UNIT 6 VECTOR DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Vector Differential
Calculus

Structure
6.1

Introduction
Objectives

6.2

Scalar and Vector Fields

6.3

Vector Calculus
6.3.1

Limit and Continuity

6.3.2

Differentiability

6.3.3

Applications of Derivatives

6.4

Directional Derivatives and Gradient Operator

6.5

Divergence of a Vector Field

6.6

6.5.1

Physical Interpretation

6.5.2

Formulae on Divergence of Vector Functions

Curl of a Vector Field

6.6.1

Physical Interpretation

6.6.2

Rotation of a Rigid Body

6.6.3

Formulae on Divergence Gradient, and Curl

6.7

Summary

6.8

Answers to SAQs

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In physical problems we often come across quantities such as temperature of a liquid,
distance between two points, density of a gas, velocity and acceleration of a particle or a
body, tangent to a curve and normal to a surface. In Unit 5, you have learnt that physical
quantities can be categorized either as a scalar or as a vector. You might have noticed
that some physical quantities, whether scalars or vectors, are variable. That is, their
values are not constant or static but change with the change in variable. For example, the
density of a gas, which is a scalar quantity, changes from place to place and is different at
different places. Similarly, tangent to a curve may have different directions at different
points of the curve. This variable character of scalars and vectors give rise to scalar
functions and vector functions. Further, you may notice that at different positions the
temperature or velocity of a body does not remain same. The distribution of temperature
or velocity is therefore defined at each point of a given domain in space which leads to
the idea of scalar fields and vector fields. We shall discuss about scalar functions and
scalar fields, vector functions and vector fields in Section 6.2.
In Section 6.3, we shall extend, in a very simple and natural way, the basic concepts of
differential calculus to vector-valued functions. We shall also discuss about physically
and geometrically important concepts related to scalar and vector fields namely,
directional derivatives, in Section 6.4 and give their applications.
We shall introduce the vector operator in Section 6.5 and give the physical
interpretation of the divergence of a vector field and some basic formulas involving it.
Finally, the concept of curl of a vector field and its invariance is discussed in
Section 6.6. Formulas involving curl, divergence, gradient and Laplacian operator, 2,
are also developed here.
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Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to

define a scalar function, a scalar field, a vector function and a vector field,

state conditions for the convergence of a sequence of vectors,

define limit, continuity and differentiability of vector functions,

differentiate sum, difference and products involving vectors,

describe the notion of directional derivative and compute directional

derivatives,

define and compute gradient of a scalar field and divergence and curl of
vector fields,

interpret physically the gradient, divergence and curl of a vector,

define conditions for solenoidal and irrotational vector fields, and

solve problems on application of del operator and product rules involving

the del operator.

6.2 SCALAR AND VECTOR FIELDS

Let us first talk about the scalar field.
Scalar Fields
Consider the distance of a point P from a fixed point P0 which will be a real
number. As we vary the point P its distance from a fixed point also changes. It
depends only on the location of point P in space and may be regarded as function
f (P). If we consider cartersian coordinate system in space and take coordinates of
fixed point P0 as (x0, y0, z0) and the variable point as (x, y, z) then the distance
between fixed point and the variable point is given by the well-known formula

f ( P ) = f ( x , y , z ) = ( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y 0 ) 2 + ( z z 0 ) 2
Next, consider a room fitted with an air-conditioner (A.C.). Once A.C. is switched
on for its cooling effect; the temperature of room falls down. Now, if we put off
the A.C., the temperature starts rising up till it reaches the room temperature. The
temperature further rises up if we now switch on the A.C. for its heating effect.
Thus, the temperature of the room depends on the switching system of the air
conditioner.
In this case, the temperature of the room can be considered as a function of
switching system of the A.C.
In both the exmaples taken above, you may note that distance, as well as,
temperature give us only the magnitude and not the direction. Hence both are
scalar quantities. These quantities depend either on the position of P or on the
switching system of the A.C. In both the situations, we get a function. Functions of
this type are called Scalar Functions. It may also be noted here that distance or
temperature functions do not depend on the choice of coordinate system or brand
of A.C., but only on the physical situations such as actual distance or actual
duration of switching on the A.C.
Formally, we give the following definition of a scalar function.
Definition

A Scalar function is a function which is defined at each point of certain

region (domain) in space and whose values are real numbers depending
only on the points in space but not on particular choice of the coordinate
system.
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In most of the applications, the domain of a scalar function is a curve, a surface, or

a three-dimensional region in space.

Vector Differential
Calculus

In the case of temperature of a room fitted with A.C., the domain of temperature
function is the set of points on the regulator of A.C., which controls the
temperature of the room.
The function f associated with each point in domain D is a scalar (a real number)
and we say that a scalar field is obtained. More formally, we have the following
definition :
Definition

If be a function which associates a unique scalar with each point in a

given region, then is called a scalar field function, or simply a scalarfield.
In a plane, for instance, the equation of a curve is given by f ( x, y ) = constant , i.e.
these are curves along which f has a constant value for all points in the xy-plane.
Similarly, a surface may be given by ( x, y , z ) = constant , i.e. these are surfaces
for which has a constant value for all points in space. In these examples scalar
functions f and have plane and space as their respective domains and are scalar
fields.
Some more examples of scalar fields are the density of the air of the earths
atmosphere and the pressure within a region through which a compressible fluid is
flowing.
We can represent a scalar field by a formula as well as pictorially. For a pictorial
representation, we may use the curves and surfaces. The pictorial representation of
scalar fields are maps showing physical geography of a region (indicating hills,
lakes, land above or below sea level, etc.).
In the same manner when we assign a vector to each point of a certain region we
obtain a vector field. Let us now talk about vector fields.
Vector Fields

Consider a curve in a plane or in space. At each point of the curve we can draw a
tangent to the curve. These tangents may have different directions at different
points.
We can assign to each point P of the curve, a tangent vector t (P ) (Figure 6.1).

Figure 6.1 : Tangent Vectors of a Curve

Similarly at each point of a surface, we can draw a normal (Figure 6.2). These
normals may have different directions at different points of the surface. Thus to
each point Q of the surface, a normal vector n (Q ) may be assigned.

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Figure 6.2 : Normal Vectors of a Surface

Moreover, a vector may depend on one or more than one independent scalar
variables. The velocity of a particle, for instance, depends on the position of the
particle as well as time. The time is true for position vector and acceleration of a
particle.
We now give the following definition :
Definition

If to each point P of a certain region G in space a vector V (P) is assigned,

then V (P) is called a vector function.
There are many examples of vector functions in physics. For example velocity,
acceleration, and force are all vector functions. The gravitational force exerted by
the sun on a unit mass is also a variable vector, depending on the position of the
mass, and thus represents a vector function.
The collection of all such vector functions V (P) is called a vector field on G. More
precisely, we give the following definition :
Definition

If F be a function which assigns a vector to each point x in its domain, then

F is called a vector field function or a vector field.
A simple example of a vector field is the field defined by the vector
r = ( x i + y j + z k ) . A physical example of vector field is given by the particles of
a fluid under flow.
At any instant the velocity vector V (P) of rotating body constitutes a vector field,
called the velocity field of rotation. If we introduce a cartesian coordinate system
having the origin on the axis of rotation, then

V ( x, y, z) = w r = w ( x i + y j + z k ) ,
where, x, y, z are the coordinates of any point P of the body in a plane
perpendicular to the axis of rotation and w is the rotation vector or constant angular
velocity of the body (Figure 6.3).

Figure 6.3 : Field of a Body Rotating with Constant Angular Velocity in the Positive
(Counter Clockwise) Direction

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Next consider a particle A of mass M, which is placed at a fixed point P0 and let a
particle B of mass m be free to take up various positions P in space (Figure 6.4).

Vector Differential
Calculus

Figure 6.4 : Some of the Vectors of Gravitational Field

Then particle A attracts particle B. According to Newtons law of

attraction/gravitation, the corresponding gravitational force p is directed from P to
1
P0 and its magnitude is proportional to 2 , where r is the distance between P and
r
P0. Then
|p| =

GM m
r2

where G is the gravitational constant. Hence p defines a vector field in space.

By now you must have clearly understood what we mean by scalar functions,
scalar fields, vectors functions and vector fields. You can test your knowledge by
attempting the following exercise.

SAQ 1
Which of the following are scalar functions, scalar fields, vector functions and
vector fields?
(i)

The gravitational force on a particle of mass M at distance r due to another

particle of mass m.

(ii)

A constant force applied to a particle.

(iii)

The temperature at every point of a mass of heated liquid.

(iv)

Potential of an electric charge placed at the origin.

(v)

The force of a unit charge placed at a point P due to an electric charge e

placed at the origin.

You have already learnt about the basic concepts of limit, continuity, differentiability
and partial differentiation of scalar functions in Block 1. We shall now, in the next
section, introduce these basic concepts of calculus for vector functions in a simple and
natural way.

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6.3 VECTOR CALCULUS

We begin by introducing the idea of limit and continuity of a vector function. We know
that the concept of limit is a basic and useful tool for the analysis of functions. It enables
us to study derivatives, improper integrals and other important features of functions. We
shall introduce the concepts of limit and continuity in a most informal manner without
going into the intricacy of delta, epsilon method.

6.3.1

Limit and Continuity

We say that the limit of the vector f (t) as t a is the vector l if f (t) moves into the
position occupied by l as t a. In the limit, the length and direction of f should match
the length and direction of l; more precisely, we define limits of vector valued functions
in terms of the familiar limits of real-valued functions in the following way.

Definition
Let f (t) = f1 (t) i + f 2 (t) j + f 3 (t) k be a vector valued function of t defined in
some neighbourhood of a (possibly except at a). The limit of f (t ) as t approaches
the number a is the vector l iff the limit of | f (t) l | as t approaches a is zero. In
symbols
l = lim f (t) lim | f (t) l | = 0
t a

t a

. . . (6.1)

Observe that f (t) having l as a limit means that the components of f have the
corresponding components of l as limits. In other words, if
f (t) = f1 (t) i + f 2 (t) j + f 3 (t) k and l = l1 i + l2 j + l3 k
then

lim f (t) = l lim f1 = l1 , lim f 2 = l2 and lim f 3 = l3

. . . (6.2)

This equivalence says that we may calculate limits of vector-valued functions

component wise, i.e., one component at a time.
The limit of a vector valued functions can also be defined in the usual , manner
as we do for the real-valued functions in the following way :
A vector function f (t) of a real variable t is said to tend vector l as t approaches a,
if to any pre-assigned positive number , however small, there corresponds a
positive number such that
| f (t) l | < when | t a | <
and we write
lim f (t) = l

t a

Let us consider the following example.

Example 6.1

t2 + 6
sin t
Find lim f (t), if f (t) = e t i +
j+
k
t 0
t
3 + ln (1 + t)
Solution

The limits of the components of f (t) as t 0 are

lim e t = 1; lim

t 0

64

t 0

t2 + 6
sin t
=2
= 1; lim
t 0 3 + ln (1 + t)
t

Vector Differential
Calculus

lim f (t) = i + j + 2k

Therefore,

The definition of continuity of a vector function f (t) is the same as the definition
for continuity of a real-valued function as can be seen below.
In the definition of a limit of a vector function, we mentioned that f (t) is defined in
the neighbourhood of a (possibly except at a). If the vector function f (t) is also
defined at a and its value at a is equal to vector l, the limit of f (t) as t a, then we
say that the vector function is continuous at t = a. We now give below the precise
definition of continuity of a vector function.
Definition

A vector valued function f (t) is continuous at t = a if f is defined at a and

lim f (t) = f (a)

t a

. . . (6.3)

In view of the equivalence in Eq. (6.2) above, we may say that f (t) is continuous at
t = a if each component of f is continuous at t = a. Thus we may test a vector
function for continuity by applying our knowledge of real-valued functions to each
component of f.
Also f (t) is continuous function if it is continuous at every point of its domain.
Just as in the case of real valued functions, the sum, the difference, scalar product
and vector product of two continuous vector functions are also continuous. We
shall not be proving these results here. You can check them yourself.
Let us consider the following example.
Example 6.2

Discuss the continuity of the function

f (t) =

1
i + (sin t ) j + ln (1 + t 2 ) k
t

Solution

The function f (t) is continuous at every value of t > 0 because each component is
1
, the first
continuous for t > 0. However, f is discontinuous for t 0 because
t
component of f, is not defined for t 0.
You may now try the following exercises.

SAQ 2
(a)

(b)

Find lim f (t) if

t 0

(i)

f (t) = e t i + t e t j

(ii)

f (t) = (et sin t ) i + (et cos t ) j et k

(iii)

f (t) =

t 1 cos t
i +
j+k
sin t
t

At what values of t are the following vector functions f (t) continuous.

(i)

f (t) = (cos t ) i + (sin t ) j + k

(ii)

1
j + ln |1 + t | k
f (t) = et i + cos
t
1
+

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In mechanics, if the position vector of a particle is given by r (t) and if we wish to find its
velocity, we will have to differentiate r (t) with respect to time. Similarly, if the potential
of an electric charge is given, then to determine force due to an electric charge, we shall
have to take a recourse to differentiation. We now discuss the differentiation of a vector
function.

6.3.2

Differentiability

We define the derivative of a vector-valued function f (t) at a point t = a by the same type
of limit equation as we use for scalar functions. Thus
f (a) = lim

h0

f (a + h) f (a)
h

. . . (6.4)

provided the limit on the right exists. We then expect that f is differentiable at t = a iff
each of its components is differentiable at t = a. In this connection we prove the
following result :

Theorem 1
A vector function f (t) = f1 (t) i + f 2 (t) j + f 3 (t) k is differentiable at t = a iff
each of its component function is differentiable at t = a. If this condition is met,
then
f (a) = f1(a) i + f 2 (a) j + f 3 (a) k

. . . (6.5)

Proof
Consider the difference quotient
f (a + h) f (a) f1 (a + h) f1 (a) f 2 (a + h) f 2 (a)
=
i +
j
h
h
h

f 3 (a + h) f 3 (a)
k
h

. . . (6.6)

The left hand side of Eq. (6.6) has a limit as h 0 iff each component on the right
hand side has a limit as h 0. The first component on the right has a limit iff f1 is
differentiable at a.
Finally, if each component is differentiable at a, then taking the limit h 0 in
Eq. (6.6) of each of the quotient, we get Eq. (6.5), thus proving the result.
Note that the differential coefficient f (a) is itself a vector and is called the
derivative of f (t) at t = a. From the definition it is clear that every derivable vector
function is continuous. Consider the following example :

Example 6.3
Obtain the derivative of f (t) = (sin 2 t ) i + (ln t) j + tan 1 (3t) k

Solution
The function and its components are defined at every positive value of t and
possess derivatives for all t. Thus
1
3
f (t) = (2 sin t cos t ) i + j +
k
t
1 + 9t 2

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We now give the geometrical interpretation of the derivative at a vector valued

function.

Geometrical Representation of Derivative

Draw the vector f (t) for values of the independent variable t in some interval
containing t and t + t from the same initial point 0. Then the locus of head of
arrows representing f for different values of t traces out a space curve (Figure 6.5).

Vector Differential
Calculus

Figure 6.5 : Derivative of a Vector Function

Let

OP = f (t) and OQ = f (t + t),

then

f (t + t) f (t) = OQ OP = PQ = f, (say).

Hence

df
f
= lim
dt t 0 t

df
f
is the limiting direction of
or of f . But as Q tends to
dt
t
df
tends to P, PQ tends to the tangent line at P. Hence the direction of
is along the
dt
tangent to the space curve traced out by P. Let s denote the length of the arc of this
df
curve from a fixed point on it up to P. Then the magnitude of
is given by
dt
The direction of

df
| f |
| f | s s
= lim
= lim
=
.
,
t 0 t
t 0 s
t t
dt
since the ratio

| f | chord PQ
=
1 as t 0 .
arc PQ
s

Thus derivative of a vector function represents a vector whose direction is tangent

ds
, where s
to the space curve traced by the vector function and the magnitude is
dt
is the arc length from a fixed point on the curve to the variable point representing
the vector function.
You may note here that a vector will change if either its magnitude changes or
direction changes or both direction and magnitude changes. In this regard, the
following results may be remembered :
df
= 0.
dt

(a)

The necessary and sufficient condition for f (t) to be constant is

(b)

The necessary and sufficient condition for f (t) to have constant magnitude
df
is f .
= 0.
dt

(c)

The necessary and sufficient condition for f (t) to have constant/uniform

df
= 0.
direction is f
dt
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The familiar rules of differentiation of real functions yield corresponding rules for
differentiating vector functions; for example,
(i)

(Cf) = Cf (C a constant).

(ii)

(u v) = u v

(iii)

(u f) =

(iv)

(u . v) = u . v + u . v

(v)

(u v) = u v + u v

(vi)

[u, v, w] = [u, v, w] + [ u, v , w] + [u, v, w ]

du
df
f +u
(u is a scalar function of t).
dt
dt

In (v) above the order of the vectors must be carefully observed, as cross
multiplication of vectors is not commutative.
The chain rule of differentiation is also valid for vector valued functions. That is, if
f (t) is a differentiable function of t, and t = g (s) is a differentiable function of s,
then the composite function f (g (s)) is a differentiable function of s and
df
= f (g (s )) g (s)
ds

. . . (6.7)

We can write Eq. (6.7) in the form

df
df dt
=
.
ds
dt ds

. . . (6.8)

The chain rule given for vector functions by Eq. (6.8) is an immediate
consequence of the chain rule for scalar functions that applies to the components
f1, f2 and f3.
Consider the following example.

Example 6.4
df
in terms of s if f (t) = i + sin (t + 1) j + et + 1 k and
ds
t = g (s) = s 2 1 .

Express

Solution
From the chain rule we have
df
df dt
=
= (cos (t + 1) j + e t + 1 k ) (2 s )
ds
dt ds
2
= 2 s cos ( s 2 ) j + 2 s e s k

We would obtain the same result if we first substitute t = g (s ) = s 2 1 in the

formula for f (t) and then differentiate w.r.t. s.
2
f (g ( s )) = i + sin ( s 2 ) j + e s k
2
d
f (g ( s )) = 2s cos ( s 2 ) j + 2s e s k
ds

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And now a few exercises for you.

Vector Differential
Calculus

SAQ 3
(a)

(b)

Find the derivative of the vector function f (t) in each case and give the
domain of derivative :
(i)

f (t ) = e 2t i + t e t j

(ii)

f (t ) = i + 3 j k

(iii)

1
f (t ) = i sin 1 2t + j tan 1 3t + k
t

1
Find f (x) if f (u) = i cos u + j tan 1 u k
1 + u

and

u = x2 + 2x + 1 .

As we have already mentioned, not all vector functions are functions of one variable. The
velocity of a fluid particle in motion is a function of time and position. The position
vector of a fluid particle at any time and at any position is a vector function of four
variables x, y, z and t. Thus, in any physical problem involving a vector function of two
or more scalar variables, we may be required to find the partial derivatives of this vector
function. In other words, we may be required to find the derivative of the vector function
w.r.t. one scalar variable treating the other scalar variables as constant. Partial derivatives
can be calculated for vector functions by applying the rules we already know for
differentiating vector functions of a single scalar variable.
If a vector function f (u, v) be a differentiable function of two scalar variables u, v given
in the component form as
f (u, v) = f1 (u, v) i + f 2 (u, v) j + f 3 (u, v) k ,
then partial derivatives of f w.r.t. u and v are denoted by
f f
,
u v
respectively and are defined as
f
f
f
f
= 1 i + 2 j + 3 k
u
u u
u
and
Similarly,

f
f
f
f
= 1 i + 2 j + 3 k
v
v v
v
2 f
u 2

2 f1 2 f 2 2 f 3
i +
j +
k
u 2
u 2
u 2

2 f
2 f1 2 f 2 2 f 3
i +
j +
k
=
u v u v
u v
u v

etc. are the second order partial derivatives.

The derivatives
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2 f
2 f
and
u v
v u
are called mixed partial derivatives and they are equal if

f
f
and
are continuous
u
v

functions.
Physically,

f
gives the rate of change of f w.r.t. to u at a given point (u, v) in space.
u

Thus, partial derivatives

f f f
,
,
x y z
of a function f (x, y, z, t) give us the rate of change of f in the directions of x, y, z axes at a
f
gives the rate of change of f with respect to time at a given point in
given instant and
t
space.
Consider the following example.
Example 6.5

Find the first order partial derivatives of r (t1, t 2 ) = a cos t1 i + a sin t1 j + t 2 k .

Solution

We have

r
= a sin t1 i + a cos t1 j
t1
r
= k
t 2

Note that r (t1, t 2 ) is a position vector. It represents a cylinder of revolution of

radius a, having the z-axis as axis of rotation.
You may now try the following exercise.

SAQ 4
For each of the vector function f, find the first partial derivatives w.r.t. x, y, z,
(i)

f = x y i + y z j

(ii)

f = e y i e z j

(iii)

f = x 2 y i + y 2 z j + z 2 x k

You know that curves occur in many considerations in calculus as well as in physics; for
example, as paths of moving particles. Let us consider some basic facts about curves in
space as an important application of vector calculus about which we are going to talk in
our next section.
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6.3.3

Applications of Derivatives

Vector Differential
Calculus

The simplest application of vector calculus is provided by curves in space. Given a

cartesian coordinate system, we may represent a curve C by a vector function
r (t ) = x (t ) i + y (t ) j + z (t ) k
Here to each value of the real variable t, there corresponds a point of C having position
vector r (t) (Figure 6.6).

Figure 6.6 : Parametric Representation of a Curve

For example, any straight line L can be represented in the form

r (t ) = a + t b
where a and b are constant vectors and line L passes through the point A with position
vector r = a and has the direction of b (Figure 6.7).

Figure 6.7 : Parametric Representation of Straight Line

The vector function

r (t ) = a cos t i + b sin t j
represents an ellipse in the xy-plane with centre at origin and axes in the directions of
x and y axes.
Further, if a curve C is represented by a continuously differentiable vector function r (t),
where t is any parameter, then the vector
r (t + t) r (t)
dr
= lim
dt t 0
t
has the direction of the tangent to the curve at r (t ) (Figure 6.8).
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Figure 6.8 : Representation of the Tangent to a Curve

Thus, the position vector of a point on the tangent is the sum of the position vector r of a
point P on the curve and a vector in the direction of the tangent. Hence the parametric
representation of the tangent is
q () = r +

where both r and

dr
,
dt

dr
depend on P and the parameter is a real variable.
dt

Let now consider the following example.

Example 6.6

If a (t) be a variable unit vector, show that

(i)

da
is a vector normal to a.
dt

(ii)

da
is a unit normal vector to a, being the angle through which a turns.
d

Solution

(i)

Since a (t) is a unit vector,

a2 = 1

. . . (6.9)

Differentiating Eq. (6.9) w.r.t. to t, we get

2a .

Thus a and
(ii)

da
=0
dt

da
da
are at right angles, i.e.,
is a vector normal to a.
dt
dt

Let OP = a and OQ = a + a be two neighbouring values of the given vector

making an angle with each other (Figure 6.9).

Figure 6.9

Then

PQ = OQ OP = a + a a
= a

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da
a
= lim
d 0

and
Since

Vector Differential
Calculus

a
is normal to a in the limiting position when 0, therefore

da
is normal to a.
d

da
OP .
a
= OP = 1
= lim
= lim
0
0
d

Also

da
is a unit vector normal to a.
d

Hence

Let us now look into some of the applications of derivatives to dynamics.

Let the position vector of a point moving on a curve be given by r (t). Its
displacement in time t is
= r (t + t) r (t) = r , say.
Since the velocity V of the moving point is the rate of change of its
displacement w.r.t. to time, therefore
V =

dr
dt

Again, the acceleration of the point, being the rate of the change of velocity,
is given by
a=

dV d 2 r
= 2
dt
dt

Consider the following examples.

Example 6.7

Show that if r = a sin t + b cos t where a and b are constants, then

d 2r
dt

= 2 r and r

dr
= (a b )
dt

Solution

We have r = a sin t + b cos t

Differentiating w.r.t. to t, we get
dr
= a cos t b sin t
dt

and

d 2r
dt

= a 2 sin t b 2 cos t = 2 (a sin t + b cos t)

= 2 r
Also

dr
= (a sin t + b cos t) (a cos t b sin t)
dt

= ( sin 2 t + cos 2 t) a b
= ( a a = 0 and b b = 0)
= (a b)

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Let us take up another example.

Example 6.8

A particle P moves on a disk towards the edge, the position vector being
r (t) = t b,
where b is a unit vector, rotating together with the disk with constant angular
velocity in the counter clockwise direction. Find the acceleration a of P.
Solution

Since the particle is rotating with constant angular velocity , therefore b is of the
form
b (t ) = cos t i + sin t j

. . . (6.10)

The position vector of particle P is

r (t) = t b

. . . (6.11)

Differentiating Eq. (6.11) w.r.t. to t, we get

V =r =b +tb

. . . (6.12)

Obviously b is the velocity of P relative to the disk and t b is the additional

velocity due to the rotation (Figure 6.10).

Figure 6.10 : Motion in Example 6.8

Differentiating Eq. (6.12) one more w.r. to t, we obtain

a = V = 2b + t b

. . . (6.13)

In the last term of Eq. (6.13), using Eq. (6.10), we have b = 2 b . Hence the
acceleration t b is directed towards the centre of the disk and is called the
Centripetal Acceleration due to the rotation.
The most interesting term in Eq. (6.13) is 2b , which results from the interaction of
the rotation of the disk and the motion of P on disk. It has the direction of b, i.e., it
is tangential to the edge of the disk and it points in the direction of rotation. This
form, 2b , is called Coriolis Acceleration.
You may now try the following exercises.

SAQ 5
(a)
74

A particle moves along the curve x = e t , y = 2 cos 3t , z = 2 sin 3t where t

is the time variable. Determine its velocity and acceleration at t = 0.

(b)

Vector Differential
Calculus

A particle moves so that its position vector is given by

r = cos t i + sin t j
Show that the velocity V of the particle is perpendicular to r and r V is a
constant vector.

(c)

Find the Coriolis acceleration when the particle moves on a disk towards the
edge with position vector
r (t ) = t 2 b
where b is a unit vector, rotating together with the disk with the constant
angular speed in the anti-clockwise sense.

If we consider a scalar field f (x, y, z) in space, then we know that

f f f
,
,
x y z
are the rates of change of f in the directions of x, y and z coordinate axes. It seems
unnatural to restrict our attention to these three directions and you may ask the
natural question. How to find the rate of change of f in any direction? The answer
to this question leads to the notion of directional derivative which we shall try to
answer in the next section.

6.4 DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVES AND GRADIENT

OPERATOR
Let us consider a scalar field in space given by the scalar function f (P) = f (x, y, z), where
we have chosen the point P in space. Let us choose direction at P, say given by vector b.
Let C be a ray from P in the direction of b and let Q be a point on C, whose distance from
P is s (Figure 6.11).

Figure 6.11 : Directional Derivative

The limit
f
f (Q) f ( P )
= lim
,
s 0
s
s

. . . (6.14)

(Q P )

if it exists, is called the directional derivative of the scalar function f at P in the direction
of b.

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It this way, there can be infinitely many directional derivatives of f at P, each

corresponding to a certain direction. An interesting question arises Can we represent
any such directional derivative in terms of some derivative or derivatives of f at P? The
answer is yes and it is achieved as follows :
Let a cartesian coordinate system be given. Let a be the position vector of P relative to
the origin of this system. Then any point on ray C, or ray C itself, can be represented in
form.

r ( s ) = x ( s) i + y ( s ) j + z ( s ) k = a + s b ( s 0)

. . . (6.15)

f
is the derivative of f [x (s), y (s), z (s)] with respect to arc-lengths of ray C.
s
Hence assuming that f has continuous first partial derivatives and applying the chain rule,
we obtain
Now

f
f dx f dy f dz
=
+
+
s x ds y ds z ds
where

. . . (6.16)

dx dy
dz
,
and
are evaluated at s = 0.
ds ds
ds

Also from Eq. (6.15), we have

dr dx dy dz
=
i +
j+
k =b
ds ds
ds
ds
This suggests that we introduce the vector
grad f =

f f f
i +
j+
k
s
y
z

and write Eq. (6.16) in the form of a scalar product

f
= b . grad f
x
The vector grad f is called the gradient of the scalar function f. More precisely, we give
the following definition :
Definition

The vector function

f
f
f
i
+ j
+ k
x
y
z
is called the gradient of the scalar function f and is written as grad f, viz.,
f
f
f
grad f = i
+ j
+ k
x
y
z
Here we have assumed that scalar function is a continuously differentiable function. Thus
the directional derivative of the scalar point function f along the direction of vector b can
be written as
f
= b . f
s
In other words, the directional derivative
direction of b.
76

f
is the resolved part of grad f in the
s

We see that the gradient of a scalar field f is obtained by operating on f by the vector
operator

Vector Differential
Calculus

i
+ j
+ k
x
y
z
This operator is denoted by the symbol (read as del or nabla) and it operates
distributively.
In terms of , we write
f
f
f
grad f = i
+ j
+ k
x
y
z

= i
+ j
+ k f
y
z
x

f
= b . f
s

The operator is also known as differential operator or gradient operator and

| f | gives the greatest rate of change of f.
The interest and usefulness of introducing this symbol lies in the fact that it can be
formally assumed to have the character of a vector and as such it facilitates the
manipulations with expressions involving differential operators. Thus formally, f being
product of a vector by a scalar f is a vector.
Before we take up the properties of gradient of a scalar field and operator , we take up a
few examples to illustrate how directional derivatives are calculated.
Example 6.9
f
, for f (x, y, z,) = 2 x 2 + 3 y 2 + z 2 at the point
s
P (2, 1, 3) in the direction of the vector a = i 2k .

Find the directional derivative

Solution

grad f = i
+ k (2 x 2 + 3 y 2 + z 2 )
+ j
z
y
x

Here

= 4 x i + 6 y j + 2 z k
At P (1, 2, 3), (grad f )P = (4 x i + 6 y j + 2 z k) x = 2, y =1, z = 3
= 8i + 6 j + 6 k
a = i 2k

Now

| a | = 12 + 2 2 = 5

Unit vector in the direction of a is

a =

Therefore,

1
1
1
2
a=
(i 2k ) =
i
k
|a |
5
5
5

1
f
2
4
= (8i + 6 j + 6k ) .
i
k =
s
5
5
5

The minus sign indicates that f decreases in the direction under consideration.

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Let us take another example.

Example 6.10
Find the directional derivative of f (x, y, z) = x2 y2 z2 at the point (1, 1, 1) in the
direction of the tangent to the curve x = et, y = 2sin t + 1, z = t cos t, 1 t 1.

Solution
Here

+ j
+ k x 2 y 2 z 2
grad f = i
y
z
x
= 2 x y 2 z 2 i + 2 x 2 y z 2 j + 2 x 2 y 2 z k

At P (1, 1, 1), (grad f )p = 2i + 2 j 2k

Now any point on the given curve has position vector

r = et i + (2 sin t + 1) j + (t cos t) k

Direction of tangent t to the given curve is

t=

dr
= e t i + 2 cos t j + (1 + sin t) k
dt

| t | = e 2t + (2 cos t) 2 + (1 + sin t) 2 = e 2t + 2 + 3 cos 2 t + 2 sin t

The point (1, 1, 1) on the curve corresponds to the value t = 0.

i + 2 j + k
=
t
6
at t = 0

1
(t) at (1,1, 1) =
| t |

Required direction derivative

= ( f ) at (1,1, 1) . ( t) at (1,1, 1)

i + 2 j + k

= (2i + 2 j 2k) .

2+42
6

4
6

You may now try the following exercises.

SAQ 6

78

(a)

Find the directional derivative of x 2 + y 2 + 4 x y z at (1, 2, 2) in the

direction of 2i 2 j + k .

(b)

Find the direction in which the directional derivative of

(x2 y2 )
f ( x, y ) =
at (1,1) is zero.
( x, y )

(c)

Find the directional derivative of 4 x z 3 3x 2 y 2 z 2 at (2, 1, 2) along the

z-axis.

We shall now discuss some of the important properties of gradient of a scalar field
functions.

Vector Differential
Calculus

Consider a differentiable scalar function f (x, y, z) in space. For each constant C the
equation
f (x, y, z) = C = constant
represents a surface S is space. Thus, by letting C assume all values, we obtain a family
of surfaces, which are called level surfaces of the function f. Since, by the definition of a
function, our function f has a unique value at each point in space, it follows that through
each point in space there passes one, and only one, level surface of f.
If (x, y, z) denotes the potential, the surface
(x, y, z) = C
is called an equipotential surface. The potential of all points on this surface is equal to the
constant C.
Important geometrical characterization of the gradient of a scalar function f is in terms of
a vector normal to a level surface or an equipotential surface. This property can also be
used in obtaining the normal to a given surface at a given point. We shall now take up
this property.
Property 1 : Gradient as Normal Vector to Surfaces

Let P be a point on the level surface

f (x, y, z) = C = constant
Let Q be a neighbouring point of P on this surface. With reference to some base
point O, let r and r + r be the position vectors of P and Q respectively, then
PQ = r (Figure 6.12).

Figure 6.12

Now

f
f
f
. (i x + j y + k z )
f . r = i
+ j
+ k

f
f
f
x +
y +
z
x
y
z

= f

(by differential calculus)

. . . (6.17)

where f is the difference in values of f at Q and P.

Hence if Q lies on the same level surface as P, f . r = 0.
This means that f is perpendicular to every r lying in the surface. Thus f is
normal to surface
f (x, y, z) = C
Moreover, let f = | f | n where n is a unit vector normal to the surface.
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Let Q be a point on a neighbouring level surface f + f and let n be the

perpendicular distance along PN between the two surfaces. Then the rate of change
of f normal to the surface

f
f
= lim
n n 0 n
= lim f .
n0

r
,
n

= lim | f | n .
n0

r
n

= lim | f |

| r cos ( NPQ)!
n

= lim | f |

n
n

n0

n0

using (6.17)

= | f |
f
. Thus the gradient of a scalar field f is a
n
vector normal to the surface f = constant and having a magnitude equal to the rate
of change of f along this normal.
Hence the magnitude of f is equal to

Let us take up an example for the better understanding of what we have discussed above.

Example 6.11
Find a unit vector normal to surface x 2 y = 2 x z = 4 at the point (2, 2, 3).

Solution
Let

f = x2 y = 2x z = 4

Then a vector normal to the surface is

f
grad f = i
( x 2 y + 2 x z ) + j
( x 2 y + 2 x z ) + k
( x 2 y + 2 x z)
x
y
z

= (2 x y + 2 z ) i + x 2 j + 2 x k
At (2, 2, 3), (grad f )at (2, 2, 3) = 2i + 4 j + 4k
| (grad f ) |at ( 2, 2, 3) = 4 + 16 + 16 = 6
Hence a unit vector normal to the surface

1
1
2
2
( 2i + 4 j + 4k) = i + j + k
6
3
3
3

Some of the vector fields occurring in physics and engineering are given by vector
functions which can be obtained as the gradients of suitable scalar functions. Such a
scalar function is then called a potential function or potential of the corresponding vector
field. The use of potentials simplifies the investigation of those vector fields
considerably. To understand this let us consider the gradient of a potential due to an
electric charge.
80

Vector Differential
Calculus

Property 2 : Gradient of a Potential due to an Electric Charge

Consider an electric charge e placed at the origin.
The potential of this charge at a point P (x, y, z) is

e
where OP = r (Figure 6.13).
r

Figure 6.13

The force on a unit charge placed at P will be

d e
e
= 2
dr r
r

. . . (6.18)

in the direction OP.

The component of the force in the direction of x will be

e
e
=1
=

2
2
2
2
x r x (x + y + z )

e . 2x
2

2 3

(x + y + z )

ex
r3

Similarly, the component of the force in y and z directions can be obtained as

ey
r

and

ez
r3

respectively.

The resultant force may then be written as

ex ey ez
i 3 j 3 k
r3
r
r

=
=

e
r

( x i + y j + z k)

er
r3

This result also follows from Eq. (6.18).

If we denote the potential

e
by , then the force on the particle is
r

i
+ j
.k
, i.e. grad
x
y
z
The physical definition of potential shows that this will be true for all cases.
Similarly, the gradient of the potential due to a number of charges placed at
various points will give force due to these charges.
In the fluid flow, the gradient of the velocity potential will give the velocity at a
point.
Also the gradient of gravitational potential will give the force due to the gravity.
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In Section 6.3, we discussed the differentiability of a vector function. Now we take

the derivative along a curve, which is expressed in terms of gradient of the
function representing the curve at a point and tangent to curve at that point.

Property 3 : Derivative Along a Curve

For a curve f (x, y, z) = constant in a space, the derivative t . f along a curve is
zero if and only if the function f is constant along the curve, t being the unit
tangent to the curve.

Property 4 : The Length and Direction of Grad f are Independent of the Particular
Choice of Cartesian Coordinates
We shall give the proofs of Property 3 and Property 4 in Appendices I and II
respectively.
You may now try the following exercises.

SAQ 7
(a)

Find grad rm, where r is the distance of any point from the origin.

(b)

Find the directional derivative of the function xy2 + yz2 + zx2 along the
tangent to the curve x = t , y = t 2 , z = t 3 at (1, 1, 1) and at ( 1, 1, 1).

(c)

Find a unit vector normal to the surface x 3 + y 3 + 3 x y z = 3 at the point

(1, 2, 1).

(d)

Find the gravitational potential when the force of attraction between two
r
particles, distance r apart, is proportional to 3 .
r

In Section 6.4, we have developed a tool for determining the rate of change of a scalar
field in space and time in the form of directional derivative and gradient. A natural
question arises How fast a vector field varies in a given region? Another questions,
which may be asked is Can we extend the analysis of gradient to a vector field? The
answer to the second question is that it is not possible to extend the analysis of gradient
to a vector field. For a vector field, we can find two types of derivatives.
(i)

derivatives involving rate of change of a vector component in its own

direction, called the divergence.

(ii)

rate of change of components in directions other than their own, called the
curl. Let us first study the concept of divergence of a vector field.

6.5 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR FIELD

We have seen that starting with a scalar point function f, we can construct a vector point
function grad f. But, what happens if we start with a vector point function. If the
constructed function is a scalar point function, then we call it the divergence of a vector
point function. More precisely, we give the following definition :

Definition
If f (x, y, z) be any given continuously differentiable vector function, then the
function
82

f
f
f
+ j .
+ k .
i .
x
y
z

Vector Differential
Calculus

is called the divergence of f or divergence of the vector field defined by f and is

denoted by div f.
In terms of operator , we write
div f = i .

f
f
f
+ j .
+ k .
x
y
z

. f
= i
+ j
+ k
y
z
x

=. f
The symbol . is pronounced as del dot.
Let us consider a cartesian coordinate system Oxyz. Let f have the scalar field
components f1, f2, f3 along the directions of x, y, z axes respectively, so that
f = i f1 + j f 2 + k f 3

div f = . f = i
+ j
+ k . (i f1 + j f 2 + k f 3 )
y
z
x
=

f1 f 2 f 3
+
+
x
y
z

While writing in the above form, we have the understanding that in the dot product
f1

etc. (It may be understood that i, j, k
i
. (i f1 ) means the partial derivative

are constant vectors and their partial derivatives w. r. to x, y, z are zero.) It is a convenient
notation that is being used.
From the definition and the notation used, i.e. . f, it is clear that the divergence of a
vector field function is itself a scalar field. Thus we can construct a scalar field from a
vector field by taking its divergence.
The meaning of divergence of a vector field is indicated in the name itself. div f is a
measure of how much the vector field f diverges (or spreads out) from a point.
We shall now give the physical interpretation of divergence. But before that we would
like to mention that the function div div f is a point function. By a point function we
mean that the value of div f is independent of the particular choice of coordinates, i.e., its
value is invariant w. r. t. coordinate transformation. Learner interested in knowing the
details about the invariance of the divergence may see Appendix-III.

6.5.1

Physical Interpretation

We consider the motion of a compressible fluid in a region R having no sources or sinks

in R, i.e., no points in R at which fluid is produced or disappears.
Let (x, y, z, t) be the density of fluid and v = v (x, y, z, t) be the velocity of fluid particle
at a point (x, y, z) at time t.
Let V = v then V is a vector having the same direction as v and a magnitude
| V | = | v |. It is known as flux. Its direction gives the direction of the fluid flow and
its magnitude gives the mass of the fluid crossing per unit time a unit area placed
perpendicular to the flow.
If the unit area is placed with its normal at an angle to the flow (Figure 6.14), then the
mass of the fluid crossing it per unit time is
(1 . cos ) v = V cos

83

= Resolved part of V in the direction of the normal to the area.

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Figure 6.14 : Flux

Consider a small fixed rectangular parallelopiped of sides x, y, z parallel to the

coordinate axes as shown in Figure 6.15 enclosing a point P (x, y, z).
V = V x i + V y j + Vz k

Let

Figure 6.15

The velocity component parallel to y-axis at any point of the face ABCD.
1

= V y x, y + y , z
2

= V y ( x, y, z )

Vy
1
y
,
y
2

omitting powers of y higher than one.

Thus the mass of fluid that moves out of the face ABCD in time t
Vy

1
= V y ( x, y, z ) + y
x z t
2
y

Similarly, the mass of the fluid that enters through the face A B C D in time t.
Vy

1
= V y ( x, y, z ) y
x z t
2
y

Thus the net mass of the fluid that moves out through the faces ABCD and A B C D
perpendicular to y-axis.
Vy
Vy

1
1
= V y ( x, y, z ) y
x z t V y ( x, y, z ) y
x z t
2
y
2
y

84

Vy
y

x y z t

Similarly, considering the other two pairs of faces, we see that the total mass of fluid
flowing out of the parallelopiped in time t

 V y Vz
V
= x +
+
z
y
x

Vector Differential
Calculus

x y z t

The volume of the parallelopiped is x y z. On taking the limit, when x, y, z, t all

tend to zero, the amount of fluid per unit time that passes through a point P (x, y, z).
=

Vx V y Vz
+
+
= div V
x
y
z

Thus div V = div ( v) gives the net rate of fluid outflow per unit volume per unit time at
a point of the fluid.
The outflow will cause a decrease in the density of the fluid inside the parallelopiped, say
in time t. Thus loss of mass per unit time per unit volume at a point
=

.
t

Equating the loss of mass to the outflow, we get

= div V
t

div ( v ) +

=0
t

. . . (6.19)

This important relation is called the condition for conservation of mass or the continuity
equation of a compressible fluid flow.
Similarly, we can discuss the flow of electricity or the flow of heat or flow of particles
from a radioactive source or water flowing into a drain. Thus, in general, if F is any
vector field defined at all points in a given region, then the divergence of F at any point
represents the flux per unit volume out of the volume dV enclosing the point, as dV is
made smaller and smaller, i.e., dV 0.
You may note that the net rate of fluid outflow at a point P is positive i.e., div V > 0
when the fluid has the tendency to diverge away from P, but if the fluid flows towards
the point, then div V < 0. Thus a point of positive divergence means that there is a net
outflow from that point. Similarly a point of negative divergence implies a net inward
flow.
If we consider the steady fluid motion of an incompressible fluid, so that

= 0 and
t

is constant, then Eq. (6.19) becomes

div v = 0
i.e. the rates of outflow and inflow are equal for any given volume at any times, i.e. the
amount of the material in a volume remains constant.
We know that for a magnetic field, the lines of force are closed they neither flow out of
a point nor into a point. Thus for a magnetic field B, we have
div B = 0
Thus there exists vector fields where divergence is zero. Such vector fields are called
divergence free or solenoidal. We give below the formal definition of solenoidal vector
field.

Definition

A vector field F is called divergence free or solenoidal in a given region if for all
points in that region

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.F=0

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Thus magnetic field or velocity of a steady flow of compressible fluid are examples
of solenoidal vector fields.
We now apply the concepts discussed in this section to some examples.

Example 6.12
Find the divergence of the vector A = x 2 y i + 2 y z k 2 x z j .

Solution
From definition,
div A =

(x 2 y) +
( 2 y z) +
(2 y z)
z
x
y

= 2x y + 0 + 2 y
= 2 y ( x + 1)

Example 6.13
Show that div (grad r n ) = n (n + 1) r n 2 .

Solution
Let r be the distance of a point P (x, y, z) from a fixed point A (x0, y0, z0)

r = ( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y0 ) 2 + ( z z0 ) 2

r = [( x x0 ) + ( y y0 ) + ( z z0

Now

grad (r n ) = i
[( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y0 ) 2 + ( z z0 ) 2 ] 2
x

n
2 2
) ]
n

2
n
= i {( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y0 ) 2 + ( z z0 ) 2 } . 2 ( x x0 )
2
n

div (grad rn) =

[n {( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y0 ) 2 + ( z z0 ) 2 } 2 ( x x0 )
x
n

2
n

= n 1 {( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y0 ) 2 + ( z z0 ) 2 }

2
2

+ {( x x0 ) + ( y y0 ) + ( z z0

= n (n 2)

2 2
2

n
1
2 2
) }

( x x0 ) + n

1 1

. 2 ( x x0 ) 2

. 1

n
2 1
r 2

= n (n 2) r n 4 [( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y0 ) 2 + ( z z0 ) 2 ] + 3 n r n 2
= r n 2 [n (n 2) + 3n]
= r n 2 [n 2 2n + 3n]
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= r n 2 [n 2 2n + 3n]

Vector Differential
Calculus

= n (n + 1) r n 2

Hence the result.

Example 6.14

Show that the vector A = ( x + 3 y) i + ( y 3z) j + ( x 2 z) k is solenoidal.

Solution

We know that A is solenoidal if div A = 0.

div A =

Now

( x + 3 y) +
( y 3 z) +
( x 2 z)
x
y
z

= 1 + 1 2 = 0.
Hence A is solenoidal vector.
Example 6.15

A rigid body is rotating about a fixed axis with a constant angular speed . The
velocity vector field V of the rigid body at any point r is given by V = r. Show
that V is a divergence free vector.
Solution

If V is a divergence free vector, then

div V = 0
Let z-axis be the axis of rotation for the rigid body.
= k

If r is the position vector of any particle P of the rigid body, then

r = x i + y j + z k

V = velocity of P = r
= k ( x i + y j + z k)
= x j y i

Now, by definition,
div V =

( y) +
( x) +
(0)
z
x
y

=0+0+0=0
Hence velocity vector V is a divergence free vector.
How about trying a few exercises now.

SAQ 8
(a)

If r = x i + y j + z k show that
(i)

div r = 3

(ii)

r
div 3 = 0
r

(iii)

div (r ) = 3 + r . grad , where is a scalar function of x, y, z.

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(iv)

dir (r ) =

2
x2 + y2 + z 2

(b)

The gravitational force p of attraction of two particles is the gradient of the

c
scalar function f ( x, y , z , ) = . Show that for r > 0, p is a solenoidal
r
vector.

(c)

Determine the electric field and charge distribution corresponding to

2a 3
potential = r2 and = a 2 +
.

(Hint : Electric field, E = ) and charge distribution = . E.)

We now give some formulas on divergence of vector functions.

6.5.2

Formulae on Divergence of Vector Functions

(i)

div (K f ) = K div f, where K is a constant and f is a vector function.

(ii)

div ( f ) = div f + f. grad , where is a scalar function and f is a vector

function.

(iii)

div (grad ) =

2
x

2
y

2
z

= 2 , where is a scalar field.

Learner interested in knowing the proofs of these formulas may see Appendix-IV.
As mentioned earlier, we now discuss the derivative of vector field involving the rate of
change of components of a vector field in directions other than their own, i.e. we discuss
the curl of a vector field.

6.6 CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD

Curl of a vector field helps us in constructing a vector point function from a vector field.
The formal definition of curl of a vector field is as follows :
Definition

If f (x, y, z) be given continuously differentiable vector function, then the function

f
f
f
+ j
+ k
i
x
y
z

is called the curl of f or curl of the vector field defined by f and is denoted by
curl f.
In terms of operator , we write
f
f
f
curl f = i
+ k
+ j
z
y
x

88

f
+ k
+ j
= i
z
y
x

=f
The symbol is pronounced as del cross. Curl f can also be obtained in the form of
a determinant as follows :

Vector Differential
Calculus

Let x, y, z be right-handed Cartesian coordinates in space and let

f (x, y , z ) = f x (x, y, z ) i + f y (x, y , z ) j + f z (x, y, z ) k

be a differentiable vector function, then the function curl f is

j k
i

Curl f = f =
x y z
fx f y fz
f
fz
= i z
z
y

fx fz
+ j

f y fx
+ k

In the case of a left handed Cartesian coordinate system, the determinant for curl f is
preceded by a minus sign.
What does curl f represents physically? We shall answer this question in the next
subsection.

6.6.1

Physical Interpretation

Let F be a continuously differentiable vector field.

Then

Fy
F
Curl F = F = i z
z
y

Fx Fz
+ j

x
z

Fy Fx
+ k

Let us consider the z-component of f, i.e.

( F) z =

Fy
x

Fx
y

Now ( F) z will be always positive if

(i)

(ii)

Fy
x
Fy
x

increases and
>

Fx
decreases or
y

Fy
Fx
Fx
, when both
and
are positive.
y
x
y

The projection of F on xy-plane will be OA = Fx i + Fy j . At point A (x, y, 0), the

y-component of F increases by the factor

Fy
x

dx and the x-component of F decreases

Fx
dy due to displacement (dx, dy, 0) in A. Hence at the point
y
B (x + dx, y + dy, 0),
by the factor

Fy

Fx
OB = Fx
dy i + Fy +
dx j
y
x

and the resultant displacement is AB, which has turned left. If we give a further
displacement, Fy would increase and Fx would decrease, giving a further resultant BC.
Thus in going from point A to C, the field vector has rotated anti-clockwise.

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We can relate this rotation of F to the z-component of Curl F. From the right-hand rule,
the direction of ( F) z will be along the z-axis. The magnitude of ( F) z tells us
how the magnitude of the field vector F changes as it rotates.
We can extend this argument to the x and y components of F and can say that the x
and y components of F represent the rotation about x and y-axes, respectively.
Thus curl of a vector field gives us an idea of its rotation about an axis. It is termed as
VORTEX field. The direction of F (i.e., curl F) is along the axis about which the
vector field F rotates (or curls) most rapidly and | F | is a measure of speed of this
rotation.
The sense of rotation (clockwise or anti-clockwise) is determined by the right-hand rule.
The curl of a vector functions plays an important role in many applications. Its
significance will be explained in more detail in Unit 7. At present we confine ourselves to
some simple examples.

6.6.2

Rotation of a Rigid Body

A rotation of a rigid body B in space can be simply and uniquely described by a vector .
The direction of is that of the axis of rotation and is such that the rotation appears
clockwise if we look from the initial point of to its terminal point. The magnitude of
is equal to the angular speed (> 0) of the rotation, i.e. the linear (or tangential) speed of
a point of B divided by its distance from the axis of rotation (Figure 6.16).

Figure 6.16 : Rotation of a Rigid Body

Let P be any point of the body B and let d be the distance of P from the axis of rotation.
Let r be the position vector of P referred to some origin O on the axis of rotation. Then
d = | r | sin , where is the angle between and r.
From above and the definition of vector product, the velocity vector V of P is given by
V=r
Let the axis of rotation be along the z-axis and we choose right-handed Cartesian
coordinates such that = k .
Then

V = r = ( k) ( x i + y j + z k)
= y i + x j

Now
90

j k
i

Curl V =
x y z
y x 0

= i
( x) + j ( y ) + k ( x) +
( y )
y
z

= 0 + 0 + (2) k

Vector Differential
Calculus

(Here is a constant)

= 2 k = 2
Hence in the case of rotation of rigid body, the curl of the velocity field has the direction
of the axis of rotation and its magnitude equals twice the angular speed of the rotation.
We can also say that the curl of a velocity vector field at a point of a rotating body
represents twice the rate at which a material element occupying the point is rotating.
This result justifies the term rotation which is sometimes used for curl. We sometimes
write rot f instead of curl f.
It may be remarked that a similar velocity field is obtained by stirring coffee in a cup. We
know take up another property of curl.
For any twice continuously differentiable scalar field f,
grad f = f = i

and

Curl (grad f) =
x
f
x

y
f
y

f
f
f
+ j
+ k
z
x
y

z
f
z

2 f
2 f 2 f
2 f 2 f
2 f
= i

+ j
+k

y z z y
z x x z
x y y x
= 0 + 0 + 0 ( f is twice continuously differentiable)
=0
Hence if a vector function is the gradient of a scalar function, its curl is the zero vector.
Since curl characterizes the rotation in a field, we may say that gradient fields describing
a motion are irrotational.
If a vector field occurs which is the gradient of a scalar field and if such a field occurs not
as a velocity field, then it is usually called conservative.
We can now give the formal definition of irrotational vector field.
Definition

A field that has a vanishing curl everywhere is called an irrotational (or

conservative) field, i.e., if curl A = 0 the vector field A is called irrotational.
Let us now take up a few examples.
Example 6.16

In electrostatics, the force of attraction (or repulsion) between two particles of

opposite (or like) charges Q1 and Q2 is
p=

K
r3

r,

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Q1
Q2
and is the dielectric constant. Is p an irrotational field?
where K =
(4 )

Solution

p is an irrotation field, if curl p = 0.

p=

K
r

r=

K
2

(x + y + z 2 )3 / 2

(x i + y j + z k )

Then, by definition,

x
Kx

y
Ky

z
Kz

(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )3 / 2

(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )3 / 2

(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )3 / 2

curl p =

= i
y

Kz
Ky

2
(x + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2 x (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2

+ j
z

Kx
Kz

2
2
2
2 3/ 2
2
2
3
/
2
(x + y + z ) x (x + y + z )

+ k
x

Ky
Kx

2
2
2
2 3/ 2
2
2
3
/
2
(x + y + z ) y (x + y + z )

3
3

kz . 2 y
ky . 2 z

2 22
= i 2 2 2
2 5/ 2
2 5/ 2
(x + y + z )
(x + y + z )

3
3

kx . 2 z
kz . 2 x

2
2

+ j 2

2
2 5/ 2
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )5 / 2
(x + y + z )

3
3

ky . 2 x
kx . 2 y

2
2

+k 2
2
2
2 5/ 2
2
2 5/ 2
(x + y + z )
(x + y + z )

= 0 + 0 + 0 = 0. Hence p is an irrotational field.

Let us take up another example.

Example 6.17
Show that the vector field defined by

F = 2 x y z 3 i + x 2 z 3 j + 3 x 2 y z 2 k
is irrotational. Find a scalar potential u such that F = grad u.

Solution
By def.,

92

j
i
k

curl F =
x
y
z
3
2 3
2
2 x y z x z 3x y z 2

Vector Differential
Calculus

= i (3 x 2 z 2 3 x 2 z 2 ) + j (6 x y z 2 6 x y z 2 ) + k (2 x z 3 2 x z 3 )
= 0 + 0 + 0 = 0.
Hence F is irrotational and hence F can be expressed as grad u.
u u u
+ j
+k
z
x
y

Let,

F = i

Also

F = 2 x y z 3 i + x 2 z 3 j + 3 x 2 y z 2 k

Comparing the two expressions for F, we get

u
u
u
= 2x y z3 ,
= x2 z3 ,
= 3x 2 y z 2
x
y
z
Now

du =

u
u
u
dx +
dy +
dz
x
y
z

= 2 x y z 3 dx + x 2 z 3 dy + 3 x 2 y z 2 dz
= y z 3 d (x 2 ) + x 2 z 3 dy + x 2 y d ( z 3)

= d (x2 y z3 )

u = x 2 y z 3 + constant

You may now try the following questions and see whether you have understood the
concepts given in this section.

SAQ 9
(a)

Find Curl F, where F = ( x 3 + y 3 + z 3 3 x y z ) .

(b)

A fluid motion is given by q = ( y + z ) i + ( z + x) j + ( x + y ) k . Is this

motion irrotational? If so, find the velocity potential.

(c)

If V = r show that V = 0.

You know that the operator is a vector operator. You can use this operator to prove
some formulae on gradient, divergence and curl. We shall state these formulae in the next
section.

6.6.3

Formulae on Gradient, Divergence and Curl

You already know from Sections 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6 that
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(i)

The operator, when operated on a scalar field f gives rise to a vector field
f (gradient of f).

(ii)

Scalar product of with a vector field F gives a scalar field, divergence of

F or ( . F).

(iii)

Vector product of with a vector field F gives a vector field, curl F or

( F).

We now give the following formulas :

(i)

grad ( ) = grad + grad .

(ii)

grad (A . B) = A curl B + B curl A + (A . ) B + (B . ) A.

(iii)

grad (div A) = Curl Curl A + 2 A.

(iv)

div (A B) = B . curl A A . curl B

(v)

div (curl A) = 0

(vi)

div (f grad ) = f 2 + f . g

(vii) curl ( A) = (grad ) A + curl A

(viii) curl (A B) = A div B B div A + (B . ) A (A . ) B.
For the proofs of formulas (i)-(viii) see Appendix-V.
Using the above formulas, you may now try the following exercises.

SAQ 10
(a)

If a is a constant vector and r denotes the position vector of any point in

space and if f = (a r) rn, show that
div f = 0 and curl f = (n + 2) rn a n rn 2 (a . r) r.

(b)

Show that
(i)

div [(r a) b] = 2 (a . b)

(ii)

grad [r, a, b] = a b

(iii)

curl (r a) = 2 a

(iv)

div (r a) = 0

(v)

grad (a . r) = a,

where a and b are a constant vector and r is the radius vector.

6.7 SUMMARY
We will now summarise the result of this unit.

94

A function which is defined at each point of a certain region in space and

whose values are real numbers, depending on the points in space but not on
particular choice of coordinate system, is called a scalar function.

If be a function which associates a unique scalar with each point in a given

region, then is called a scalar field.

If to each point P of a certain region in space, or if to each set P of variables

of a certain sets of variables, a vector V (P) is assigned, then V (P) is called
a vector function.

If F be a function which associates a unique vector with every point in a

given region, then F is called a vector field.

A vector function f (t) of a real variables t is said to tend to its limit l as t

approaches a if f (t) moves into the position occupied by l as t a.

Vector Differential
Calculus

lim = f (t ) = l
t a

The vector function f (t), of scalar variables t, is said to be differentiable at a

point t if the limit
lim =

t 0

f (t + t ) f (t )
t

exists and it is then denoted by

df
or f (t ) .
dt

The derivative of a vector function represents a vector in the direction of the

tangent to the curve traced by the vector function.

If a vector function is expressed in terms of its components, then the limit,

continuity and differentiability of the function exists provided limit,
continuity and differentiability respectively of each component exists.

f
gives the rate of change of f (u, v) w.r.t. u at a
u
given point (u, v) in space.

The partial derivative

The vector
f
f
f
grad f = i
+ j
+ k
=f
x
y
z

is called the gradient of scalar f, where f is a continuously differentiable

function. Here the symbol is read as del and represents vector operator

i
+ j
+ k .
y
z
x
The directional derivative of a scalar function f along the vector b can be
written as
f
= b . grad f
s

The gradient of a scalar field f is a vector normal to the level surface

f = constant and has a magnitude equal to the rate of change of f along this
normal.

If F (x, y, z) be any given continuously differentiable vector function, then

the function
F
F
F
i .
+ j .
+ k .
z
x
y

is called the divergence of F and is written as div F or . F.

The divergence of a vector field represents the net outward flux per unit
time at any point of the vector field.

A vector field F is called divergence free or solenoidal field in a given

region if for all points in that region div F = 0.

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If F (x, y, z) be any continuously differentiable vector function, then the

function
F
F
F
i
+ j
+ k
z
x
y

is called the curl of F and is denoted by curl F or F.

The curl of a vector field represents a rotation about an axis.

A field that has a vanishing curl everywhere is called irrotational (or

conservative) field, i.e., if curl A = 0, then A is called irrotational.

6.8 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
SAQ 2
(a)

Vector function
Vector function
Scalar field
Scalar function
Vector function
(i)

The limits of the components of f (t) as t 0 are

lim e t = 1 , lim t e t = 0

t 0

lim f (t ) = i

(ii)

t 0

t 0

The limits of the components of f (t) as t 0 are

lim (e t sin t ) = 1.0 = 0, lim (e t cos t) = 1.1 = 1, lim ( e t ) = 1
t 0

lim f (t ) = j k

(iii)

t 0

The limits of the components of f (t) as t 0 are

lim

t 0

t
1 cos t
0 + sin t
= 1, lim
= lim
= 0, lim 1 = 1
t 0
t 0
t 0
t
1
sin t

(b)

(i)

t 0

lim f (t ) = i + k

t 0

The function
f (t ) = (cos t ) i + (sin t ) j + k

(ii)

is continuous at every value of t, because each component is

continuous for all t.
The function
1
f (t ) = et i + cos
j + log |1 + t | k
1+ t
1
is
1+ t
not defined at t = 1and at all other values of t each component is
continuous.

is continuous at all t except t = 1, because the function cos

SAQ 3
96

(a)

(i)

The derivative of f (t ) = e 2t i + t e t j is
f (t ) = 2e 2t i + (e t t e t ) j . The function f (t ) and its derivative
f (t ) are defined at every value of t.

(ii)

Here f (t ) = 0, because f (t) is a constant vector. Domain is all t.

(iii)

Here f (t ) =

2
1 4t 2

i +

3
1 9t

Vector Differential
Calculus

j 1 k
t2

Domain : For | 2t | < 1 and t 0.

(b)

From the chain-rule, we have

d
d
du
f ( x) =
f (u ) .
dx
du
dx

1
1
1
1
j +
.
= (sin u ) .
i +
k ( 2 x + 2)
2
2 u
(1 + u ) 2 2 u )
(1 + u )

= i sin ( x 2 + 2 x + 1) .

+k

2 ( x + 1)
2

2 x + 2x + 1

2 ( x + 1)

2 ( x + 1)
1 + ( x + 1)

2 ( x + 1)
1 + ( x 2 + 2 x + 1) 2

2 x 2 + 2 x + 1 (1 +

= i sin ( x + 1) + j

+ j

x 2 + 2 x + 1) 2
+ k

1
( x + 2) 2

This result is valid for ( x + 2) 0 .

SAQ 4
(i)

f
f
f
= y j
= x i + z j,
= y i,
z
y
x

(ii)

f
f
f
= e z j
= e y i,
= 0,
z
y
x

(iii)

f
f
f
= y 2 j + 2 xz k
= x 2 i + 2 yz j,
= 2 xy i + z 2 k,
z
y
x

SAQ 5
(a)

The position vector of the particle at any time t is

r (t ) = e t i + 2 cos 3t j + 2 sin 3t k

(b)

d
r (t ) = e t i 6 sin 3t j + 6 cos 3t k
dt

Velocity

V (t ) =

Hence

V (0) = i + 6 k
d
V (t ) = e t i 18 cos 3t j 18 sin 3t k
dt

Acceleration

a (t ) =

a (0) = i 18 j

Here

r = cos t i + sin t j

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dr
= sin t i + cos t j
dt

V =

r . V = sin t cos t + sin t cos t = 0

V is perpendicular to r

i
Also

r V =

cos t
sin t 0
sin t cos t 0

= k ( cos 2 t + sin 2 t) = k
which is independent of t.
Hence r V is a constant vector.
(c)

Here r (t ) = t 2 b

Velocity = V = r = 2t b + t 2 b

Here 2 t b is the velocity of any point P relative to the disk and t 2 b is the
additional velocity due to rotation.
Also

Acceleration = a = V = 2 b + 4t b + t 2 b
= 2 b + 4t b + t 2 b

Also because of rotation, b is of the form

b = cos t i + sin t j

b = sin t i + cos t j

and

b = 2 cos t i 2 sin t j = 2 b

Hence the Coriolis acceleration = 4t b , which is due to the interaction of

rotation of the disk and the motion of P on the disk. It is in the direction of
b , i.e. tangential to the edge of the disk and it points in the direction of
rotation.

SAQ 6
(a)

Here f = x 2 + y 2 + 4 xyz
grad f = 2 x i + 4 yz i + (2 y + 4 xz) j + 4 xy k
(grad f ) (1, 2, 2) = {2.1+ 4 . ( 2) . 2} i + {2 . ( 2) + 4 . 1.2} j + 4.1 ( 2) k
= 14 i + 4 j 8 k
Here

a = 2 i 2 j + k
|a | = 4 + 4 + 1 = 3
a =

2 2 1
i j+ k
3
3
3

Required directional drivative

=
98

f
s

2
1
2
= ( 14 i + 4 j 8 k) . i j + k
3
3
3
=

Vector Differential
Calculus

28 8 8 44
=
3
3 3
3

The minus sign indicates that and decreases in the direction under
consideration.
(b)

Here f ( x, y ) =

x2 y2
xy

grad f =

x y x y
i +
j
y y x
y x

x
1
y
1
= + 2 i + 2 j
x
y x
y

(grad f ) (1,1) = 2 i 2 j

Let a = a1 i + a2 j be the direction in which directional derivative of f is

zero.

(a i + a2 j )
(2 i 2 j) . 1
=0
a12 + a22

2a1 2a2 = 0

(c)

a1 = a2

Hence the required direction =

a1 i + a1 j

a1 (i + j )

a12 + a22

( 2 a1 )

1
2

(i + j )

Here f = 4 x z 3 3x 2 y 2 z 2

grad f =

f f f
i +
j+
k
x
y
z

= (4 z 3 6 x y 2 z 2 ) i 6 x 2 y z 2 j + (12 xz 2 6 x 2 y 2 z) k
Now
(grad f ) ( 2, 1, 2) = (4.8 6 . 2 . 1.4) i {6 . 4 . ( 1) . 4} j + (12 . 2.4 6 . 4 . 1.2) k
= 16 i + 96 j 48 k
Directional derivative along z-axis
= ( 16 i + 96 j 48 k ) . k
= 48

SAQ 7
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(a)

Here | r | =

x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , where (x, y, z) is any point in space

= (x + y +

Hence grad r m =

m
2 2
z )

r m r m r m
i +
j+
k
x
y
z
m

1
m 2
( x + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 [2 x i + 2 y j + 2 z k ]
2

=m

m
2 1
r 2

[ x i + y j + z k ]
( r = x i + y j + z k )

= m rm 2 r
(b)

Here parametric representation of the curve is

r (t ) = t i + t 2 j + t 3 k

r = i + 2t j + 3t 2 k

If t is the unit tangent to the curve, then

i + 2t j + 3t 2 k
t =
1 + 4t 2 + 9t 4
At (1, 1, 1) for the given curve t = 1
i + 2 j + 3 k
1
(t) (1,1,1) = (t) (t =1) =
=
(i + 2 j + 3 k )
1+ 4 + 9
14
At ( 1, 1, 1) for the given curve t = 1
i 2 j + 3 k

( i 2 j + 3 k )

(t) ( 1,1, 1) = (t) (t = 1) =

Now

f = xy 2 + yz 2 + zx 2

(grad f) = ( y 2 + 2 xz ) i + ( z 2 + 2 xy ) j + ( x 2 + 2 yz ) k

(grad f) (1,1,1) = 3 ( i + j + k )

and

(grad f) ( 1,1, 1) = 3i j k

1+ 4 + 9

14

Directional derivative at (1, 1, 1) along the tangent

1
= 3 (i + j + k) .
(i + 2 j + 3k)
14
=

3
14

(1 + 2 + 3) =

18
14

Also directional derivative at ( 1, 1, 1) along the tangent

1
= (3i j k) .
( i 2 j + 3k)
14
=

100

(c)

1
14

(3 + 2 3) =

Let f = x 3 + y 3 + 3xyz 3

2
14

A vector normal to the surface is

(grad f ) = (3 x 2 + 3 yz ) i + (3 y 2 + 3 xz ) j + 3 xy k

Vector Differential
Calculus

At (1, 2, 1)
(grad f ) (1, 2, 1) = (3.12 + 3.2 . ( 1) i + (3.2 2 + 3.1 . ( 1)) j + (3.1 . 2) k
= 3 i + 9 j + 6 k
Also

| (grad f ) (1, 2, 1) | = 9 + 81 + 36 = 126 = 3 14

Hence a unit vector normal to the surface

3 i + 9 j + 6 k
1
=
=
( i + 3 j + 2 k )
3 14
14
(d)

r
Here force of attraction = 3 where is a constant of
r
proportionality.

If is the gravitational potential for this force, then

grad =
=

r
i +
j+
k = 3
x
y
z
r
x i

y z
j 3 k
r
r3
r
( x i + y j + z k
3

(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2

i +
j
x (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
y (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )

x + y +z

k
z (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )

SAQ 8
(a)

.F
Here r = x i + y j + z k and div F = . F = i
+ j
+ k
y
z
x
x y z
+
+
=1+1+1= 3
x y z

(i)

div r =

(ii)

x i + y j + z k
r
div 3 = i
+ j
+ k . 2

y
z ( x + y 2 + z 2 )3 / 2
r x
=

x
y

+
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2 y (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2

(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2

3
= (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2 . 1 + x . . 2 x . (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 5 / 2
2

101

Engineering
M th
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3
+ (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2 . 1 + y . . 2 y . (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 5 / 2
2
3
+ (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2 . 1 + z . . 2 z . (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 5 / 2
2

= 3 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2 3 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 5 / 2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
=0
(iii)

div (r ) = . ( x i + y j + z k )
=

(x ) +
(y ) +
(z )
x
y
z

=+x

+ z+
++ y
y
z
x

+ y
+z
x
y
z

= 3 + x

= 3 + ( x i + y j + z k ) . i
+ j
+k
y
z
x

= 3 + r . grad
(iv)

Here | r | =

x2 + y2 + z 2
r =

x i + y j + z k

div r =

x2 + y2 + z 2

x
y

+
x (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) y (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )

2
2
2

(x + y + z )

1
= (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 1 / 2 + x . ( 2 x) (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2 + . . . +
2

= 3 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 1 / 2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
= 2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 1 / 2 =

(b)

x2 + y2 + z 2

c c c
c
Here p = grad = i

+k
+ j
z r
y r
x r
r
=

c
1 c
1 c
1
i 3 2 x j 3 2 y k 3 2 z
2 r
2 r
2 r

( r 2 = x2 + y2 + z 2 )

102

div p =

cx cy
=
+
x r 3 y r 3 z

cz
3
r

=
=
=

r3

3 cx . 2 x
c
3 cy . 2 y
c
3 cz . 2 z
3 +
3 +
5
5
2 r
2 r
2 r5
r
r

Vector Differential
Calculus

x2 + y2 + z 2

c
3
+
5

r3
r

3c

3c

3c

r3

=0

div p = 0, p is a solenoidal vector.

(c)

When = r2

( r 2 ) j
( r 2 ) k
( r 2 )
Electric field E = = i
x
y
z
= (i [2 x] + 2 y j + 2 z k )
= 2 ( x i + y j + z k )
= 2 r
Charge distribution

. E = ( 2 x) +
( 2 y ) +
( 2 z )
y
z
x

= ( 2 2 2 )
= 6

2a 3
= a2 +

when
Electric field

E = = i
+ j
+ k a 2 +
y
z
x

=
=

2
2
2
x + y +z
2a 3

3
3
2a 3 1
+ 2a . 1 . 2 y j + 2a . 1 . 2 z k
x
.
.
2
i
r3 2
r3 2
r3 2

2a 3
r3

2a 3
( x i + y j + z k ) = 3 r
r

Charge distribution

.E =
x

2a 3 x 2a 3 y 2a 3 z

r 3 y r 3 z r 3

2a 3 2a 3 2a 3 2a 3 x 3
2a 3 y 3
2a 3 z 3
2z
= 3 + 3 + 3 3 . . 2x 5 . . 2 y 5
2
2
2
r
r
r
r
r
r
6a 3 6a 3

= 3 5 ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = 0
r
r

SAQ 9
(a)

Here F = ( x 3 + y 3 + z 3 3xyz)

103

Engineering
M th
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curl F = curl [ ( x 3 + y 3 + z 3 3 xyz)]

[ curl (grad (any function)) = 0]

=0
(b)

Here q = ( y + z ) i + ( z + x) j + ( x + y ) k

j
i
k

curl q =
x
y
z
y+z z+x x+ y
= i (1 1) + j (1 1) k (1 1)
=0

Hence the fluid motion is irrotational.

Let be the velocity potential

q = = i
j
k
x
y
z

Comparing the two expression for q , we get

Now

= y + z,
z + x,
x+ y
x
y
z

d =

dx +
dy +
dz
x
y
z

= [ ydx + zdx + zdy + xdy + xdz + ydz]

= [( ydx + xdy) + ( zdx + xdz) + ( zdy + ydz)]
= d ( xy + yz + zx)

(c)

= ( xy + yz + zx) , which is required.

Here
V = r =

r
=
r

x
2

x + y +z

i +

y
2

x + y +z

j +

z
2

x + y +z

j k
i

Curl V =
x y z
x y z
r
r
r
1 z . 2 y 1 y

1 x . 2z 1 z

. 2 x
. 2 z + j
= i
+
+
3
3
3
3
2 r
2 r

2 r

2 r
1 y . 2x 1 x . 2 y
+ k
+
2 r 3
2 r3
=0+0+0=0

SAQ 10
(a)
104

Here f = (a r) r n

Vector Differential
Calculus

= a r rn
We know that div (A B) = B . curl A A . curl B
div f = div (a r r n )

= r r n . curl a a . curl (r r n )
a is a constant vector,

curl a = 0
r = x i + y j + z k

Now

r r = (x + y +
n

n
2 2
z )

( x i + y j + z k)

curl (r r n ) =
2

x (x + y

y
n
2 2
+z )

y (x + y

z
n
2 2
+z )

z (x + y

n
2 2
+z )

n
n
n

1
1
n
= i z ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 . 2 y y ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 . 2 z
2
2

=0+0+0=0

div f = r r n . 0 a . 0
=00=0

f = {(a r) r n } = i
{(a r) r n }
x

Now curl
Now

{(a r) r n } = n r n 1
(a r) + r n a
x
x
x

= n r n 2 x (a r) + r n a i

i
{(a r) r n } = x n r n 2 i (a r) + r n i (a i)
x
= n . r n 2 . x [(i . r) a ( i . a) r]
+ r n [(i . i) a (i . a) i]
= n . r n 2 . x 2 a n . r n 2 ( x i . a) r
+ r n a r n (i . a) i

i
[(a r) r n ] = n r n 2 a ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
x

n r n 2 r ( r . a ) + 3r n a r n a
= r n a ( n + 2) n r n 2 ( a . r ) r
Hence the result.
(b)

(i)

div [(r a ) b]
= div [(r . b) a (a . b) r ]
105

If r = x i + y j + z k, a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k

Engineering
M th
ti

[(r a ) b] =

[a1 ( x b1 + y b2 + z b3 )]
x

[a2 ( x b1 + y b2 + z b3 )]
y

x y z

+
+
[ a3 ( x b1 + y b2 + z b3 )] (a . b)
z
x y z

= (a . b) 3 (a . b)
(ii)

= 2 (a . b)
grad [r, a, b]
= [(r . (a b)]
= [ x (a b) i component + y (a b) j component + z (a b) k component ]

= i (a b) i component + j (a b) j component + k (a b) k component

= (a b)
(iii)

curl (r a) = i
( r a)
x
r

= i a
x

= i (i a)
= ((i . a ) i (i . i) a

(iv)

= a 3 a = 2a
div ( r a) = a . curl r r . curl a

Now

j k
i

curl r =
x y z
x y z
= i (0 0) + i (0 0) + k (0 0)

(v)

and

=0
curl a = 0

div ( r a) = 0

grad (a . r ) = (a1 x + a2 y + a3 z)
if

a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k

and

r = x i + y j + z k

grad (a . r ) = i
( a1 x + a2 y + a3 z)
x
= i a
1

=a

106

( a is a constant vector)

APPENDIX I : DERIVATIVE ALONG A CURVE

Vector Differential
Calculus

Let a curve C in space be given by

f (x, y, z) = constant
If we take a fixed point A on the given curve C, from which we measure the arc length
s of the curve, then along the curve f (x, y, z) is a function of s.
The position vector r (s) of any point P on the curve at a distance s from A is given by

r ( s ) = F ( s ) = f1 ( s ) i + f 2 ( s ) j + f 3 ( s ) k
Let Q be a neighbouring point of P, such that AQ = s + s. Then from calculus, by the
definition of differential of a scalar function, we have
lim =

QP

f (Q ) f ( P )
PQ

= lim =
s 0

f (s + s) f (s)
s

df
ds

f dx f dy f dz
+
+
x ds y ds z ds

f
f dx dy dz
f
. i
+ j
+k
+ k
+ j
= i

z ds
y
ds
ds
x
= (grad f ) . t ,
where t denotes unit tangent to the curve.
Thus the derivative along a curve is the dot product of the unit tangent to the curve and
gradient of the function, defining the curve.
Now if the function f is constant along the curve, then its gradient is zero. This shows that
The derivative ( t . grad f ) along a curve is zero if and only if, the function f is constant
along the curve.

107

Engineering
M th
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APPENDIX-II : INVARIANCE OF LENGTH AND DIRECTION

OF GRAD f
The grad f is given by
grad f = i

f
f
f
+ k
+ j
z
y
x

. . . (1)

where i, j , k are unit vectors in the direction of x, y and z-axes of a Cartesian coordinate
system, say 0xyz and (x, y, z) are the coordinates of any point P referred to 0xyz (see Figure
6.12).
Since Eq. (1) involves partial derivatives, which depend on the choice of the coordinates,
hence the result is not obvious.
Now, by the definition of a scalar function, the value of f at a point P depends on the
location of P but is independent of the coordinates. Also the arc length s of ray C is
independent of the choice of coordinates.
Hence

f (Q) f ( P )
f
= lim =
s
s s 0
QP

contains only the quantities which are independent of the choice of coordinates.
Also
f
= b . grad f = | b | | grad f | cos
s

= | grad f | cos ,
f
where is the angle between grad f and b . From above,
is maximum when
s
f
= | grad f | . This shows that the length and the direction
cos = 1, i.e. = 0 and then
s
of grad f is independent of the choice of coordinates.

108

APPENDIX - III : INVARIANCE OF THE DIVERGENCE

Vector Differential
Calculus

Let i, j , k be unit vectors along a cartesian orthogonal coordinate system Oxyz. Let
i, j , k be any other set of mutually orthogonal unit vectors along system O
.
x y z

Let f (r ) = f ( x, y, z ) be a vector point function at any point ( x, y, z ) .

Let f ( x, y, z ) = f1 ( x, y, z ) i + f 2 ( x, y, z ) j + f 3 ( x, y, z ) k and suppose that
f ( x, y, z ) possesses continuous first order partial derivatives; then scalar functions
f1, f2 and f3 also possess continuous first order partial derivatives.
Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of any ray through P ( x, y, z ) and let
Q ( x + x, y + y, z + z ) be a neighbouring point of P on this ray. Then we have
f (Q) f ( P ) f1 (Q ) f1 ( P ) f 2 (Q) f 2 ( P ) f 3 (Q) f 3 ( P )
=i
+ j
+k
PQ
PQ
PQ
PQ

Let Q P, then using results of Section 11.4, we get

lim

QP

f
f (Q) f ( P ) f1
f
f
f
f
+ m 1 + n 1 + j l 2 + m 2 + n 2
= i l
PQ
z
y
z
y
x
x
f
f
f
+ k l 3 + m 3 + n 3
z
y
x

f
f
f
f
f
f
= l i 1 + j 2 + k 3 + m i 1 + j 2 + k 3
y
y
x
x
x
y
f
f
f
+ n i 1 + j 2 + k 3
z
z
z
=l

[ f1 i + f 2 j + f 3 k ] + m
[ f1 i + f 2 j + f 3 k ]
y
x
+n

=l

[ f1 i + f 2 j + f 3 k ]
z

f
f
f
+ n f
+m
= l
+n
+m
z
y
z x
y
x

= (a . ) f , where a = (l i + m j + n k)
which gives the directional derivative of f along the direction of a .
Thus the directional derivatives of f along the directions of vectors i, j , k are
(i . ) f, ( j . ) f, (k . ) f,
i.e.

f
f
f
(i . i )
,
+ (i . k )
+ (i . j )
z
y
x

f
f
f
(j . i )
,
+ (j . k )
+ (j . j )
z
y
x

f
f
f
(k . i )

+ (k . j )
+ (k . k )
x
y
z

109

Engineering
M th
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Thus the expression for div f in terms of i, j , k

f
,
= i .
x

f
f
f
= i . (i . i)
+ (i . j )
+ (i . k )

x
y
z

(since

f
is directional derivative along x axis, i.e. along i direction)
x

f
f
f
= (i . i) i .
+ (j . j ) j .
+ (k . k ) k .
x
y
z

f
,
= i .
x
= expression of div f in term of i, j , k
Thus div f is independent of the choice of coordinates i.e. div f is essentially a point
function.

110

APPENDIX - IV : PROOF OF FORMULAE ON DIVERGENCE

(I)

Vector Differential
Calculus

div (k f) = . (k f )

= i . k f
x

= i .
(k f) = i . k
( f)
x
x

( f)
= k i .
x

= k i . f
x
=k . f
= k div f
(II)

div ( f) = . ( f )

= i .
. ( f)
x

= i .
( f)
x
f

= i .
f +
x
x

f
f + i .
= i .

x
x

f
= i
. f + i .

x
x

= (grad ) . f + i . f
x

= f . grad + . f
= div f + f . grad
(III) Here is twice differentiable scalar function. By definition,
grad = i

+ j
+k
x
y
z

By definition,
div (grad ) =
=

+
x x y y z z
2
x 2

2
y 2

2
z 2

The expression on the right hand side is called the Laplacian of scalar function
and is denoted as 2 .
Thus

div (grad ) = 2 .
111

Engineering
M th
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APPENDIX - V : PROOFS OF FORMULAE ON GRADIENT,

DIVERGENCE AND CURL
(I)

grad ( ) = i
( )
x

= i
+

x
x

= i
+ i
x
x

= i
+ i
x
x

= grad + grad
(II)

grad ( A . B ) = i
( A . B)
x
B A

= i A .
. B
+

x
x

= i A .
. B
+ i
x

Now

B
B
B

A i
i ( A . i)
= A.

x
x

B
B
B

A.
i = A i
+ ( A . i)
x
x
x

B
B
B

i A .
+ ( A . i)
= A i

x
x

. . . (1)

= A i B + A . i B
x
x

= A curl B + (A . ) B

. . . (2)

Interchanging A and B in Eq. (2), we get

A

i B .
= B curl A + (B . ) A
x

From Eqs. (1), (2) and (3), we get

grad ( A . B ) = A curl B + B curl A + ( A . ) B + ( B . ) A
(III)

curl (curl A) = ( A)
= ( . A) ( . ) A ,
(applying the triple vector product formula and taking care that the variable
follows the del operator).
= grad (div A) 2 A

112

grad (div A) = curl (curl A) + 2 A

. . . (3)

(IV)

Vector Differential
Calculus

div ( A B ) = i
( A B)
x
B
A
= i .
B + A

x
x
A
B
= i .
B + i . A
x
x
A
B
. B i
.A
= i
x
x
(applying property of scalar triple product)
A
B

= i
. B i
. A
x
x

= (curl A) . B (curl B ) . A
(V)

A A A
i

+ j
+k
div (curl A) = i .
x
y
z
x

2 A
2 A
2 A
+ k
= i . i 2 + j

x z
x y
x

2 A
2 A
2 A
= 2 . (i i) +
. ( i j) +
( i k)
x z
x y
x

2 A
2 A
j .
= k .
x y
x z

=0
2 A
2 A
2 A
2 A
because = k .
and similar expression
+ j .
+ i .
= k .
x z
y z
x y
x y
2 A
.
for j .
x z

(VI)

+ j
+k
div ( f grad ) = div f i
y
z
x

= i
.f
x
f
= i .
x

+ j
+k
y
z
x

i
+ f i
+k
+ j
z
y
x
x

. i
+k
+ j
z
y
x

f
2
+ f
. i
= i
+ j
+k
. ( i . j = 0 = i . k and i . i = 1).
2
x x
y
z
x
f
2

+ f 2
= i
+ j
+k
. i
x x
y
z
x

= ( . f ) . ( ) + f 2
113

Engineering
M th
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(VII) curl ( A) = ( A)

= i ( A)
x

A

= i
A+

x
x

= i
x

A + i
x

= (grad ) A + curl A
(VIII) curl ( A B ) = ( A B )
Assume = A + B , where we consider only A as variable while operating A
and only B is to be considered as variable when operating by B . Since this takes
care of the product as far as differentiation is concerned and the A and B can
be treated as vectors and rules of multiplication of vectors can be applied.

curl ( A B ) = ( A B )

= A ( A B) + B ( A B)
= ( A . B ) A ( A . A) B + ( B . B ) A ( B . A) B

= ( B . A ) A B ( A . A) + A ( B . B ) ( A . B ) B
= ( B . ) A B ( . A) + A ( . B ) ( A . ) B
= A div B B div A + ( B . ) A ( A . ) B
Note that you should exercise special care to avoid inadvertent mistakes. For this
reason, in the first two steps, the variable A, B are both written to the right of del
operator. In the next step, we have brought all those vectors which can be treated
as constant to the left of the operator. Since

. A = A . A + B . A = A . A + 0
and similarly . B = B . B , therefore in the final step A and B have been
replaced by as this makes no difference.

114