable OLom. and OVen. nui (f. nuja) and the Old
Piedmontese nuil (f. nuilla) and continues in modern times as the invariable
Sutsilvan nui as an alternative form for negun/neixun.
In the context of language planning, the declinable form, still being alive in
Romansh and of course in French (nul/nulle), can be extended to the whole
Rhaeto-Cisalpine domain, yielding the natural forms nulnulh (sing.masc.)
nulyanulha (sing. fem.) nulsnulh (pl.masc.) and nulyesnulhes (pl. fem.).
c Romania Minor

57
The numerals
7.1
Cardinal numerals
Before discussing and proposing standard Rhaeto-Cisalpine solutions for cardinal numerals, we gather into the Table 9 a bit of vernacular forms we have
been able to find.3 (We have consulted also AIS tables 284 to 305, which cannot
be reproduced here.) The Table 9 information should be supplemented by that
in Hull (1982, 519525), which we record too in the Table 10.
Also, very interesting are the following Rhaeto-Romance forms for fifteen
recorded in Clifford (1964, 24):
(4)
Gradisca: /kwindis/, Colloredo: /kwindis/, Pesariis: /kwindiS/,

Livinallongo: /kindeS/, Moena: /kindeS/, Gardena: /kind@S/, San
Vigilio: /kineS/, Scuol: /kwindS/, Cunter: /kendS/, Trun: /kwendiS/,
Proto Rhaeto-Romance (reconstructed): /kwindS/.
The following criteria can thus be set up to construct Rhaeto-Cisalpine standard forms:
1. as usual, all final vocalism other than -a is discarded, but a neutral final -e
is used whenever possible, as in Part II (see Meneghin 2008, 2.1.2);
2. 1, 2 and 3 admit different feminine and masculine forms; the masculine
forms of 2 and 3 are constructed with the desinence -i (see Hull 1982,
519520), the feminine ones with -es, see Part I (Meneghin 2007, 3.1);
3. all compounds of 7 retain the etymological p as in French;
4. all compounds of 8 (resp. 9) admit both eu/ue and oi/ (resp. eu/ue and )
as thematic vowel in tonic position;
5. both a short pattern (Ligurian and western Piedmontese, partially matching the Occitan, Catalan and French ones) and a long one (mimicking
the rest of the Rhaeto-Cisalpine domain) for the cardinals from 11 to 16
are envisaged; the Rhaeto-Cisalpine grapheme x is kept whenever possible in compound forms of 10, because of the motivations alleged in Part
I (Meneghin 2007, 3.6) and of the fact that the syllable -dex in atonic
position can be interpreted as /d/ + mute e + /Z/, thus accounting for the
current Emilian-Romagnol pronunciations /d-Z/ and /dZ/.
Of course, the final choice among the proposed forms will be up to the
writers/speakers. The above criteria yield the proposed forms in Table 11.
3 Masculine and feminine forms are separated by a comma, whereas alternative ones by a slash.
(1) Rumantsch Grischun, Rumantsch orthography (Caduff, Caprez & Darms 2006, 100); (1a) Rumantsch Sursilvan, Sursilvan orthography (Spescha 1989); (2) Ladin, Ladin Dolomitan orthography
(Valentini 2001, 57); (3) Lower Bressan, phonetic transcription (Sanga 1979, 330); (4) Mendrisiot, LSI
orthography (Lur 1987, 151152); (5) Alessandrine, classical Piedmontese orthography (Garuss
2003, 2nd ch.); (6) Genoese, classical Ligurian orthography (Toso 1997, 8283); (7) Bolognese, VitaliLepris orthography (Vitali & Lepri 2000, 58); (8) supradialectal Venetan, Brunellis orthography
(Brunelli 2005, 33); (9) Friulian, standard orthography (OLF 2002a, 1314).
Ianua 9 (2009)
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Claudi Meneghin
58
4 quatter
3 trais
2 dus, duas
0 nulla
1 in, ina
tschun
quater
dus,
duas, dua
treis, trei
nul, nulla
in,ina
ROH
(1a)
sies
cinch
cater
trei
doi, does
nul/zero
un, una
LLD
(2)
ddes
st
t
nf
ds
ndes
ss
sich
quter
tr, tr
du, d
gi, gina
E-LMO
(3)
stt
vtt
nf
ds
vndas
ss
quatar/
quatru
cinch
trii, tr
v(g)n,
vna
d, d
W-LMO
(4)
ddes
set
t
nv
des
ndes
quter,
quat(r)
sinch,
singh
ses
di,
doi>do
trj
jn, jn-na
PMS
(5)
dozze
sette
eutto
neuve
dexe
unze
sei
inque
quattro
do, doe,
doa
trei, tr
un, unn-a
LIJ
(6)
dgg
st
t
nv
ds
ng
znc(v)
quter
tr
EML
(7)
ddexe
sie (pron.
se/si)
sete
oto
nve
dixe
ndexe
zsinque
un(o),
una
d (du/
doi), d
tre (tri),
tre
quatro
VEC
(8)
dodis
siet
vot
nf
ds
undis
cinc
cuatri
FUR
(9)
Table 9. Vernacular forms form cardinal numerals.
5 tschintg
sis
dodesc
set
ot
nuef
diesc
undesc
ROH
(1)
6 sis
dudisch
siat
otg
nov
diesch
endish
catordesc
chindesc
seidesc
dejesset
tredesc
quatrdes
qundes
sdes
didist
trdes
quatrdas
quindas
sdas
derztt
quatrdes
qundes
sdes
disset
trdes
quattrze
chinze
sezze
dsete
trezze
quatrg
qung
sagg
darst
tragg
quatrdexe
qundexe
sdexe
di(xi)sete
trdexe
cutuardis
cuindis
sedis
disesiet
tredis
ss
tr
doi, ds
un, une
7
8
9
10
11
set
otg
nov
diesch
indesch
12 dudesch
ddas/
ddas
trdas
tredisch
quattordesch quitordisch
quindesch quendisch
sedesch
sediusch
deschset
gissiat
13 tredesch
14
15
16
17
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ventgatschun
ventgasis
ventgasiat
ventgotg
ventganov
trenta
trentin
trentadus
25
26
27
28
29
30 trenta
31
32
80 otganta
38
40
50
60
70
otgonta
curonta
tschunconta
sissonta
siatonta
ventgaquater vintecater
24
quaranta
tschuncanta
sessanta
settanta
ventgatreis
23
33
vegn
ventgin
ventgadus
20 ventg
21 ventgin
22 ventgadus
otanta
trentot
caranta
cincanta
sessanta
setanta
trentun
trentedoi
trentedoes
trentetrei
vintecinch
vintesies
vinteset
vintot
vintenuef
trenta
vint
vintun
vintedoi
vintedoes
vintetrei
dejenuef
scheniv
19 deschnov
dejedot
(2)
LLD
schotg
(1a)
(1)
18 deschdotg
ROH
ROH
otant
quarant
sinquant
sessant
setant
vintinf
trnta
vintitr
vint
vint
vintid
desnf
desdt
(3)
E-LMO
vutanta
quaranta
cinquanta
sessanta
setanta
vinttt
vintinf
trnta
vint
vint(g)n
vintid,
vintid
vintitrii,
vintitr
desdtt/
disdtt
desnf/ disnf
(4)
W-LMO
PMS
otnta
quarnta
sinqunta
sessnta
setnta
ventessingh
ventesses
ventesset
ventt
ventenv
trnta
ventequter
ventetrj
vent
ventn
ventedi
disnv
disdt
(5)
tanta
quaranta
inquanta
sciuscianta
settanta
trentun
trentetrei
trenta
vintitrei
vinti
vintun
vintidoi
dixineuve
dixeutto
(6)
LIJ
utanta
quaranta
zincuanta
ssanta
stanta
trntn
trntad
ventznc
vents
ventst
ventit
ventnv
trnta
ventquter
ventetr
vnt
ventin
vented
dsnv
dsdt
(7)
EML
otanta
quaranta
zsinquanta
sesanta
setanta
trenta
vinti
vinti-un
disnve
disdoto
(8)
VEC
otante
cuarante
cincuante
sessante
setante
trentetr
trenteun
trentedoi
vincjecinc
vincjess
vincjesiet
vincjevot
vincjenf
trente
vincjecuatri
vincj
vincjeun
vincjedoi,
vincjeds
vincjetr
disenf
disevot
(9)
FUR

59
Claudi Meneghin
60
90
novanta
ROH
(1)
navonta
ROH
(1a)
cent
nonanta
LLD
(2)
snt
noant
E-LMO
(3)
cnt
nu(v)anta
W-LMO
(4)
sent e jn
sent
novnta
PMS
(5)
entoun
ento
novanta
LIJ
(6)
znt e n
znt
nuvanta
EML
(7)
zsento
novanta
VEC
(8)
nonante/
novante
cent
FUR
(9)
cent e un
tschien
zntds
cent e ds
cent e
vincjedoi
dusinte
tresinte
sengi
send
sent e des
doxento
trexento
cenv(g)n
cend,
cend
centrii, centr
cenvtt
dusnt
tarsant
dosent
trzent
duxento
trexento
dsent
tresnt
cuatricent
dusent
tresnt
100 tschient
doicent
treicent
quatroxento
quatsent
quaterznt
quatarsnt
inqueento
quattroento
quatersnt
sinchsent
cinccent
cincnt
zencznt
sichsnt
zsinquezsento
siezsento
sietcent
votcent
nfcent
mil
mil e un
mil e doi
sscent
siznt
sessent
setezsento
otozsento
novezsento
mile
mille
mll e znt
setznt
otznt
novznt
mll
ses-cnt
tschienedin
tschienedus
duatschien
treitschien
siescent
mile
mila
mila e gi
setsent
t-sent
nv-sent
mila
101 tschientedin
102
duatschient
traiatschient,
traitschient
quattertschient
tschintgtschient
melli
miledoi
sett-cent
vott-cnt
nfcent
mila
mila v(g)n
centeun
centedoi
centedoes
centetrei
103
108
110
122
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000 milli
1001
1002
1100
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trai(a)milli
dieschmilli
3000
4000
10000
100000
(un) n
miliard
un miliun
cenmila
dmila,
domila
trimila,
tremila
W-LMO
(4)
in miliard
novsentmila
in milin
sentmila
quatmila
trj-mila
di-mila
PMS
(5)
un miglin
du mlla
EML
(7)
un miglird
ina
milliarda
un mili
E-LMO
(3)
1000000000
(un) n
milion
LLD
(2)
d miglin
in milliun
dieschmelli
tschienmelli
duamelli
ROH
(1a)
2000000
10000000
200000
900000
1000000
duamilli
2000
ROH
(1)
dixe
miliuni
un milion
dixe mila
zsento mila
VEC
(8)
un miliart
un milion
dusinte mil
cent mil
tr mil
doi mil
FUR
(9)

61
62
Claudi Meneghin
Table 10. Vernacular forms of cardinal numerals recorded by G. Hull.

1
4
5
7
8
9
10
Surs. WLig. iN, ina; Sut. Surm. eJ, eJa; Eng. Lom. Trent. yN, yna; Pm.
Lig. yN, yna; WEm. 2N, 2Na; EEm. Rom. o, ona; Plav. Dol. WFri. uN,
una; Bad. uN, yna; EFri. uN, une; Istr. OuN, Ouna; West Lombard vyN,
East Lombard jy, j2, dZy, Monferrine jyN, jiN; Siculo-Padanian ju.
Mst. duOi, UValt. d2i, Oss. NTic. dyi, doi, dui, NPm. dyi, Pm. Lig.
dui, Gen. duI, WLom. dy, ELom. du, Em. du, dy, Rom. du, dO, VBreg.
Posch. Trent. Plav. Dol. doi, Bad. Istr. dui, Ven. do, Fri. dOi, Sic-Pad.
duoi, doi, dui; Surs. Sut. dus, Surm. Eng. duos; Rhet. duas, UValt.
doa; Lig. Pm. due, Em-Rom. Lom. do, dO, Gard. doves, Bad. dyes, dys,
Fri. dos.
Surs. treis, trais, trOis, Surm. tre:s, treks, Eng. trais; Surs.
trei(a) pEra < tria paria, trei(a) deta < tria digita; Eng. traia
pera, traia dainta three fingers, trea via thrice (Barsegape, 1233);
WLig. trei lyvi three wolves tre r2ze three roses; Nov. tri
Oman three men, tri sulda three soldiers trE dOni three women,
trE dZurnai three days; Pm. trE(i), Velses. Oss. NTic. trei, trai,
trOi, WLom. tri, ELom. tre, Pol. Ver. Rom. Istr. tri, Trent. Plav. Dol.
trei, Carn. trei, trio, tria, SFri. tre.
Rhet. kwat@r, Valt. kwatro, kwatru, Lom. Trent. kwater, Pm. kwat(r),
Em-Rom. kvatar, Lig. kwatru, WLig. katru, SRom. kwatre, Ven. Istr.
kwatro, Plav. kwatro, kwatre, Dol. kat@r, Fri. kwatri.
Cf. Surs. tSun, Sut. tSeun(k), Surm. tSenc, Eng. tSinc, WLom. tSiNk,
SiNk, Pm. siNk, ELom. siNk, sik, hi(N)k, Trent siNk, Pol. tSiNk, Plav. TiNk,
NFri. tSiNk, SFri. siNk; Istr. seiNkwe, tsiNkve, Ven. siNkwe, Comel.
TiNki, TiNke, Mil.UValt. tSiNkw, VColla: tSiNkwe, Em-Rom. seiNko,
seiNkav, sekv, Lig. siNkwe, WLig. siNke.
Surs.Sut. sis, Surm. seis, seks, Eng. ses, UValt. seiS, Pm. WLom. Em.
ses, ELom. ses, heh, Rom. si@, Lig. sei, Ven. sie, sie, Trent. sei,
Fass. siei, Gard. sies, Bad. sis, Liv. siei, siek, Fri. si:s, seis,
SFrat. siei, Istr. se(j)e.
sEt, cf. Surs. siat, Surm. Lom. Pm. Em. Trent. Dol. sEt, ELom. hEt,
Rom. sEat, Lig. Ven. sEte, Istr. siete.
VBreg. Liv. 2c, Pm. 2t, Lig. 2tu, Fri. vOt, SFrat. wot; Rhen. Oc, Eng. Ot,
WLom. OtS, ELom. Em-Rom. Trent. Dol. Ot, Ven. Oto, Istr. (v)uoto.
Rhen. nOf, nOkf, Eng. nOkf, nouf, Oss. nOf, nOw, Rom. nOaf, Lom. Tic.
Trent. n2f, Pm. n2v, n2w, Lig. n2ve, Em. n2v, nov, SFrat. nuov, Gard.
nuef, Bad. ny, Fass. nef, Fod. nuof, Plav. nof, Ven. nove, Comel.
nuEvi, WFri. nouf, EFri. nu:f, Istr. JOve, Juove.
Rhen. dieS, Eng. de:S, UValt. deiS, Lom. Em. Pm. des, Rom. diZ, Lig.
deZe, Ven. dieze, dieze, Anaun. dies, des, Dol. dieS, WFri. deiS,
EFri. di:S, Istr. dZize, SFrat. dieS.
4 Hulls shorthand notations are to be found in Meneghin (2007, appendix); Hulls phonetic
transcriptions have been turned into Sampa ones.
c Romania Minor

11
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
30
63
Rhen. endiS, Eng. yndeS, UValt. undeS, WLom. vyndes, Pm. undez,
Em. vyndaz, undaz, Rom. Ond-z, OndZ, Ven. undeze, Fass. uneS, Gard.
Fod. undeS, Bad. yneS, 2neS, Plav. undes, NFri. undiS, SFri. undis,
Istr. Ondaze; Lig. ynze, Pettinengo (AIS, point 135): yndzi, Rhen. dudiS,
dodiS, UEng. dugdeS, LEng. dudeS, dodeS, UValt. dodeS, WLom. Pm.
dudes, Em. dodaz, Rom. dOdz, dOdZ, Ven. dodeze, Fass. dOudeS, Dol.
dodeS, NFri. dOdiS, SFri. dOdis, Istr. dudaze, SFrat. daudiS, Lig. duze,
Pettinengo (AIS, point 135): dudzi.
Rhen.UEng. trEdiS, LEng. traideS, UValt. tredeS, WLom. tredes,
Pm. t@rdez, Em. tredaz, Rom. trEdz, trEdZ, Ven. tredeze,
ELom.Plav. Trent. tredes, Dol. tr&deS, NFri. trEdiS, SFri. trEdis,
Istr. tridaze, SFrat. traidiS, Lig. treze, Pettinengo (AIS, point 135):
tr6dzi.
Surs.Sut. kwitOrdiS, Surm. kitOrdeS, katOrdeS, Eng. k(w)atOrdeS,
UValt. kwatOrdeS, Lom.Pm.Trent.Plav. kwatOrdes, Em. kwatordaz,
Ven. kwatOrdeze, Anaun. katOrdes, Dol. katOrdeS, NFri. kutuardiS,
katuardiS, SFri. kutuardiS, Istr. kwatuordaze, SFrat. kwatardiS, Lig.
katOrze, Pettinengo (AIS, point 135): kwatOrdzi.
Surs. kwindiS, Sut. kwendiS, Surm.UEng. kindeS, LEng.UValt.
kwindeS, Pm.Lom.Trent.Plav. kwindes, Em. kwe(i)ndaz, Rom. kvEndz,
kvEndZ, Anaun. kindes, Dol. kineS, Ven. kwindeze, Fri. kwindiS,
kwindis, Istr. kweindaze, SFrat. kwinis Lig. kinze, Pettinengo (AIS,
point 135): kwindzi.
Rhen. sEdiS, Eng. saideS, WLom. sEdes, Pm. s@dez, Em. sedaz,
ELom.Trent.Plav. sedes, Fass. sEideS, Gard. s@ideS, Bad.Fod. s@dei,
Ven. sedeze, Rom. sEdz, sEdZ, Fri. sEdiS, sEdis, Istr. sidaze, SFrat.
saidiS, Lig. seze, Pettinengo (AIS, point 135): s6dzi.
Surs. Sut. J\isiat, Surm. diSsEat, Eng. UValt. diSsEt, Pm. disEt,
Lig. disEte, Lom. dersEt, darsEt, Em. darsEt, Rom. disEat, Ven.
disEte, dizisEte, Judic. deresEt, Trent. dezesEt, Dol. deZesEt, Fri.
dizisiEt, Istr. dizisiete, SFrat. diSsEt.
Surs.Sut. ZOc, Surm. diZdOc, UEng. diZdOc, LEng. deZdOt, Liv.
deSd2c, UValt. diZdOt, Lom. dezdOt, Pm. dizd2t, Lig. diZ2tu,
Em. dezdOt, dazdOt, Rom. (d)zdOt, Ven. dizdOto, Gard.Fod.Fass.
deZdOt, Bad. deZ(e)dOt, Fri. diZivOt, dizevOt, Istr. dizduoto, SFrat.
diZeruot.
Surs.Sut. ZEnif, Surm. diZnof, UEng. LEng. deZnOuf, deZnOf, UValt.
diSn2f, ELom. dehn2f, WLom. dezn2f, Pm. dizn2f, dizn2u, Lig.
diZin2ve, Em. dezn2v, daznov, Rom. dznOaf, dZnOaf, znOaf, Ven.
dizinove, Trent. dezn2f, Fass. deZn2f, deZnef, Gard. deZnuef, Bad.
deZ(e)ny, Fod. deZenuof, NFri. diZinu:f, diZinouf, SFri. dizenu:f,
dizenouf, Istr. disJuove, SFrat. diZnuov.
Rhen. veJ, venc, Eng. vainc, vanc, Liv. venc, UValt. vinti, VBreg. vinc,
VLev. VBlen. vintS, OsB. Lom. Pm. Em. vint, Lig. vinti, vinte, Rom.
vei(n)t, Ven. Trent. vinti, Dol. vint, Cad. vinti, vinte, Fri. vinc,
vintS, Istr. vEinti, vinti, SFrat. vint.
Surs. trEnta, Sut. trEinta, trainta, trOinta, Eng. Lom. Lig. Ven.
Trent. WFri. trenta, Pm. traNta (x. kwaraNta, etc.), Em. treinta,
Rom. tre(n)ta, Dol. tr@nta, EFri. trEnte.
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60
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80
90
100
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1000
Claudi Meneghin
Surs. kurOnta, Sut. kuraunta, kurEunta, Surm. kuranta, UEng.

karainta, karEnta, UEng. Lom. Pm. Ven. WFri. Istr. kwaranta,
WLig. Anaun. karanta, Carn. koranta, EFri. kwarante, Em-Rom.
kvaranta.
Surs. tSuNkOnta, Sut. tSuNkaunta, tSuNkEunta, Surm. tSaNkanta,
UEng. tSiNkainta, tSiNkEnta, LEng. tSuNkwanta, tSyNkwanta,
WLom. tSiNkwanta, SiNkwanta, ELom. si(N)kwa(n)ta, hikwanta,
Pm.Lig. siNkwanta, WLig. Anaun. siNkanta, Em-Rom. ziNkvanta,
Ven. siNkwanta, TiNkwanta, Dol. tSiNkanta, Nfri. tSiNkwanta,
tSiNkwante, SFri. siNkwanta, siNkwante.
Surs. sisOnta, Sut. sisaunta, sisEunta, Surm. sesanta, UEng.
sasainta, sasEnta, LEng. sesanta, Mst. sesaunta, UValt. seSanta,
Lom. Pm. sesanta, Lig. SySanta, Em-Rom. ssanta, Ven. Trent. Dol.
WFri. sesanta, EFri. sesante, Istr. sasanta.
Surs. siatOnta, Sut. setEunta, Surm. zataunta, UEng. satainta,
zatEnta, LEng. Mst. setanta, zetaunta, ELom. heta(n)ta, WLom.
setanta, Pm. stanta, Em-Rom. stanta, st{nta, Lig. Ven. Trent. Dol.
WFri. setanta, Bad. s(e)tanta, Istr. satanta.
Surs. ocOnta, Sut. ocEunta, ocaunta, Surm. ucaNta, UEng. ucEnta,
LEng. otanta, otaunta, VBreg. ucanta, Lom. utanta, vutanta, otanta,
Em-Rom. otanta, ot{nta, utanta, Pm. utaNta, Lig. 2tanta, ytanta,
Ven. Trent. Dol. WFri. otanta, EFri. otante, Istr. (v)utanta, SFrat.
uotanta.
ELom. Ven. Trent. Dol. WFri. nonanta, EFri. nonante, Istr. EEm.
Rom. nunanta, UEng. nunainta, nunEnta, Mst. nonaunta; novanta
(< *nova(gi)nta): Surs.Sut. navOnta, novOnta, LEng.UValt. novanta,
WLom. nuvanta, Anaun. noanta, Fri. novante, Pm. nuvaNta, Lig.
nyvanta; Ogen. noranta, Mil.Pm. nuranta.
Pm. sENt, Lig. sentu, App.Lig. zentu, Em-Rom. zeint, set, WLom.
tSent, ELom. set, hent, Trent. sent, Ven. sento, Tento, Dol. tS@nt, Fri.
tSent, sent, Istr. seinto; cient (metaphonic): Surs.Sut. tSien, Surm.
tSiEnt, Eng. tSient.
UValt. doZent, Lom. duzent, dozent, dyzent, Pm. duzEnt,
Lig. dyZentu, Em-Rom. duzeint, dozeint, NLun. duz@nt, Ven.
dozento, Istr. duzEnto; Fri. dozinte (f.).
UValt. treZent, Lom. trezent, Em. trezeint, Rom. tarsent, Pm.
t@rsEnt, Lig. treZentu, tryZentu, Ven. trezento, Istr. trazEnto; Fri.
trezinte.
Em. Lun. Fri. mil, Rom. mEl; Pm. Lom. VEm. Trent. mila; Rhet.
mili, meli, Dol. mile, Ven. mile, mili, SEFri. mili, Istr. meile, Lig.
mile; Lom. milia.
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65
Table 11. Proposed standard forms for cardinal numerals.

0
1
2
nul, nulla/zero
un, una
dui, does
31
38
39
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
trei, tres
quatre
cinq/cinque
seix
sept
eut / uet / oit
neuv / nuev / nv
dex
unze/undex
douze/doudex
treize/treidex
quatorze/quatordex
quinze/qindex
seize/seidex
dixsept
dixeut / dixuet / dixit
dixneuv / dixnuev / dixnv
vint/vintg
vintun/vintgun
vint-et-doi, vint-et-does/vintget-doi, vintg-et-does
vint-et-trei, vint-et-tres/vintg-ettrei, vintg-et-tres
vint-et-quatre/vintg-et-quatre
trenta
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
101
102
103
200
300
400
500
600
700
1000
1001
1002
1003
trentun
trenteut / trentuet / trentit
trentaneuv / trentanuev /
trentanv
quaranta
cinquanta
seixanta
septanta
oitanta
noranta / nonanta / novanta
cent
cent-et-un
cent-et-dui, cent-et-does
cent-et-trei, cent-et-tres
duxent
trexent
quatrexent
cinqcent
seixcent
septcent
mila
mila-et-un
mila-et-dui, mila-et-does
mila-et-trei, mila-et-tres
1100
mila-et-cent
2000
3000
dui-mila, does-mila
trei-mila, tres-mila
23
24
30
7.2
Ordinal numerals
Ordinal numerals will be constructed as proposed by Hull (1982, 666) in his

translation of Saint Marks Gospel (the resurrected Cisalpine ordinals dexein
tenth, undexein eleventh are considered preferable), thus they will be of the
form number root + ein/eina (m./f.) for numerals form 6 onwards (and for 0),
whereas the following forms will be attached to the numerals form 1 to 5 (Hull
1982, 525): prim / -a (also emprim / -a and primeir / -a), segond / -a, ter / -a, quart / -a,
qint / -a (also quint / -a).
The adverb
The standard Romance mode of making adverbs from adjectives, i.e. suffixing
the outcomes of Lat. mente to feminine forms, see e.g. Hull (1982, 619 ff.) is
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Claudi Meneghin
shared by the Rhaeto-Cisalpine system. The standard Romance outcome -ment

< mente is widespread, alongside woth the localised types -meint (Romagnol),
-mein (Sursilvan, see Spescha 1989, 494), -maintg (Engadinian; the local orthography is: -maing, see e.g. Ganzoni (1983a, 141; 1983b, 146), -mt (eastern Lombard,
see e.g. Zanetti 2004, 107) and the ancient texts in Bressani (1554, 83 ff.) and
-mente/-menti (Ligurian, see Toso 1997, 220); according to Hull (1982, 619) in the
Rhaeto-Romance domain and in old eastern Lombard, a crossing of Lat. -mente
with Lat. -enter took place from which the type -mentre originated, realised
in the localised types -menter (Dolomitic Ladin, Old eastern Lombard), -mentri
(Friulian), -mentre (Old Venetian):
(5)
[. . .] da chel che on relat fin chil resulteiel clermenter che la coscienza

etnica di Ladins fat de gran varesc ti ultims vint agn (Richebuono
19901991, 169, 171, quoted in Schmid 1994, 114; our emphasis, cf. Fr.
clairement).
(6)
[. . .] il sun sibilant palatl sort si lu scrf semplicementri cul segn s, ancje

se si trate di une scriture di variante dal furlan, cuant che al denant di
consonante e nol valr distintf. (OLF 2002b, 10, our emphasis).
(7)
Quand veniara ol di de la sentenzia // Che vo sie denanz al nostro seniore.

// Cum dolzamenter vo limparturisef // Xi granda festa che li angey
fasiva, // E ilora fosef madr graciosa. (Old Bergamasque text, Salve
Regina, Salutacio virginis Mariae, see Lorck (1893, 75); our emphasis).
A preference for analytical forms like en/de + manera + adjective is accounted

for in Nicoli (1983, 229) for Milanese (western Lombard) and Garuss (2003,
2.7) for Alessandrine (Piedmontese); a similar construct is + la + feminine
adjective: la svelta quickly is accounted for Milanese (Nicoli 1983, 232), and
Romansh (Vallader, Puter) (Ganzoni 1983a, 141; 1983b, 146).
This situation is not widespread: for instance, the Dolomitic Ladin model
of formation of adverbs by suffixation with -menter has been deemed bendebot
produtif ; na gran pert di averbs derivs con -menter, ma nia duc, neologisms
(Valentini 2001, 88); coming back to Piedmontese, an analogous view can be
deemed to be implicitely stated by (Nste Ris 2000, Lession neuv): if on the
one hand this online course of Piedmontese (Turinese) states that the Italian
adverbs in -mente are not used in Piedmontese, on the other hand it accounts for
the following adverbs: dosman sweetly, maloreusman unluckily (also attested
in western Lombard, see LSI, vol. 3, item malorosomnt), notaman chiefly and
vitman fast. Now the first three ones are evident French loanwords (cr. Fr.
doucement, malheureusement, notamment); the fourth one has been built up by an
analogical formation upon a French loanword root (vit < Fr. vite) by suffixation
with -man < Fr. -ment.
Since *vitement is not accounted for in French, the former construction witnesses in our view a (potential) vitality of this suffixation in Piedmontese (as in
Ladin here above). This view is reinforced by Brero (1967, 90) accounting for
adverb formation by suffixation of -ment (/meN/) to the feminine form of the
adjective, without any particular warning.
c Romania Minor

67
The refusal in Nste Ris (2000) of the suffixed adverbs in -ment could be
probably imputed to the fact that they are deemed too Italian if compared to
more analytical adverbial constructions like an manera + adjective [=in a/the +
adjective + way], whereas the French like suffixation -man is accepted inasmuch
as not Italian (there is more evidence for this attitude: e.g. according to Tosco
(2008, 1011) faced with Italian grazie /"grattsje/ thank you and its modern,
everyday Piedmontese counterpart grassie /"grasje/, the reshaped variety of
Piedmontese reverts to French merci in the form of mers. But this was not
enough, and one reads and hears the expression mers a... thanks to, where
French actually has grce .... The logic is that grassie a... would be too similar to
Italian grazie a..., while mers a, although wrong in French, does sound French
or at least un-Italian.
This is of course chiefly due the situation of linguistic anormality for Piedmontese overwhelmed by the Italian language. Notwithstanding, all these
reactions witness some kind of vitality of this variety of the Rhaeto-Cisalpine
language. Analogous argumentations can be carried out for the other RhaetoCisalpine dialects.
As an overall comment, it seems that the western Romance standard type
-ment well fits with the global morphology of the Rhaeto-Cisalpine language,
alongside with the diphtongued outcome -meint; as to the crossed standard type
springing from the crossing of -mente and -enter, according to the discussion
carried out in 2.1.2 of part II (Meneghin 2008) about the neutral final vowel -e,
it will be written -mentre.
8.1
Examples
We propose three tables of adverbs: the first one (Table 12) is based upon the
French reference grammar Bescherelle (1997, 62)5 and proposes some synthetic
Padanese types as well as comparisons with other Romance languages, and
English translations.6
The second table (Table 13), resp. the third one, presents a few samples from
Hull (1982, 621642), resp. from the results got by a query in LSI database,
both with more actual vernacular forms, English translations and proposed
ORS forms (we recall that Hulls shorthand notations are recorded in Part II
of this article).7 Etymologies will be discussed in the framework of further
investigations; adverbial expressions and combinations of different adverbs
have been essentially left out; they will be discussed in the part of this article
concerning syntax.
5 Some items have been added. A = Adverbs of assertion, D = Adverbs of doubt, M = Adverbs
of manner, N = Adverbs of negation, P = Adverbs of place, Q = Adverbs of quantity, T = Adverbs
of time. Translations from French: into Catalan, Castellanos & Castellanos (2003); into Occitan,
Lagarde (1996); into Italian, Boch (2007); into English, Knight et al. (Knight et al.).
6 Sources for the Padanese synthetic forms are Bignami (1993), Hull (1982), LSI, Caduff, Caprez
& Darms (2006), OLF (2002a), Lepri & Vitali (2007), Brero (1967), Toso (1997), Stich (2007).
7 The corresponding ORS types are displayed in the first column on the left; explanations of
Hulls shorthand notations can be retrieved in the appendix of Part II of this work, see Meneghin
(2008).
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Claudi Meneghin
68
Finally, the Table 14 consists of a few excerpts from the results of a query in
LSI database; the corresponding ORS types have been added beteween square
brackets; English translations are displayed, instead of the Italian ones in LSI.
Table 12. Rhaeto-Cisalpine adverbs, sorted by semantic classing.
certainement
French
Padanese
(ORS)
Semantic
class
vraiment
A
peut-etre
oui
probablement
sans doute
precisement
aussi
bien
mal
mieux
parce que
si
volontiers
M
M
M
M
plutot
A
A
pourquoi
pourtant
certament,
certanament,
-meint
xi, oy, est, ae,
gea
precisament, meint
xi
volonteira,
bonteira
debon,
deveira
peul-vess,
davess, selacad
probablament,
-meint
senca dubi /
senca dubit
eir,
anc(a),
ass, deco`
bein, ben
mal
melh, melhor
perquei que,
parce que
plutost,
`
algamiga
perquei
pourtant, de
tuta manera
M
M
certament
Catalan
de segur
Occitan
certamente
Italian
yes
certainly
English
really
oc
`
veramente
maybe
de vertat
forse
probably
precisely
de debo
benlèu
probabilmente
precisamente
potser
probablament
senza dubbio
precisament
probablement
bensai
anche
without
doubt
also, too, as
well
well
badly
better
because
precisament
sense dubte
tanben
bene
male
meglio
perche
rather
yes
willingly
tambe
piuttosto
why
notwithstanding
s
volentieri
be
mal
millor
perquè
plan
mal
mièlhs
perque, per co
que
puslèu
perche
tuttavia
oc
`
volontièr
mes aviat
perque
caquelà
s
de bon grat
perquè
tantmateix
c Romania Minor

French
seulement
vite
gure
jamais
ne
non
pas
point
rien
ailleurs
autour
dedans
dehors
derrire
dessus
devant
ici
l
nulle part
o
Semantic
class
M
M
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
P
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P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
, ond
atour,
da quendre,
quileunt,
sorent
dent
feu,
feura/fuera
davors,
de drera
souvra/soura
devant
ci, a, quil
il, ilga,
l/qu
nelhour
negot(a)
aultr
nomay
de pressa,
aviad
mia tant,
mia gueri,
ne ... gueri
mai, jamai
ne
non
pa(s), mia,
brixa
brixa, brica
Padanese
(ORS)
on
enlloc
damunt
davant
aqu, ac
all/aqu
endarrere
dins
fora
de cap manera
res
en un altre
lloc
al voltant
mai, jamai
no
no
pas
no ... gaire
noms
de pressa
Catalan
ont
enlc
desss
davant
aic
aqu
darrr
dedins
defra
al torn
res
endacm mai
pas brica
jamai
non
pas
gaire
sonque
daviat
Occitan
da nessuna
parte
dove
sopra
davanti
qui
qui/ci
dietro
dentro
fuori
intorno
niente
altrove
punto
mai
non
no
mica, punto
non molto
solamente
velocemente
Italian
where
nowhere
above
in front
here
there/here
back
inside
outside
around
nothing
elsewhere
not at all
never
no
(do) ... not
not much / not

very
only
quickly
English

69
Claudi Meneghin
70
Semantic
class
assez
French
Q
aussi
Padanese
(ORS)
Q
autant
beaucoup
quelque part
Q
Q
fort
moins
peu
presque
Q
Q
Q
Q
si
tant
trs
(en)alg,
enan(va),
enand,
enaola
avond, abt,
ass
eir, anc(a),
ass, dec
tant
bler, fitg, un
mont, guaire
bombein
meny(s), men
poc/poque
debot, asquas,
guaire
enx
tant
bombein
Q
Q
Q
English
enough
Italian
abbastanza
Occitan
pro
anche
also, too, as
well
as (... as)
a lot
Catalan
prou
tanben
cos ... (come)

molto
very
less
a little
almost
somewhere
tamb
tant
fra
molto
meno
poco
quasi
so
so / a lot
very
da qualche
parte
tant
molt
frt
mens
pauc
gaireben
cos
tanto
molto
endacm
fort
menys
poc
gaireb
tant
tant
fra
en algun lloc
tant
tant
molt
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French
alors
aprs
aujourdhui
dj
demain
depuis
enfin
hier
jamais
maintenant
quand
soudain
toujours
trop
Semantic
class
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
aloura
daprss
encuey/vuei
ja
deman
davors
enfin
hier
mai, jamai
avoura, adess,
desseny, essa,
m
quand, coura
debt, endeit,
exebrupt
aduna,
sempre,
delongue,
sald
massa, trp
Padanese
(ORS)
massa
sempre
quan
de sobte
llavors
desprs
avui
ja
dem
des de llavors
per fi
ahir
mai, jamai
ara
Catalan
trp
totjorn,
sempre
quora
de cp
alara
aprp
ui
ja
deman
dempui
enfin
ir
jamai
ara
Occitan
troppo
sempre
quando
allimprovviso
allora
dopo
oggi
gi
domani
dacch
infine
ieri
mai
ora
Italian
too / too much
always
when
suddendly
then
afterwards
today
already
tomorrow
afterwards
eventually
yesterday
never
now
English

71
72
Claudi Meneghin
Table 13. A few samples from Hull (1982, 621642).

ORS
Hulls
types
English
Vernacular types (Sampa, except ancient

scripta, in original form)
Adverbs of Place
arent
arent
beside, by
davend
despous
away
behind
il, ilga
davend
despos,
despus
il, ilga
lointan
lointaun
far (also
adj.)
lueny
luonj,
luogn
far
quen
quen
hereabouts
radent
radent
beside, by
Lig. arente, Nov. renta, Lom. are:nt,

Em-Rom. areint, Ven. arente, rente.
Surs. naven, Eng. davent.
WLom. depus, dapus (whence apus);
Valt. despys, Fri. dispus.
OLom.
il, inlga, illga, alga, al;
Lom. ilO, il2ga; Dol. ilO; Valt.
iliO, ilia, iliE (with palatalization);
ivalO(ga); OVen. invelO, ivaloga.
OLom. OVen. luitan. This form has
been generally replaced by the Italianism
lontaun < lontano without palatalization of
n.
Eng. dal2nc long ago; Pm. l2J, lOJ (this
second type possibly influenced by the Occ.
luenh, lonh).
OVen.
quence, quenze, Fri.
kEntSi,
kovEntSi; kEnti (x. vEnti, cf. infra).
OLom. radent, Eng. ardaint; aradent:
OVer. areente, Berg. aredet.
Adverbs of Time
avuey
dep,
dep,
posp
posp
ensacour
ensaquand
enzaquand
fit
fit
mincatant/
mintgatant
stra(s)
mincatant
strza(s)
right there
today
again
at some
time
years ago,
in the past
at once;
early
sometimes
the day
before yesterday
Fri. avuei.
OMil. da pei (Bonvesin), Posch. dapE; Surs.
puSpei.
Surs. entsaku.
Dol. tsakan, ntsakan.
Lig. fitu early, Lun. fit at once.
Surs. mincatOn, Eng. mincatant, Pm.
miNkataNt; ognitant ogni tanto: Lom.
oJita:nt, Ven. oJitanto, Fri. oJitant.
Surs.
Stiartsas, Eng.
Stertsa(s).
Synonymous
compounds
include
posier (<post heri): Lom.
puzier
(Crema), Lucano-Pad.
pusi eri
(Tito); enantsjer: Tic.
inantser;
(l)aultrjer: Pm. lautrEr, Lom.
loltrer; (d)avantjer: Lig. avantEi,
Fod. ndavantier, Gard. danti er; ier
laultre: Rom. jirlEtar, Ven. dZeri
laltro.
c Romania Minor

Adverbs of Manner and Measure

almeins
almeins
at least
amen,
ament
amenz,
ament
by heart;
in mind
bonament
bonament
almost
empey
emp,
empi
instead
enac
gaujend
enzac
gaujend
just(a)
just(a)
somehow
willingly,
gladly
just
73
Eng.
almaiN, Pm.
Lom.
Trent.
almeN; almanc: Lom. almaNk, EmRom. alm{Nk, Ven. Dol. almaNko, Fri.
almaNkul.
Fri.
amEns; reinforced forms: Fri.
damEnts, inimEnt; Dol. adam9nts, Eng.
adimaint, Surs. endamen.
Valt. bonamE, bonE, Surs. bunamein,
Eng.
bunamainc; manamaun: Lom.
manamaN, manemaN, Em. manam{N, Pm.
maramaN. The Cisalpine adverb debOt
soon may also be used in the sense of
almost (Em. dbOt pieN, Fri. debOt
plEN quasi pieno). The Piedmontese
preske is from Occitan or French (presque).
Surs. empei, Eng. Lom. Em-Rom. impE,
Ven. impe, inpE, Fri. inpi, inpin,
inpi:t, Istr. npei, inpier. The Italian invece is in general use as an alternative
form, cf. Eng. invetsa, Mil. invetSe,
Fri. invEtsit, etc.
Dol. tsakO, Surs. entsakO.
Surs. buJ\en, Eng. guJ\ent, jent, Gard.
dZ9n, Bad. dZan, dZ9n, jan, Fod. dZen.
Surs. J\eSt, Eng. J\ySt, Lom. dZysta,
Em. just, Pm. dZyst(a), Lig. dZystu,
Ven. dZusto, Fri. juste, justa.
Finally, the adverbs tambein also and tampoc not ... even, with the localised forms tanben/tanb and tampoque/tanpoque could be added to the above
lists guided by the fact that Dolomitic Ladin uses the correlative conjunctions
tamben ... que (see 10.2 below and Valentini (Valentini, 97)) in the meaning of
both ... and and the Ticinese Lombard dialect of Cavergno uses tambegn as a
concessive conjunctions, meaning even if (LSI 2004, vol. 5, p. 412).
An immediate semantic extension allows tamben/tambein to mean also, too
as an adverb as well. Since this matches the corresponding Occitan and Catalan
usage (Salvat 1943, 139, 148; Fabra 1918, 104107), the corresponding negative
tampoc (alongside with its analogous forms) could be introduced by analogy, on
the same guidance.
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Claudi Meneghin
74
LSI sources
a labr
aprv
Vernacular types
adj.
Other
grammatical
categories
Under shelter (Bedretto)
English translations
pron.
prep.
Not, not at all, nothing (Val Verzasca, Val

Calanca, Val Bregaglia, Val Poschiavo,
Bernina district); nobody (Val Bregaglia,
Poschiavo).
Not, not at all (Malvaglia, Chiasso).
Upside down; the way of two persons
sleeping in one bed, lying toward opposite directions (Brusino Arsizio); crutchlike, way of planting vine (Gandria); new
paragraph, the following line (Balerna);
the opposite way (Novazzano).
Above (Rossura).
Beside; near; at ones back, at someones expense (Poschiavo); exclamation

expressing disappointment (Mesocco).
(Gerra Val Verzasca, Sonogno, Gandria, Ceresio), cop (Certara), cop (Balerna, Poschiavo), copi (Olivone), cup (Novazzano, Balerna), cup (Balerna, Poschiavo), cupe (Gudo,
Lavertezzo, Brione Val Verzasca, Mendrisio district), cpe
(Gerra Gambarogno), cupgn (Brione s. Minusio), cupi
(Olivone), cupii (Auressio)
(SopraCeneri, Val Poschiavo, Bernina district), apru (Preonzo, circ. Giornico, Locarno district), apruv (Loco), aprv
(Gorduno, Claro, Locarno district, Mesolcina district), apru
(Sobrio), aprav (Crana), apr (Maggia), apru (SopraCeneri),
aproii (Lodrino), apruv (Palagnedra), apruv (Olivone), aprv
(Brione Val Verzasca, Palagnedra), aprvw (Palagnedra),
dapru (circ. Giornico, Verscio, Cavigliano, Losone), dapruv
(Russo), daprv (Lumino, Locarno district, Mesolcina district), daprva (Lumino), dapriu (Sobrio), dapru (SopraCeneri),
dapr (Pollegio), daprv (SopraCeneri), deprv (Biasca), deprv
(Sementina), epru (Biasca), eprv (Montecarasso), pru (Ons.,
Verscio, Cavigliano), pr (Biasca), prv (Gorduno, Locarno
district, Soazza), pru (SopraCeneri), pr (Lodrino), pruv,
prv (Palagnedra), prv (Sementina, Aquila, Val Maggia district., Locarno district)
(Ble., Grig.), brica (Biasca, Lavertezzo), bricca (Val Calanca,
Soglio), bricch (Rasa, Val Verzasca, Val Bregaglia, Val Poschiavo, Bernina district), bricchi (Landarenca)
Table 14. A few excerpts from the results of a query in LSI database Giovanna Ceccarelli (p.c.).
ORS types
labr /
labri
apreuv,
apruev
brixa
cop ( )
brica
brisa
cope (a )
perdessus
brica
pardess
c Romania Minor

75
Prepositions
According to Hull (1982, 643), the Padanian dialects have some dozen simple
prepositions, most of which do not also function as adverbs.
We propose here a table of Rhaeto-Cisalpine simple or compound prepositions, specifying for each one the appropriate corresponding standard ORS
type; English and French translations are offered too.8
Table 15. Main Padanian prepositions, with English and French translations.
ORS
(d)aprss de
(d)reit
(en)cerc
clav de
cost de
adrer
apous
aprss
apreuv/apruev
arent
asca
astier
avant
avoltra/avoltre
avoultra
ca de
con
conforma
contra/contre
danour
daour
darer
davous
davous
de/da
dentre
depous
despuei
devant
devart
devart de
English
after
near
around
to, at
at the head of
on one side of
behind
behind
in face of
near
near
besides
besides, apart from
before of
beyond
beyond
at
with
depending on
against
except
behind
behind
besides
after
of, from
between,
among,
within
behind
after
in front of
as to
on the side of
French
aprs
prs de
autour de
en tte de
ct de
derrire
derrire
devant
prs de
prs de
en plus de
au-del de
avant
au-del de, outre
au-del de, outre
chez
avec
en dpendance de
aprs
sauf
derrire
derrire
au-del de
aprs
de, ds
entre
derrire
depuis
devant
quant , concernant
de la part de
8 Sources are (in aphabetical order): Brero (1967, 88), Brunelli (2005, 31), Caduff, Caprez &
Darms (2006, 103105), Ganzoni (1983b, 154162; 1983a, 150158), Hull (1982, 643645), LSI (2004,
database), Nicoli (1983, 244269), Spescha (1989, 531545), Stich (2007, 91), Toso (1997, 121139),
Valentini (2001, 9295), Vitali (2005, 322), Zanetti (2004, 115116), Zof (2008, 5154).
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Claudi Meneghin
drera/drer
durant
durant
eintasom
emmez
en
en canvi de
en cimma de
en pont de
enandevart
enfra/enfre
enpe(i) de
ensemma
ensom de
ent
entourn
entre
entr
envrs
feura/fuera
fin
gavad, gavant
inan
javad/javant
jos
josom
levad
long
nanasom
oltra/oltre
ourasom
pardessus
per amour de
per via de
per/par
permis
persota
persoura
contre
pro
radent
scap
segond
sein/seina
behind
during
during
at the end of
in the middle of
in
instead
at the top of
as to
on this side of
below, under, within
[also temporal]
instead
with
at the end of
in
around
between,
among,
within
within [also temporal]
towards
out of
as far as, until
except
before, in front of
except
down
down
except
along
on this side of
beyond;
besides,
apart from
at the end of
above/over
because of
because of
for
under the lee of
below/under
above/over
ps
pro
near
except
according to
without
derrire
pendant
pendant
tout la fin de
au milieu de
en
au lieu de
en haut de
concernant
en dea
sous, dans le dlai de
au lieu de
avec
tout au bout de
en
autour de
entre
dans, dans le dlai de
envers
hors (de)
jusqu
sauf
ct de
sauf
le long de
tout en bas de
sauf
le long de
tout en dea de
au-del de, outre
tout au bout de
au-dessus de
cause de
cause de
par
labri de
au-dessous de
au-dessus de
after
au bnfice de
prs de
sauf
selon
sans
c Romania Minor

sena/seina
sorent
sota
sotent
soura
soura de
souvra/souvre
sper
sueintre
sur/sus
susom
tacad de
tar
tar
tenour
torn
tramezz
tras
vrs
vexin
vi(a)
tr
vi(a) de
visavis
visom
without
above/over
below/under
below/under
above/over
above/over
above/over
near
according to
on
at the top of
near
near
at
according to
around
between
through
towards
near
to, towards
within [also temporal]
to, for
in front of
on that side of
77
sans
au-dessus de
au-dessous de
au-dessous de
au-dessus de
au-dessus de
au dessus de
prs de
selon
sur
l haut de
prs de
prs de
chez
daprs, selon
autour de
entre
travers
vers
prs de
, vers
dans, dans le dlai de
, par
en face de
tout en del de
Preposition is written as in French, because of the need to distinguish it

from a clitic and ha verb: see Meneghin (2007, 3.17); this choice has been made
in Toso (1997, 121) as well.
According to Hull (1982, 643), verncular forms of de/da are: Fri. di, da,
Pm.Em-Rom. /d@/, /@d/, ad; prevocalic forms are /d/ and /dad/, the latter used
in the Grisons; the former is used also preconsonantally in Em.Rom.
Vernacular forms for en are: Eng.Lom.Em-rom.Lig.Ven.Trent.Dol.Fri.Istr. in
(n), Pm. n, an; ent is mainly used in prevocalic position and before articles in
Piedmontese (Nste Ris 2000, Lesson 3).
9.1
Prepositions linked with determinate articles
Since our proposal of ORS standard articles is manifold (see Meneghin 2008,
3), our proposal of linked prepositions will be as well. We will conform to
the criterion set up in Valentini (2001, 31) for Dolomitic Ladin, which can be
synthesised as: one syllable, one word, two syllables two words. This follows
Schmids (1994, 109) recommendation for Dolomitic Ladin:
Ein Blick ber die Grenzen des Dolomitenladinischen zeigt, da alle andern romanischen Sprachen, soweit beim Artikel keine Geminaten notieren
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Claudi Meneghin
(Franzsisch, Okzitanisch, Katalanisch und Spanisch), zur Getrenntschreibung gelangt sind, vgl. die Tabelle auf der folgenden Seite. Auch das Engadin und die Sutselva haben diesen Schritt vollzogen, als sie in der ersten
Hlfte unseres Jahrhunderts von den italianisierenden Formen della, dalla,
alla usw. zum eigenstndigeren da la, a la (nicht dala, ala!) bergingen.
See also OLF (2002a, 11) about the analogous Friulian solution.
Linkage will be performed only between masculine articles and prepositions
, de/da, per/par, sus and jos. Preposition , when linked, will always have its grave
accent dropped.
Also, following the customary rules for French, Occitan and Catalan, linkage
will be avoided when singular masculine determinate article is followed by a
word beginning by vowel (e.g. al covert, but labr, both meaning at shelter).
As to the linkage with feminine articles, on the one hand this will be never
performed with la and les, the forms of determinate article retaining thematic l,
since this would yield bisyllabic words; on the other hand, the forms and s will
be allowed to be linked, since the resulting linked prepositions are monosyllabic.
Analogously, contracting prepositions with the nominative plural determinate
articles elh/ey will be allowed as well, underpinned by the same argumentations.
The above yields the following scheme, which is partly analogous to the
Occitan one (see e.g. Salvat 1943, 18), with the additions described in the above
paragraph.
Table 16. Prepositions contracted with determinate articles.
Preposition
Articles
el
els
elh
ey
de/da
per/par
sus
jos
al
del/dal
pel/pal
sul
jol
a
d
pea, p
s
j
als
dels/dals
pels/pals
suls
jols
alh
delh/dalh
pelh/palh
sulh
jolh
ay
dy
pey
suy
joy
aes
des
pes
ses
jes
au
d, du
pau
s
j
For plural ones, both oblique and nominative determinate articles have been considered.
10
Conjunctions
We propose here some tables of Rhaeto-Cisalpine conjunctions, specifying for

each one the appropriate corresponding standard ORS type; English and French
translations are proposed too.9
9 Sources are (in aphabetical order): Brero (1967, 89), Brunelli (2005, 33), Caduff, Caprez &
Darms (2006, 105109), Ganzoni (1983b, 163165; 1983a, 158160), Hull (1982, 647650), LSI (2004,
database), Nicoli (1983, 270276), Spescha (1989, 526530), Stich (2007, 9193), Toso (1997, 121141),
Valentini (2001, 96100), Vitali (2005, 321), Zanetti (2004, 115116), Zof (2008, 137146).
c Romania Minor

10.1
79
Coordinating conjunctions
Main coordinating conjunctions are the following:

Table 17. Main coordinating conjunctions.
ORS
English
French
donca
ender(a)
enpei
enx
et
ma, mai
ne, ni, no
negotameny(s)
so
instead
instead
so
and
but
nor
however, yet, nevertheless
nor
or else
or else
or
but
rather
donc
mais, par contre
mais, par contre
ainsi
et
mais
ni
quand mme
nha, nhe, nhi

obein
opur(a)
ou
per
plutost
pur
totun(a)
10.2
ni
ou bien
ou bien
ou
mais
plutt
quand mme
quand mme
Correlative conjunctions
Main correlative conjunctions are the following:

Table 18. Main correlative conjunctions.
ORS
English
French
tamben ... que; tant ...

que
o ... o; o que ... o que
ne ... ne; ni ... ni; no
... no
mia noma ...
mai
anca; mia doma ... ma
anca
con
plui/meny(s)
(que) ...
con
plui/meny(s) (que)
both ... and
soit ... et
either ... or
neither ... nor
soit ... soit

ni ... ni
not only ... but also
non seulement
mais aussi
...
the more/less ... the

more/less
plus/moins
plus/moins
...
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Claudi Meneghin
Main subordinating conjunctions are: que (locally che/tge; Eng. that, Fr. que);
si/se (locally shi/she, Eng. if, Fr. si); de/da (locally ed, Fr. de; in English replaced by
finite or infinitive forms: I pense de venyir, Fr. Je pense de venir, Eng. I think Ill
come; La em demanda de fer vergota, Fr. Elle me dmande de faire quelque chose, Eng.
She asks me to do something.
10.3
Subordinating conjunctions: secondary forms
According to Hull (1982, 649), most other subordinating conjunctions are made
up of adverbs and the most common secondary subordinating conjunctions
are:
Table 19. Main subordinating conjunctions, secondary constructions.
ORS
English
French
(em)per que
(em)per quel que
(en)trc que
as, since [causal]

as, since [causal]
until
que
condition que
so that [final]
provided that
fin que
que
adss que
agual que
al que
aloura que
an que
anc(a)
anc(a) quand
anc(a) se
anc(a)bein que
ant que
apeina que
ass que
avant que
basta que
so that [final]
so that [final]
as, since [causal]
before
as soon as
as, since [causal]
before
also, too
even if, even though
before
as soon as
so that [consecutive]
before
provided that
bein que
bl que
bl que
car
cas mai
although
while
although
because
in case, if ever
cas que
in case, if ever
car, puisque
car, puisque
tant que, jusqu ce
que
de faon
pourvu que, condition que
de faon
de faon
car, puisque
avant que
ds que
car, puisque
avant que
aussi
mme si
mme si
mme si
avant que
ds que
pour que
avant que
bien que, quoique
lorsque, pendent que
bien que, quoique
parce que
c Romania Minor

co (que)
co (que)
c que
com(a) (que)
com(a) (que)
com(a) que
combein que
con dut que
contut que
coss que
coura (que)
davant que
davors que depuis
que
de maniera que
de muod que
de quand que
de que / da que
de qui () que
when
as [modal]
how [interrogative]
as [modal]
as [modal]
how [interrogative]
although
although
although
when
before
after
quand
comme
comment
comme
comme
comment
bien que, quoique
bien que, quoique
bien que, quoique
pour que
quand
avant que
so that [final]
since
since
until
de vltes mai
in case, if ever
de(s)puoi que
defina que
after
until
dej que
del moment que / dal
moment que
delongue que
demai que
denan que
dentant que
depuoi que
despuoi que
devia que
domentre que
dond que
durant que
en cas que
as, since [causal]

since
de faon
pour que
depuis que
depuis que
tant que, jusqu ce
que
depuis que
tant que, jusqu ce
que
car, puisque
depuis que, puisque
en maniera que
en meud que
enan que
enant que
end(va) que
enfin que
so that [final]
before
before
where
until
enquina que
until
Ianua 9 (2009)
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as soon as
as, since [causal]
before
while
since
since
as, since [causal]
while
where
while
in case, if ever
ds que
car, puisque
avant que
depuis que
depuis que
car, puisque
o
de faon
pour que
avant que
avant que
o
tant que, jusqu ce
que
tant que, jusqu ce
que
81
82
Claudi Meneghin
ens que
entant que
entgeben que
entr que
while
although
until
er(a)
r(a) se
essend que
except que
fin(a) que
also, too
as, since [causal]
except, but, save
until
fin(a)tant que
until
fuera que
gavad que
issa que
ja que
javad que
magara que
malgrad que
except, but, save

except, but, save
as soon as
as, since [causal]
except, but, save
although
although
mentre que
m que
que
nanc(a)/nantg(a)
nhanc(a)/nhantg(a)
nyanc(a)/nyantg(a)
nr(a) / nhra / nyra
ol que
ond que
parelh que / parey
que
per enant que
per que
percse
per que
perquei (que)
perquei que, pertgei
che
pertgei (que)
pervia que
pst que
pour quel que
pourtant que
prima que
pur que
while
as, since [causal]
where
nor, neither
nor, neither
nor, neither
nor, neither
where
so that [final]
pour que
bien que, quoique
tant que, jusqu ce
que
aussi
mme si
car, puisque
sauf que
tant que, jusqu ce
que
tant que, jusqu ce
que
sauf que
sauf que
maintenant que
car, puisque
sauf que
bien que, quoique
bien que, quoique,
malgr (que)
car, puisque
o
non plus
non plus
non plus
non plus
o
de faon
pour que
as soon as
so that [final]
because
because
because
why
ds que
de faon
parce que
parce que
parce que
puorqoui
because
as, since [causal]
as, since [causal]
although
although
before
provided that
quand (que)
quant que
when
how much
parce que
car, puisque
car, puisque
bien que, quoique
bien que, quoique
avant que
quand
combien
c Romania Minor

se anc(a)
se cas que

in case, if ever
se de n
se entg(a)
sebein que
seguentre que
sempre mai que
otherwise
although
after
until
s que
siand que
sico(ma) que
sin que
as, since [causal]
as, since [causal]
until
sina quel que

stand que
tant que
tst que
vist que
so that [final]
as, since [causal]
as soon as
as, since [causal]
83
mme si
sinon
mme si
bien que, quoique
depuis que
tant que, jusqu ce
que
pour que
car, puisque
car, puisque
tant que, jusqu ce
que
de faon
car, puisque
pour que
ds que
car, puisque
Finally, the conjunctions tambein also and tampoc nor, neither, with the
localised forms tanben/tamben/tanb and tampoque/tanpoque could be added to the
above lists on the same guidance of the argumentations at the end of 7.1.
Appendix
In this part of our work, we start a preliminary investigation two kinds of
phenomena of the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language, (different from books or
printed paper texts), revealing some kind of vitality, and which are of special
interest for morphology: A) commercial names and B) street name plates.
In the framework of this article, this section should be regarded of as an
expanded section consisting of concrete morphological examples, whereas no
completeness should be expected about the very subjects A) and B), since data
are still rather difficult to collect. In all examples, the original orthographies
will be kept.
A) Commercial names
We refer the reader to Bogaro (2005) for a general account of the use of Friulian
in enterprise names. First we propose a few names we have found of special
morphological (and semantic) interest (this list is of course incomplete, being
the outcome of a short period of investigations, from 2008 Aug. to 2008 Nov.):
Ianua 9 (2009)
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Claudi Meneghin
Table 20.
Firm
City/Town
Italian
province or
Swiss canton
Commerce
Comments and sources
Birreria dal
Campett
sun bar
Lugano
Ticino (CH)
Bar
Bistro Staziun
Lavin
Grisons (CH)
Burdun
Caf
La
PuntChamues
Grisons (CH)
Bar
Ciapa s e
porta a ca
Cusago
Milan (I)
Grocers
shop
Confiserie
Bltt
Bellinzona
Ticino (CH)
Contra
Granda Srl
Bassano del
Grappa
Vicenza (I)
Bakers
and
confectioners
shop
Real estate
agency
Formadi cui
baus
S.Giovanni
al Natisone
Udine (I)
Audio Services
Ibis
Ca
Granda
Hotel
Milan
Milan (I)
Htel
Il Fundegh
Cabiate
Como (I)
Beer house
La
Buvette
Da
Burbane
Borgomanero Novara (I)
This firm has an English/Lombard mixed name.

Source: Gelben Seiten CH,
accessed on 2008 October.
French, German and Romansh mixed into two
words. Source: Bistro Staziun, accessed on 2009 February.
In Romansh, but modelled
on Germanic syntax Source:
Gelben Seiten CH 2008.
Meaning take away, lit.
take up and bring home,
quoting a Milanese idiom.
Source: Direct inspection.
This
firm
has
a
French/Lombard
mixed
name.
Source:
Direct
inspection.
A commercial name in Venetan, due to the traditional
name of the street the agency
is located at. Source: Contr Granda, accessed on 2009
January.
It means Cheese with
holes instead. Source: Bogaro (2005, 40, 46).
A commercial name in Milanese, due to the homonymous street the hotel is located at. Source: Direct inspection.
Meaning grocers shop instead; formed by suffixation of fundegh vault, here
meant as beer vault or
wine vault. This is a noteworthy semantic extension.
The article il seems to be in
Italian instead. Source: Il
Fundegh, accessed on 2008
October.
This
firm
has
a
French/Lombard
mixed
name.
Source:
Direct
inspection.
Bar
c Romania Minor

85
La cadrega
Hosteria
Tipica
Milan
Milan (I)
Restaurant
Pomis International
Palmanova
Udine (I)
Horticulture
Scarpt
porter
Majano
Udine (I)
Shoes, production and

commerce
Sta
Granda
Sta Pusciavina
Ul
Furmighin
Soglio
Grisons (CH)
Htel
Meaning the chair typycal inn. The etymological h

in hosteria is noteworthy and
coincides with our ORS standard. Source: Direct inspection.
This firm has an Friulian/English mixed name.
Source: Bogaro (2005, 40,
49).
This firm has a Friulian/French mixed name.
Source: Bogaro (2005, 40,
49).
Source: Sta Granda 2008.
Poschiavo
Grisons (CH)
Restaurant
Source: Direct inspection.
Sagno
Ticino (CH)
Grocers
shop
A xatta cda
Genoa
Genoa (I)
Focaccia
and Farinata shop
Zena Caf
Genoa
Genoa (I)
Bar
Meaning the little ant, referring to the parsimoniuos

attitude of this kind of insect. Source: Ul Furmighin,
accessed on 2008 October.
Meaning the warm bowl,
compare French la jatte
chaude. Source: Direct inspection.
In Genoese, but modelled on
Germanic syntax. Source:
Direct inspection.
Next, we propose some enterprises containing the names Grot, Crota, Boteiga
alongside with some of their customary variants; a list of various bakers shop
names follows. The Ticinese word Grot and the Piedmontese one Crota literally
mean grotto, but a semantic drift towards the meaning vault has occurred:
they mean: inn, tavern or restaurant. The universal Rhaeto-Cisalpine
Boteiga means shop.
a1) Grot: all in Ticino, Switzerland, except Grott Stube: Al Grott Cafe, Brione
s/ M.; Grott dal Magnan, Bogno; Grott dal Galett, Scareglia; Grott dal Mtt,
Ronco sopra Ascona; Grott dal Purcel Risc, Bellinzona; Grott Dtra, Olivone;
Grott Stube, Folgaria (province of Trent, Italy).10
a2) Crota: all in Piedmont, except Crota Piemunteisa: La Crota, San Maurizio
Canavese (TO); Crota D Calos, Calosso (AT); La Crota, Morozzo (CN); La
Crota, Limone Piemonte (CN); Crota Piemunteisa, Milan; La Crota dlours,
Torre Pellice (TO); Enoteca La Crota, Turin (TO); Cantina La Crota, Chieri
(TO).11
10 Source:
11 Source:
Google, accessed on 2008 August, s.v. grott.

Google, accessed on 2008 December, s.v. crota.
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Claudi Meneghin
a3) Boteiga: The following information has been arranged in this way: name
of the shop, city or town, Swiss canton or Italian province; the commerce
type of each shop has been recorded too, if available.
A butega di caruggi, Toirano (SV), typical products; A butega du marengon,
Bedonia (PR), carpenter; Botega da gera, Gerra (Ticino, Switzerland), grocers shop; Botega del bn potagi, Alpignano (TO), grocers shop; Butea da
Quint, Quinto (Ticino, Switzerland), sculptress, goldsmith; Butega, Lerici
(SP), interior decoration; Butega, Sarzana (SP), interior decoration; Butega
dal curan Edith, Badia (BZ), shoe shop; Butega du lema, Miglieglia (Ticino,
Switzerland), grocers shop / artisan; Buteiga berna, St. Ulrich (BZ); Buteiga
dl mond gherdeina, St. Ulrich (BZ), Artisans shop; Buteiga mata, Casalgrande (RE), lingerie, interior decoration; Buteiga mata ferrari e della casa,
Casalgrande (RE), mens and womens wear shop; Feur buteiga lantica,
St. Ulrich (BZ), Newspaper shop; Forno la butega ad franton, Guastalla
(RE), bakers shop; Hofer buteiga dal pan, St. Ulrich (BZ), grocers shop; La
botega, Tremosine (BS), grocers shop; La botega de Barlo, Fontanafredda
(PN), restaurant; La botega del geato, Caorle (VE), icecream shop; La botega
del pitor, Riva del garda (TN), painter; La botega du pais, Palmanova (UD),
grocers shop; La boteia, Dalpe (Ticino, Switzerland); La boteiga da pinter,
Moena (TN), cooper; La butea du pan, Airolo (Ticino, Switzerland), bakers
shop; La butega, Camino (AL), grocers shop; La butega, Rimini (RN), grocers shop; La butga, Badia (BZ), bicycle shop; La butega, Druogno (VB);
La butega, Romagnano Sesia (NO); La butega ad giorgioni, Bagnacavallo
(RA), herbalists shop; La butega da la pitina, Tramonti di Sopra (PN), delicatessen shop; La butega da la val, Pianezzo (Ticino, Switzerland), grocers
shop; La butega dal pan, San Martino in Rio (RE), bakers shop; La butega
del pais, Casapinta (BI); La butega del pais, Vallanzengo (BI); La butega dil
pais, Castagnole Monferrato (AT); La buteiga, Comelico Superiore (BL), gift
shop; La buteiga, SantIlario dEnza (RE), wine shop; La buteja da la viera,
Coggiola (BI); Lura la butega dal paes sagl, Canobbio (Ticino, Switzerland),
grocers shop; Ra botega da Curznas, Corzoneso (Ticino, Switzerland),
grocers shop.12
a4) Bakers shops: The following information has been arranged as in point
a3): commerce is always bakers shop.
The recorded variants are prestin [the] soon-awakening person, forner
[the] oven-worker, panater [the] bread-maker, with their obvious common alterations.
Al furner, Fiorano Modenese (MO); Al mi furner, Bologna (BO); Dal furner,
Viadana (MN); Dal furner, Casale Cremasco (CR); Dal furner, Bologna (BO);
Dal furner, Fontanella (BG); El forner, Brescia (BS); El furner, Cremona
12 Source: Google, accessed on 2008 October, s.v. botega, boteia, boteiga, butea, butega, butga,
buteiga. buteja.
c Romania Minor

87
(CR); El furner, Castelleone (CR); El furner, Fiesse (BS); El prestin de Brisag,

Brissago (Ticino, Switzerland); El prestin de la via Inganni, Milan (MI); El
prestin del cantun, Milan (MI); El prestine, Bellinzona (Ticino, Switzerland);
El prestinee, Lumino (Ticino, Switzerland); La butaiga dal furner, Castello Di
Serravalle (BO); La butea du pan, Airolo (Ticino, Switzerland); O panatte,
Genoa (GE); Piron al furner, Bologna (BO).13
Figure 1. Some commercial signboards, photos by the author.

Finally, an interesting matter to hint at is the prevalence of the resonance
of Rhaeto-Cisalpine forms caf/caf with the continental European analogous
ones. In Milan and Genoa, these forms overwhelmingly prevail on the theorically mandatory Italian one caff; elsewhere we have a more variegated situation;
the forms caf/caf are weaker, however, in eastern Padania.
The strenght of this phenomenon seems mostly due to English and French,
but the importance of the resonance with the local forms should not be underestimated, since this is just another evidence of Rhaeto-Cisalpines belonging to
western Romance.
To corroborate the above conjecture, we allege an abiding and not marginal
presence of French in commercial signboards in western Padania: we are not yet
in position to measure it, but it is interesting to note that French is not confined
in Milan (where a relevant presence should be deemed natural enough), but we
encounter it even in medium size towns; as sparse examples, we record e.g.: Caf
de Paris, Bergamo; Le petit boulanger, Cesano Maderno (Milan), a bakers shop
abiding since 1890; Djavu, Crema (Cremona), outlet; Blanche, Cusano Milanino
(Milan), bar; Caf toile, Novara, restaurant; Le torchon carreaux, Novara, gift
shop; lite caf, Pavia; La croisette, Sestri Levante (Genoa), boutique; Caf touch,
Sestri Levante (Genoa), Caf de la gare, Cernusco Lombardone (Lecco), Felizzano
(Alessandria) and Tirano (Sondrio). This kind of resonance could be explained
by the lack of a Rhaeto-Cisalpine written standard, which has partially deviated
the natural reaction against italianisation towards a more affine language such
as French.
The above examples (as well as many others) have been recorded through
direct inspection by the author.
13 Source: Google, accessed on 2008 September, s.v. prestin, prestinee, prestine, forner, furner,
furner, panat, panatt.
Ianua 9 (2009)
ISSN 1616-413X
88
Claudi Meneghin
We show here, for some cities, the ratios between the forms caf/caf and
caff (in this order: the higher this number, the more caf/cafs we have with
respect to caffs): Verona: 0.38, Brescia: 0.50, Turin: 0.80, Bologna: 0.87, Genoa:
2.30, Milan: 2.64; the above ratios show a striking contrast with the analogous
ones for the following two naturally Italian speaking large cities: Florence: 0.21,
Rome: 0.43.
The above comparison has been set up by retrieving and merging data from
Pagine Gialle IT (accessed on 2008 October), Pronto Imprese (accessed on 2008
October) and Tonight.eu (accessed on 2008 November). Some names in Milan
have been corrected by direct inspection, since the author has spotted out a
tendency to deal with the forms caf/caf as if they were orthography mistakes
and to replace them with the Italian standard form caff, especially in Pagine
Gialle.
The following image reports some caf signboards in Milan, documenting
the resonance between Milanese and continental/English forms: four cafs are
in Milanese (Caf del binari, El caf de Milan, Gibigiana caf and El tasinin del caf),
two are in French (Caf coin, Le caf bon ton), one is ambiguous French/Milanese
(Caf Paris), one is Venetan (Caf Berton), one is generic (Caf Binda, taking
name from the street it is located it), one is ambiguous English/French (Richard
caf) and two are in English (Off side caf and Chill out caf):
Figure 2. Some caf signboards in Milan, photos by the author.
B) Street name plates

We offer some sparse examples (confined in dealing with ISO 639-3 Lombard
only):
The following municipalities in Canton Ticino (Switzerland) have street
name plates in Lombard only: Aurigeno, Brusino, Cadenazzo, Cagiallo,
Camorino, Giornico, Maggia, Montecarasso, Morcote, Origlio, PambioNoranco, Verscio; the following ones have street name plates in both Lombard and Italian: Arzo, Barbengo, Besazio, Bissone, Bodio, Br s. Lugano,
Brione Verzasca, Castel San Pietro, Coldrerio, Cureglia, Davesco Soragno,
Gerra Piano, Lamone, Ligornetto, Meride, Mezzovico, Morbio Inf., Novazzano, Pura, Rancate, Ronco s. Ascona, SantAntonino, Sementina,
Sonvico, Stabio, Torricella, Vacallo, Vico Morcote (Stefano Vassere, p.c.,
2008).
c Romania Minor

89
The following is the official street directory of Montecarasso (near Bellinzona,

Ticino): Burgre Fer, Busc del Ram, Camp di Nav, Car de Pedmunt,
Car del Curt de fund, Car di Gai, Car di Sai, Car di Soi, Car dUrnn,
Chible, Cios di Murun, Curt de fund, Curt di Marciunitt, Curt di Paitign,
Curt di Sgi, el Cis, el Cunvnt, el Garuf, el lagmall, el Lri, el Mr, el
Puz dUrnn, el Ram, el Raa, el Runchetign, el Sai, el Sementri, el Sgrbi,
el Stradun, el Temeris, el Trc, el Valcc, er Caple, er Carensgiada, er
Mto, er Pulverina, er Puzzetascia, er Runsgte, i Campagni, i Fracc, i
Gasg, i Gasgiun, I Mundasc, Mtt di Russign, Pedmunt, Puncte in Pciagn, Strada del Tasign, Strada nvo, suta el Cis, Urnn. (Monte Carasso
1996; note that the feminine singular determinate article takes the form er
in the dialect of this town, instead of the neighbourings la).
The following are some Lombard street name plates at Morcote (near Lugano,
Ticino), first line, and Poschiavo (Grisons), second line:
Figure 3. Some Lombard street name plates at Morcote, photos by the author.
Finally, the following is the official street directory of Livigno, together with
the hamlet of Trepalle (province of Sondrio, Italy) Cristoforo Domiziano
Franzini (p.c., 2008):
Livigno: Plza dal Comn, Plazl dali Sckla, Via ll, Via Beltrm, Via
Bndi, Via Bndi, Via Brch, Via Bscola, Via Botarl, Via Campcc, Via
Campacil, Via Cantn, Via Chestl, Via Comprt, Via Confortna, Via
Contn, Via Crosl, Via dala Gsa, Via dala Vl, Via dali Croscta, Via
dali Mna, Via dali Strzia, Via Domenin, Via Fedara, Via Florn, Via
Fontna, Via Frcola, Via Frita, Via Gers, Via sola, Via la Crta, Via
Marangna, Via Moln, Via Mnt dala nf, Via Motoln, Via lta, Via
Ostara, Via Paliprt, Via Par, Via Pedrna, Via Pemnt, Via Picir, Via
Pinz, Via Pizabla, Via Pln, Via Pnt Lnch, Via Pontglia, Via Pzz, Via
Prstfan, Via Rsia, Via Restl, Via Rn, Via Sant Antni, Via Sarch, Via
Steblna, Via Svann, Via S.S. 301 Livigno, Via Taglida, Via Tela, Via
Tresnda, Via Vincc.
Trepalle: Plazl deli Sckla, Via Arnira, Via Chsa Vglia, Via de Pla,
Via del Pnt, Via dela Gsa, Via dela Crta, Via deli Croscta, Via sola,
Via l Crapna, Via l Drna, Via l Bita, Via Pln, Via Prest, Via Rss,
Via S.S. 301 Trepalle, Via Stfan, Via Valcia.
Ianua 9 (2009)
ISSN 1616-413X
90
Claudi Meneghin
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our gratitude to the following people and institutions
(listed below in alphabetical order):
1. Carlo Bertinelli from Monte Carasso (Ticino, Switzerland) for providing
us with the information needed to complete the bibliographical reference:
Monte Carasso 1996.
2. The Centro di dialettologia e etnografia (CDE, Dialectology and ethnography centre), Bellinzona (Ticino, Switzerland), its director Franco Lur and
the whole staff; CDEs library is worth mentioning for its thoroughness
and completeness; in particular we thank Giovanna Ceccarelli, Johannes
Galfetti and Dario Petrini (CDE) for many useful discussions about the
morphology and phonology of nouns, adjectives and adverbs: this improved sections 2 and 7. Also, we have been supplied very interesting
data by means of some searches in the LSI (2004) database, performed
by Giovanna Ceccarelli (adverbs, prepositions, variously suffixed words)
and Johannes Galfetti (adjectives ending with -al).
3. The Chamber of Commerce of Udine for sending us the book: Anna
Bogaro, Marketing furlan: La lenghe furlane tes denominazions des impresis,
Cjamare di Cumier Industrie Artesant Agricolture di Udin.
4. Franco Finco from the Agjenzie regjonl pe lenghe furlane (Regional
agency for the Friulian language) for informing us about the present state
of affairs concerning Friulian toponymy.
5. Cristoforo Domiziano Franzini, the commandant of Livigno Police, for
sending us the street directory of this town.
6. Claudio Gnoli from Pavia, for interviewing some Piedmontese native
speakers in Biella province about the numerals from 11 to 20.
7. Cristian Joos from the Radio e televisiun da la Svizra Rumantscha (RTR)
for elucidating us about some peculiar aspects of the reflexive conjugation
in Sutsilvan (also, we would like to thank Georgina Janki, from RTR too,
for putting us in contact with him).
8. The Lia Rumantscha and its rather complete bookshop about the Romansh
language: this allowed us to access a wide spectrum of matters about this
issue. During a (regrettably short) visit, we have been warmly welcome
and assisted by Mengia Mezli; also we wold like to thank jointly Nicole
Stiefenhofer from the central service of Lia Rumantscha and Alexa Pelican
from Institut dal Dicziunari Rumantsch Grischun for trying to answer a
question about the use of Romansh in street names in the Grisons.
9. Stefano Vassere from the State Archive of Canton Ticino, Switzerland,
for many useful discussions, for searching the State archive database for
c Romania Minor

91
information about native toponyms (this made 2.1.1 possible and the
appendix better) and for sending us the text of the federal ordinance
about geographical names 510.625 (2008 May 21).
10. Daniele Vitali, from Brussels and Bologna, for many useful discussions
about Emilian/Romagnol and for allowing us to access his corpus of interviews of Padanian native speakers.
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Claudio Meneghini
Institud de studis Rhaeto-Cisalpins
Fermo Posta Chiasso 1
CH 6830 Chiasso
Switzerland
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Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written

language: guidelines and criteria. Part III.

Ianua. Revista Philologica Romanica

The adjective: making up the feminine inflexion

Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language. Part III

only the adjective dola is attested (Lombardy, Piedmont, Emilia-Romagna and

Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language. Part III

& Melzani (2002, 29).

The Rhaeto-Cisalpine toponym Granda (meaning large feminine) is rather

Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language. Part III

Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language. Part III

Piazza Granda, Morcote; Piazza Granda, Sonvico; Strada Granda, Origlio

Piazza Granda, Cles (province of Trent, Italy); Strada Granda, Colico

Via Granda, Faver (province of Trent, Italy); Via Granda, Marano di

We cite also: the Cisa Granda museum at Stampa (Bregaglia valley, GR

graNd@/) in Bolognese (ORS: plaa granda); Via XX Settembre in Conegliano

Feminine adjectives in mathematics

The demonstrative pronoun/adjective

Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language. Part III

diachronical development of the Padanian demonstrative pronoun has been

First and third person forms

Second Person Forms

We recommend the generalised adoption of the neuter pronouns /n < *ecce

Leveling of demonstrative pronouns/adjectives

Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language. Part III

The possessive pronoun/adjective

The structure of the Proto-Padanian possessive pronoun/adjective has been

Table 5. Possessive adjectives/pronouns in Padania.

Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language. Part III

As an overall comment, we note the usual Rhaeto-Cisalpine distribution of

Plural forms follow singular ones.

Relative and interrogative pronouns/adjectives

Outcomes of qui, quis

According to Hulls (1982, 502) reconstruction, the Proto-Padanian declension

In the above scheme we have used ORS orthography.

No particularly problematic issues are at stake concerning this item, so we

Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language. Part III

Table 8. Indefinite adjectives/pronouns.

Vernacular types and examples

OGen. ognunchana fornimento, OVer.

Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language. Part III

*ne gutta (lit.

OVen. nuja, Eng. nyL\a, n2L\a, Posch.

*ego non sapio quid

OLom. algun, OBol. OVen. algun(o) and

Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language. Part III

Gradisca: /kwindis/, Colloredo: /kwindis/, Pesariis: /kwindiS/,

Table 9. Vernacular forms form cardinal numerals.

Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language. Part III

Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language. Part III

Table 10. Vernacular forms of cardinal numerals recorded by G. Hull.

Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language. Part III

Surs. kurOnta, Sut. kuraunta, kurEunta, Surm. kuranta, UEng.

Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language. Part III

Table 11. Proposed standard forms for cardinal numerals.

Ordinal numerals will be constructed as proposed by Hull (1982, 666) in his

shared by the Rhaeto-Cisalpine system. The standard Romance outcome -ment

[. . .] da chel che on relat fin chil resulteiel clermenter che la coscienza

[. . .] il sun sibilant palatl sort si lu scrf semplicementri cul segn s, ancje

Quand veniara ol di de la sentenzia // Che vo sie denanz al nostro seniore.

A preference for analytical forms like en/de + manera + adjective is accounted

Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language. Part III