557

Paper 36

SELECTION OF LUBRICANTS
By I?. Beuerlein* and W. H. Karat
INTRODUCTION

To DEFINE THE OBJECTIVE of this paper the title needs some

comment. The fact that a separate paper deals with the
selection of lubricants does not mean that this is an
isolated problem. I n all the papers previously presented at
this Conference lubricants or at least certain properties of
lubricants were mentioned. From this one can conclude
that the lubricant has to be regarded as an integral part of
a machine design. In the same manner in which an engineer designs a structural element, for instance a journal
using the structural material steel, the structural element
lubricating film has to be designed using the structural
material lubricant. This way of looking at things has
gained more and more supporters in the last few
years (I) (2)$-though it must be admitted that even
nowadays many machines are still manufactured, the
designers of which start thinking of the lubricant when
the first test-run is about to commence.
Engineers have certain difficulties with this more
modern concept to regard the lubricating film as a structural element and the lubricant as a structural material.
The reason may be that in this case we have to deal with a
structural element which has, because of the material it is
made of, no rigid form but changes its dimensions with
the operating conditions and geometrical configuration at
the point of contact. However, this very property of the
film forces one to look at the film not in isolation but as
part of the whole machine.
These thoughts have been expressed explicitly and
implicitly by many other authors at this Conference. However, the separate treatment of this topic is justified for
a number of reasons. First, it is necessary for economic
reasons to limit the number of lubricants necessary for a
machine to a minimum. This asks for compromises.
Secondly, certain recommendations based on field experience can be given to help the designer in his task to select
lubricants. Moreover separate treatment will demonstrate
The M S . of this paper was received at the Institution on 18th July
1967.
* F A M Fachausschus, Mineraloel und Brermstoffnormung, Hamburg, Germany.
Deutsche Shell A G , Hamburg-Wilhemsburg, Germany.
$ References aregiven in Appendix 36.1.

Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1967-68

certain difficulties the designer faces, as some of the

results of research are not available in a form easily applicable to practical problems.
ANALYSIS OF POINT O F CONTACT

When assessing a lubricant in regard to its suitability as

structural material for the lubricating film, one has to
distinguish between properties which influence its function and those which influence economy. Among the
functional properties the most important ones are viscosity and viscosity-temperature relationship. For certain
applications extreme pressure (e.p.) properties come into
the picture as well. The necessary functional properties
can only be considered in connection with a defined point
of contact, for instance, a bearing or a toothflank. Therefore, an analysis of the contact conditions is the first step
towards selecting a lubricant.
Among the properties which have to be taken into
account from the economic point of view are oxidation
stability, thermal stability, separation from water and corrosion protection. The level of performance in respect of
these properties is dictated to a lesser extent by the conditions at the point of contact than by environmental influences and by the lubricating system. A sharp distinction
between functional and economic properties is, of course,
not possible in all cases. I n modern internal combustion
engines, for instance, dispersancy has to be regarded as a
functional property, as lack of dispersancy very quickly
endangers the function of the engine.
Environmental influences discussed in this paper will
not include highly specialized cases like high vacuum
(space) or radiation as it is intended to deal preferably with
problems encountered in normal engineering practice.

Required functional properties of the lubricant

T o specify certain functional properties of a lubricant one
has to consider two aspects:
(1) Damage to the mating surfaces must be avoided
and
(2) Frictional heat must be kept below a safe limit.
Normally the first aspect will have priority. In certain
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cases (for instance, at very high speeds) the second

criterion might be of overriding importance.
When selecting lubricants for a range of machinery (and
more important even for a single machine) it is necessary
to keep the number of lubricants as low as possible. For
this reason one has to check which point of contact is the
most critical.

Journal bearings
With journal bearings the Sommerfeld number (So)
offers a simple way of comparing different bearings in
regard to film thickness. The higher this value the smaller
the minimum film thickness will be. The results of hydrodynamic research are available in well-arranged graphs
which permit the calculation of the critical dimension of
the lubricating film, namely minimum thickness (2)-(6).
Although this calculation is simple, a number of uncertainties remain. The first one is the estimation of minimum permissible film thickness. It is usual practice to sum
the height of asperities of journal and bearing plus the deformation of the journal over the bearing length.
Further uncertainties in these calculations are the
difference in clearance as designed and under operating
conditions and the assumption that the viscosity of the
lubricant is constant throughout the film. Sufficiently
great safety factors are therefore required.
A very simple method to check a journal bearing in
respect of safety against contact of the mating surfaces is
the Volume Formula derived by G. Vogelpohl (5). This
formula is based on the analysis published by Sassenfeld
and Walther (3) and allows the calculation of the speed at
which transition from mixed friction to fluid friction
occurs.
~ x I O - ~W
Nt = -7r
QD2L
iVi (revjmin), W (kP), C = constant = 1, 7 (cP), L and
D (cm). (The assumptions made in this formula are: not
too small clearance, good surface finish and LID ratio between 0.5 and 1.5.)
Clearance and film thickness are contained in the
constant. Each factor for itself can vary in practice far
more than the product of film thickness and clearance, so
that in this formula some of the difficulties mentioned before are diminished (7).
The transition speed Nt should correspond to a circumferential speed of 1 m/s with the second condition that the
ratio of operating speed to transition speed N/Nt > 3.
Under these conditions overheating is in general avoided.
As mentioned before, frictional heat is the second entity
which has to be computed. P. Ramsden showed in his
paper about the design of large bearings for steam turbines
that bearing temperature may be the overriding criterion
of bearing design. This depends mainly on the type of
operation and bearing metal used. White metals conform
more easily to deflecting shafts and are able to embed
foreign matter particles. Owing to their comparatively low
melting point they are sensitive to bearing temperature.
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 196748

Only very rarely this calculation (and possibly optimization) is necessary from the energy point of view. An example of these exceptions is textile spinning machines,
which contain a great number of spindles. Here unnecessary frictional losses are reflected in the energy cost. However, in general the frictional heat developed is of interest
in relation to the bearing temperature. In comparing
different bearings of a machine for friction losses, one can
assume that under otherwise equal conditions the heat
developed is proportional to &'I2.
u3I2. More detailed
information regarding the frictional heat developed and
the operating temperature of the bearing can be gained by
a heat balance.
The computation of the frictional heat developed can
be performed with a fair degree of accuracy using the wellestablished relationship between coefficient of friction and
Sommerfeld number ( 2 ) (4) (5). The dissipated heat depends, however-apart from the heat carried away by the
lubricant-to a great extent on the heat transfer coefficient.
The numerical value of this coefficient is influenced by the
air flow-rate around the heat dissipating surface. The
values quoted in the literature should be applied carefully
until practical experience has been gained. This calculation
shows, moreover, whether a journal bearing can run safely
under mixed friction conditions. Usually this will only be
the case at very low speeds, as otherwise the frictional heat
developed cannot be dissipated. An example for this is
bearings of cement kilns, which have circumferential
speeds below 0.1 m/s. Cases are known where, under these
running conditions, e.p. oils became necessary.
If it is unavoidable that a journal bearing has to operate
in the mixed friction region, one should examine whether
hydrostatic lubrication is feasible.
I n his paper H. Opitz supplied the necessary information for the design of hydrostatic bearings. Apart from
examples of successful designs, the graphs and formulas
enable optimization in respect of layout and the choice of
viscosity.
Especially with high-speed bearings it can happen that
not enough heat can be dissipated over the bearing surface
to control the bearing temperature at a reasonable level.
I n these cases it should be investigated whether an increase in oil throughput would solve the problem. Under
these circumstances additional grooves in the unloaded
area of the bearing are advisable to enable flow of larger oil
volumes through the bearing. As P. Ramsden pointed out,
oil inlets and channels in the bearing shell need very careful design to ensure flow of the necessary amount of oil
through the bearing.
Water cooling may be advantageous. Because of the
intensive cooling action one has to be careful to avoid condensation of water, which could collect in the luboil.
High-speed bearings which are prone to overheating
may also pose stability problems. The design charts
presented by B. Sternlicht offer a first insight into the
likelihood of whirl. The critical Sommerfeld number for a
certain system can to a certain extent be varied by altering the viscosity of the lubricant. Again, this cannot be
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regarded as an isolated problem as lowering the viscosity

of the lubricant could lead to unsatisfactory load-carrying
capacity in the start and stop phase of operation.
Anti-friction bearings
In contrast to journal bearings, the possibilities of calculating the necessary lubricant viscosity for anti-friction
bearings are rather more limited. As was shown by T. E.
Tallian the results of elastohydrodynamic research and
flash temperature theory are applicable to the lubrication
of anti-friction bearings. Besides the rather straightforward influences of film thickness and contact temperatures
on different forms of wear, even plastic deformation and
fatigue phenomena are affected by lubrication. With the
information available today rolling contacts can be designed in a comparable manner to conformal contacts.
Owing to the high contact stresses statistical considerations are introduced and a number of stress parameters
have to be taken into account. However, from the point of
view of the engineers in the field it would not be advisable
to rely solely on these theoretical results when selecting
a lubricant. T o a far greater extent than with journal
bearings secondary influences, as, for instance, friction
between rolling elements and cage, have to be taken into
consideration. Based on a wealth of test results and field
experiences the manufacturers of these bearings have
developed empirical formulas and graphs, which give
very good indications regarding the necessary viscosity of
the lubricant in relation to specific operating conditions
and bearing type and size. This is in any case true for
normal conditions. Extremely high loads, speeds and
temperatures require detailed analysis on the lines described by Tallian and empirical tests developed by the
bearing manufacturers.
The empirical data for the required viscosity are, of
course, related to the operating temperature of the antifriction bearing. Because of the influence of sliding seals
and cage friction the calculation of bearing temperature
suffers from great uncertainties.
In most cases one will try to lubricate an anti-friction
bearing with an oil that is needed at another part of the
machine, for instance, for the gears. With anti-friction
bearings this is more practicable than with journal bearings as they are less sensitive to viscosity from the wear and
load-carrying point of view. On the other hand one has
to be careful that the oil supply to these bearings (for
instance, with splash lubrication) is not too generous as the
operating temperature of anti-friction bearings is much
more sensitive to the amount of oil in the bearing due to
churning than to viscosity.

Gears
The lubrication of gears is a considerably more complex
field than the lubrication of, for instance, journal bearings.
Even if one deals only with spur gears, it is difficult to
decide under which conditions of load and speed damage
to a pair of toothflanks has occurred.
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1967-68

559

Usually the requirements and operating conditions dictate which materials and heat treatments have to be used.
If one succeeds in establishing an uninterrupted lubricant film between the toothflanks practically no wear will
occur. The first considerations in the design stage should
therefore include the application of elastohydrodynamic
theory to calculate the necessary viscosity. At this stage it
should be checked whether the film thickness between the
flanks can be increased by modifications in tooth geometry,
taking other considerations like strength of the root of the
tooth into account.
It holds generally, of course, that the possibilities of
changing tooth geometry are more limited when fewer
design parameters are available. This is especially the case
with gear ratio and centre distance. According to elastohydrodynamic theory, the minimum film thickness changes
only slightly with load. With given pinion speed and pressure angle the viscosity of the lubricant and pitch circle
diameter have the greatest influence. However, film thickness varies proportionally to pitch circle diameter and
with the square root of viscosity. Moreover it must be
taken into account that under otherwise equal conditions a
smaller modulus results in less variation in film thickness
over the path of contact. These remarks only emphasize
the importance of considering the lubrication of the tooth
flanks at the very first design stages.
The calculation of film thickness suffers from two particular uncertainties. First, the effective viscosity is the
one at the bulk temperature of the flanks. For this temperature there are indications in the literature and recently
experimental work has been published by G. Lechner (9).
However, these values should only be regarded as guidance
until further results are available. Secondly, as with all
calculations of lubricating films, estimation of permissible
values for minimum film thickness is difficult. As with
bearings one uses the sum of the height of asperities as the
limiting value until further experimental evidence makes
a revision of this recommendation advisable.
If film thickness is insufficient, continuous wear will be
encountered. At higher specific loads and at the same pitch
line speed the pitting barrier, as it was called by H. Blok
(IO), will eventually be reached. Though research in this
field has not come up with final results it can be said that
pitting formation is influenced by a number of factors
which all have to be considered in the design stage.
Some papers at this Conference refer to Dawsons
work (11)-(14)~in which the influence of initial surface
roughness in relation to oil film thickness on pitting formation is demonstrated. Qualitatively similar conclusions
were reached by G. Niemann and co-workers in their
empirical investigation with actual gears (15). Furthermore G. Niemann looked into the relative influence of
other design parameters. His results can be summarized
as follows.
With small tooth errors an increase in peripheral speed
leads to extended pitting life due to greater film thickness.
However, if tooth errors are great an increase in speed has
a negative effect due to an increase of dynamic tooth loads.
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P. BEUERLEIN AND W. H. KARA

A greater pressure angle results in greater radii of

curvature which reduces surface stresses and leads to
greater film thickness. The overall effect is therefore a
greater than linear increase of pitting life with pressure
angle.
With smaller moduli bending stresses are increased.
Therefore tangential tensile stresses at the toothflanks are
higher which favours pitting formation.
Pitting resistance increases with viscosity of the lubricant proportional to
to y o , * , Furthermore, it was found
that certain synthetic lubricants increased pitting life considerably. Whether this is due to their different viscositypressure relationship or to their chemical structure which
may influence frictional properties under boundary conditions is not known yet.
Fatigue strength of the gear materials has an overriding
influence. Soft gears behaved relatively better when running against hardened ground flanks. This may be due to
the smaller average tooth error resulting in thicker lubricating film and smaller dynamic loads.
Continuous smooth wear is observed at insufficient film
thickness and low pitch line speeds. With increasing speed
the elastohydrodynamically formed film on the flanks increases in thickness quite rapidly. On the other hand, at
higher speeds and high loads temperatures at the points of
contact become so high that local welding occurs. This
limit to safe operation was called the scuffing barrier by
H. Blok (10).
The calculation of safety against scuffing of lubricated
toothflanks is still rather difficult. Two procedures have
been developed in the course of time. One is based on
Bloks flash-temperature hypothesis and starts from
theoretical considerations. The other is an empirical
method developed by G. Niemann. The paper by B. W.
Kelley describes the calculation based on Bloks hypothesis. Here some comment from the point of view of a
designer seems necessary to show some of the difficulties
arising in practical applications.
In the formula for flash temperatures the coefficient of
friction appears. Since Ohlendorffs thesis (16)~certain
data based on experiments with actual gears are available.
B. W. Kelley and A. J. Lemanski present in their paper a
formula for the instantaneous coefficient of friction. However, as this formula is based on experiments with disc
machines it should be used with a certain reserve, which
means some factor of safety. The situation in respect of
limiting values for flash temperatures (or better for contact temperatures which are the sum of bulk temperature
of the teeth and flash temperatures) is similar. Based on
tests with geometrically simpler configurations like discs,
limiting values for flash temperatures using straight
mineral oils have been published. T. I. Fowle (17)
analysed test results with the I.A.E. and F.Z.G. machines
in respect of critical flash temperatures. Dudley in his
well-known book (18) presents values for e.p. oils as well.
As these latter values seem to contain sufficient safety the
use of the data quoted should not contain too great a
risk.
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1967-68

It may be permitted to discuss here the procedure developed by G. Niemann in some more detail, as it was
mentioned in this meeting only in passing (19).All calculations in this procedure are based on test results with the
F.Z.G. rig. This rig has been described in the literature
(20)-(22). G . Niemann postulates that a lubricant has to
lubricate satisfactorily in the F.Z.G. rig at three to five
times higher contact stresses than in a practical case in the
field. When calculating effective contact stresses tooth
geometry, operating conditions, empirically determined
influences of dynamic loads, shocks and uneven load distribution are taken into consideration. Based on the empirically determined dependence of the permissible contact
stress of speed, a quotient contact stress of the test over
actual contact stress in the gear can be formed, which
should be three to five for safety reasons. The transposition of permissible contact stresses ascertained with the
test spur gears to other types of gears by means of substitute spur gears was proved correct in a number of cases by
experiment. This is even true to a certain extent for hypoid
gears. However, one should not overlook that the comparative tests were run on a test bench under more favourable
conditions than those encountered in an actual axle on the
road.
The cases mentioned so far permit a comparatively safe
calculation of the most important functional properties of
the lubricant (which should, of course, be supported by
field experience). Now we shall discuss some examples,
which do not allow (or at least only rather incompletely)
the necessary functional properties to be found by calculation. Here one uses empirical methods when selecting
the lubricant.
(a) Most important in this respect are reciprocating
engines. A relatively great amount of empiricism is encountered in this field. This handling appears reasonable
for different reasons. We have the case here where one oil
must be selected for a great number of contacts, which are
quite differently stressed mechanically and thermally.
This is true at least for the most widely represented trunk
piston engines. Especially for high-speed piston engines
the number of viscosity grades available in a market is
limited. Thus the designer is forced to accept one lubricant with a certain nominal viscosity for all contacts and
to design these contacts in regard to dimensions and
material in such a way that trouble-free operation is possible. All bearings and other points of contact can be calculated. Based on research in the last decade even journal
bearings with loads varying in magnitude and direction
can be treated mathematically with very good correlation
with experimental results, as Campbell and co-authors
have shown.
Nevertheless the calculation of these bearings is difficult
and the effort considerable. I n contrast to bearings with
constant stationary load, a squeeze film is generated, which
is in general of advantage and improves load-carrying
capacity.
Gudgeon-pin bearings need very careful development,
as in this case a number of unfavourable influences come
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SELECTION OF LUBRICANTS

together (high temperature, small angular movement,

difficult oil supply).
The background of the lubrication of valve trains has
been considerably enlarged in the last years. The applications of elastohydrodynamic theory and flash-temperature
hypothesis offer new insights and enable a more uniform
stressing of the sliding surfaces to be reached, as H. Naylor
has shown. Nevertheless, because of the very complex
interaction of static and dynamic forces, materials and
geometry, final conclusion about the lubrication of this
contact can only be drawn after experiments.
Though the lubrication of the cylinder bore is hydrodynamic over a considerable part of the stroke the greatest
difficulty exists here to keep the ring area of the piston
clean to ensure free mobility of the piston rings. The
influence of nominal viscosity on cylinder wear can be
shown, especially at lower viscosities and high speeds and
temperatures. However, this increase in wear is considerably less than the mechanical wear encountered with
sticking rings or the chemical wear which occurs with
diesel fuels of high sulphur content and operation at low
jacket temperatures.
The wear caused by chemical mechanism and the
necessary counter-measures are to a much lesser extent
mathematically accessible than pure mechanical wear. The
amount of sulphur in a diesel fuel gives certain indications
regarding the necessary alkalinity of the engine oil. The
required thermal and oxidation stability for certain engines and operating conditions, as well as the required
ability of the oil to disperse foreign matter particles, can
only be established by experiment.
I n the course of the years a number of test methods
have been developed to check these requirements. In most
cases these are full-scale engine tests. It is very difficult to
simulate the complex conditions at the different points of
contact in glassware type of tests and this problem has not
so far been solved satisfactorily. T. I. Fowle quoted in his
paper some of the engine tests in use for this purpose.
(b) Furthermore, from the great number of cases where
theoretical treatment is not yet possible, we should like to
mention those which suffer from frictional vibrations,
which phenomenon is known as stick-slip. Usually this
vibration occurs at very low sliding speeds. Here, too, the
actual point of contact should not be treated in isolation.
The inertia and elastic properties of the sliding parts,
stiffness of the driving member, material combinations,
operating conditions and lubricant have likewise influence
on the occurrence of frictional vibrations. In this context
D. Tabor referred in his paper to the work of Rabinowicz
who assumes an influence of contact time upon the static
friction.
Stick-slip is most often observed on tableways of
machine tools with low feed. It could be shown empirically
that certain additives can influence the level of static friction in relation to kinetic friction and thus prevent frictional vibrations. In these cases empirical methods have
also to be applied when selecting a lubricant.
(c> For trouble-free function of a lubricant, low temProc Instn Mech Engn 1967-68

561

perature behaviour can be of paramount importance in

some applications. This is especially critical when only
starting occurs at low temperatures at the contacts, while
in operation these contacts become hot. The most common cases are lubrication of aero and automotive engines.
Startability of automotive engines at low ambient temperatures is governed partly by the viscometric properties
of the lubricant. As engine lubricants behave at low
temperatures like non-Newtonian fluids, i.e. their viscosity
depends not only on temperature and pressure but also on
shear, viscosity measurements have to be performed at
realistic shear rates. This can be done by using the engine
itself as a viscometer and motoring it or by employing socalled rotational viscometers. For practical purposes bearing simulators have been developed. The permissible
maximum viscosities of the lubricant at given temperatures
and shear rates should be properly established in tests
employing realistic temperatures. It seems that some
manufacturers try to be so far on the safe side that un
necessarily low viscosities (or unnecessarily low test tem
peratures-which lead to the same effect) are specified.
This forces the lubricant manufacturer to incorporate
rather low viscous base stock in the engine oil which may
have other adverse effects, like higher oil consumption.
Apart from good flow properties at low temperatures,
excellent viscosity-temperature characteristics are important to ensure sufficient load-carrying capacity at high
operating temperatures. In extreme cases these requirements cannot be fulfilled by lubricants based on mineral
oil, so that synthetic fluids might be necessary.
Concluding the remarks on functional properties, it can
be said that in all cases in which hydrodynamic lubrication
is feasible, the thickness of the lubricating film can be computed.
If the resulting film under certain conditions is too thin
or if the heat generated at the points of contact cannot be
removed fast enough, theoretical treatment is only possible to a limited extent. Here an empirical approach must
be used.

Required economic properties of the lubricant

In connection with the properties so far discussed, it is the
task of the designer, for given operating conditions, to
select the geometry of the contact and the materials
(which includes the lubricant) in such a way that wear and
energy losses are minimized. When selecting a lubricant in
respect of economic properties the main objective is to
safeguard trouble-free operation over a long span of time.
From the functional aspect, after analysing the operating
conditions, one should not confine oneself solely to selecting a suitable lubricant, but one should examine critically
whether changes in design can avoid exposing a contact to
conditions which put unnecessarily great stresses on the
lubricant.

Oxidation
Among the most important economic properties are
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562

oxidation stability and stability against thermal decomposition. As T. I. Fowle has mentioned, all lubricants tend
to oxidize in the presence of oxygen. This process is
influenced, as are all chemical processes, by temperature
and catalysts. By modern refining processes and adding
anti-oxidants, it is possible to lengthen the service life of
an oil considerably. Nevertheless, a designer should
always try to avoid unnecessary heating of the contact to be
lubricated.
The same is true in respect of the catalytic influences on
oil oxidation. It has long been known that copper and
copper-containing materials in the oil circuit influence the
rate of oxidation catalytically. Nevertheless there still
exist many designs in which this well-known fact is not
appreciated.
Oxidation stability can only be tested in comparative
experiments under defined conditions. T. I. Fowle mentions in Table 19.4 of his paper a number of test methods
which are in use today. When judging test results and
applying them to practical cases, great care must be taken
as oxidation processes are strongly influenced by the test
conditions.
I n general access of oxygen to lubricating systems cannot be avoided and the rate of oxidation is high at high
temperatures. Fowle showed that the upper temperature
limit for mineral-based oils lies between 150 and 200C in
the presence of oxygen, depending on type of crude,
extent of refining and inhibition. Stability against thermal
decomposition plays a comparatively small role in lubrication.

additive combination is that polar substances are formed

in non-inhibited oils in the course of oxidation which will
improve the corrosion protection of a mineral oil. If this
oxidation process is interrupted due to the presence of
anti-oxidants, these polar substances (or other substances
giving a similar effect) must be added.
Results of extensive test series have been published (21),
in which straight mineral oil was tested parallel to an
inhibited oil containing anti-oxidants and anti-corrosion
additives as lubricants for a large tool machine complex.
Figures 36.1 and 36.2 show the reduced maintenance and
the extension of oil-change periods when using the inhibited oil. The saving in maintenance cost and oil consumed is far greater than the increase in cost due to the
use of the higher quality oil.
The anti-corrosion additives mentioned prevent (or at
least reduce) moisture corrosion. Moreover corrosive
attack of sensitive materials (mainly yellow metal) in
machine parts wetted by oil may occur. This can be
observed especially with certain e.p. additives and high oil
temperatures. If for certain reasons the use of yellow metal
cannot be avoided (for instance, for thrust washers in a
gear) care must be taken in this respect when selecting the
oil as otherwise these parts may corrode and wear away
very rapidly.

Corrosion protection
I n general mineral oils with oxidation inhibitors will contain anti-corrosion additives as well. The reason for this

Separation from water

Occasionally good demulsibility of the oil must be specified, as in some systems even with careful design and
selection and maintenance of seals, entrance of water or
steam into the luboil system cannot be avoided. Another
reason for the presence of water may be condensation in
cooler parts of the system. If one does not succeed, by

Averaqe Amount Of Time Saved

Per Machine Per Year

HOURS Per Machine

(Five Yeor Study I -

Average Maintenance Hours Per Yeor

Per Machine Based On A Ten Yeor

Machines Lubricated
With Medium Ouolity
Straight Mineral Oil

Machines Lubricated With

A Goad O u o l ~ t y Rust And
Oridotion Inhibited Oil

F ~36.1.
. InfZuence of lubricating oil quality on maintenance cost of tool machines
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1967-68

Vo1182 Pt 3A

SELECTION OF LUBRICANTS

Average Frequency O f Lubrication

Of Machines Lubricoted With A
Medium Ouolity Straight Mineral Oil

563

Average Frequency Of Lubricotion

Of Mochines Lubricoted With A
Good Quality Rust And Onidolion
Inhibited O i l

Fig. 36.2. Influence of oil quality on oil change periods in tool machines
proper design of the system, in settling the water and
draining it from the bottom of the container, among other
things emulsification, foaming and faster aging will occur.
Apart from the fact that the container may overflow,
foaming oil will be compressible and unsuitable for
hydraulic use. Furthermore oils containing water favour
corrosion.
There are different test methods which allow determination of the demulsibility of lubricating oils. These methods
usually involve stirring in water or blowing the sample
with steam. The reliability of all these methods is not
undisputed.

Sealing properties
If a machine works in a dusty atmosphere, one must try
all possible means to prevent access of dust to the contacts
to be lubricated. This is mainly a problem of proper seal
design. Sealing can be greatly improved if a grease is used
instead of oil. However, in this case grease must be supplied at regular intervals as only the grease collar flowing
out of the bearing will seal. The use of grease in journal
bearings is limited to lower speeds, as the removal of
heat by the lubricant is insufficient. According to experience the maximum permissible sliding speed is about
2 m/s.
Such a low limit of speed does not exist with anti-friction
bearings. On the other hand these bearings are more sensitive to overfilling. However, grease lubrication has here
the same advantage of acting as an additional seal.
Necessary alterations of design
As was mentioned before, geometry of the mating surProc Instn Mech Engrs 1967-68

faces, lubricant, material of the contacting parts and operating and environmental conditions influence the operational performance of the point of contact.
In addition to these factors the designer has the possibility of reducing mechanical and thermal stresses imposed
on the point of contact.
An example of reduction of mechanical stresses in a
bearing housing is shown in Fig. 36.3. This work was
published by A. Buske (24). To increase the load-carrying
capacity of main bearings of a rotary piston engine he
utilized the elastic deformation of the bearing housing to
ensure uniform film thickness over the length of the
bearing. Conventionally designed highly loaded journal
bearings tend to suffer from high edge pressure due to
deflection of the journal which results in very small film
thickness at the bearing edge. By altering the wall thickness
of the bearing housing Buske succeeded in designing bearings which performed satisfactorily up to specific loads of
1200 kP/cm2. While the bearings did not fail, the journals
sheared off a t these high loads due to high frictional
torque.
Another example for sound design is concerned with the
reduction of thermal stresses. Drying kilns are very often
equipped with ventilators to ensure good circulation of
hot air. If ventilator and electric motor are arranged in the
kiln itself extremely high bearing temperatures may be
reached which necessitate the use of very expensive
synthetic products or lead to very short overhaul periods.
If on the other hand only the ventilator itself remains in
the high temperature zone and the electric motor is placed
outside the kiln, lubrication of the bearings no longer presents any problem. The same is, of course, true for lubrication in low temperature environments. D. H. Tantam
quoted in his paper examples of designs which avoid
Vol182 Pt 3A

P. BEUERLEIN AND W. H. KARA

564

afi

at;
7000

7000

eoo

400

2w
X

ZW

P
P

a-Yergekhsmaflf i die mgsie Schmierspofldicbe

<

I
I

P
P

a fe@khsmoR fir die eogste Schm;ersbaltdicke

p = oil pressure in lubricating film.

a = relative measure for minimum film thickness.
C)lfilnidruck = oil-film pressure.

Fig. 36.3. Influence of bearing design on jilm thickness

operation of bearings and seals under extreme low
temperature conditions.
A third example deals with the ingress of water into
large lubricating oil systems which are common, for
instance, with steam turbines. The oil temperature in the
tank is usually around 50C. If the tank is situated at a
position where a draught of air passes oTer the lid, then
condensation of water underneath the lid is very likely
with the consequent accumulation of water in the oil
charge.
Foaming of the oil is in very many cases caused by faulty
design of the return line into the tank. T o avoid splashing,
either slightly inclined baffle plates or sieves which allow
the entrained air to escape or return lines below the
lowest oil level usually cure excessive foaming. I n this way
the use of special anti-foam additives, which may have
other disadvantages, can be avoided.
LUBRICANTS

Liquids
Although in the hydrodynamic sense gases can be regarded
as liquids in the wider sense, we shall confine ourselves in
this chapter to those fluids which are liquid under normal
operating conditions.
Liquids are the most commonly used lubricants. The
reasons are that due to their (compared with gases) high
viscosity, hydrodynamic lubrication is possible over a very
wide range of operating conditions. Application to the
point of contact is easy and the liquid draining out of the
contact carries away a considerable amount of frictional
heat.
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1967-68

Each lubricant has a number of limitations which must

be taken into account in the selection.

Mineral oils
Among the liquids, mineral oils or lubricants based on
mineral oil are by far the most widely used. The reason is
that mineral oils are available in a wide variety of viscosities. This enables the designer to be more flexible in the
choice of contact dimensions and specific loading. The
temperature range in which mineral oils can be used satisfactorily covers all temperatures encountered in normal
engineering practice. The engineering materials in common use are not attacked by mineral oils and a certain
degree of rust protection is offered. Vapour pressure is
low so that evaporation losses at normal operating temperatures are negligible.
However, there are certain exceptional cases where the
physical and chemical properties of mineral oils prohibit
their use. Among these limitations the most important
ones are:
Viscosity-temperature behaviour and low temperature
properties. In extreme cases, as mentioned before,
fluidity at very low temperatures and sufficiently high
viscosity at elevated temperatures are required. This asks
for extremely good low temperature behaviour and better
viscosity-temperature relationship than can be offered by
mineral oils.
The service life of mineral oils in the presence of oxygen
becomes unsatisfactory above about 130C bulk temperature.
Mineral oils, as do all liquids, drain away from the
VoZ 182 Pt 3A

SELECTION OF LUBRICANTS

point of contact. I n certain applications this can lead to

sealing difficulties, especially when contamination of other
products in the neighbourhood of the point of contact with
the lubricant must be avoided.
Mineral oils are not fire-resistant (although water-inoil emulsions offer a great improvement in this respect).

Synthetic JIuids
As T. I. Fowle has pointed out a great variety of synthetic
fluids are available. The targets for the development of
these fluids were mainly low temperature fluidity, good
viscosity-temperature relationship and high thermal
stability. Furthermore, certain synthetic fluids haye better
fire-resistance than mineral oils.
In respect of the limitations, only general remarks are
possible due to the wide variety of chemical compositions.
Apart from the cost, the following technical and physiological aspects need attention :
Conventional sealing materials deteriorate in the presence of many synthetic fluids.
Owing to hydrolysis, corrosive attack on engineering
materials may be encountered with certain fluids. Others
attack some of the metals commonly present in engineering
designs.
Physiological and toxicological hazards with some fluids
need special consideration.
Owing to the high density of some synthetics, water
separation offers greater problems,
Process JIuids
I n this context we shall consider fluids which are basically
not especially suitable as lubricants but which are present
or used in a process. Depending on the kind of process,
other types of lubricants might introduce sealing difficulties or might be, due to ambient conditions, completely
unsatisfactory.
I n underwater pumps, for instance, bearings can be
designed to use water as lubricant. In spite of the deficiencies of water, namely low viscosity, poor wettability,
poor boundary lubrication, corrosive attack on iron alloys
and high vapour pressure, very reliable water-lubricated
bearings can be designed if the disadvantages quoted are
taken into consideration. Examples from the nuclear
engineering field were quoted by H. H. Heath.
Other examples for the use of process fluids as lubricants
have been given by D. H. Tantam in his paper about Cold
environments. Special emphasis is placed in this paper on
the fact that certain process fluids have poor lubricating
properties and act mainly as media to remove frictional
heat. In these cases appropriate material combinations for
the sliding parts have to be used to ensure trouble-free
operation.
Plastic solids
This family of lubricants comprises mainly the so-called
greases, which consist of a liquid phase that has been
gelled with a thickener. The vast majority of greases use
mineral oil as the liquid and metallic soaps as thickeners.
Proc Insrn Mech Engrs 1967-68

565

As N. A. Scarlett has pointed out, greases do not flow

unless a minimum shear stress is applied. This rheologic
behaviour ensures that the grease stays at or near the point
of contact to be lubricated. This property enables very
simple designs, especially when lubricating rolling bearings. Moreover, contamination of foodstuff, etc., in the
neighbourhood of bearings can be avoided.
The second advantage of greases is that the grease
collar being pressed out of a journal bearing acts as a seal.
For this reason grease lubrication can be very useful in
dusty atmospheres.
The high viscosity of greases at low rates of shear,
caused by non-Newtonian behaviour, enables hydrodynamic lubrication under conditions where contacts
lubricated with fluids would run in the thin film region.
Depending on the type of thickener and the type of
liquid phase, greases of different thermal stability and
behaviour against water are manufactured. Greases based
on mineral oil have an upper operating temperature limit
of about 140C, depending on severity of operation and
re-lubrication periods. However, higher operating temperatures are possible as long as the bearings are lubricated
more often.
The mentioned advantage of high viscosity at low shear
rates can be a drawback when greases have to be fed
through long supply lines to the points of lubrication as in
centralized systems. In these systems the requirements in
respect to pumpability may indicate the selection of
greases to a far greater extent than the requirements of the
point of lubrication.
The selection of greases depends much more on empirically gained experience and testing in simulators than is
the case with fluids. This is caused mainly by the unusual
flow behaviour of these so-called Bingham bodies, which
makes mathematical treatment very involved.
The greatest disadvantage of greases is, of course, that
they cannot act as heat transfer media to remove frictional
heat from the point of contact. In addition to the recommendations given by N. A, Scarlett in his paper on the
use of greases in rolling bearings, it should be mentioned
that, because of lack of heat transfer, greases can be used in
journal bearings only up to peripheral speeds of about
2 m/s.
Gases

W. A. Gross has mentioned the advantages gases offer as

lubricants. Especially in high-speed applications, their
low viscosities (compared with fluids) are favourable
(Sommerfeld numbers with liquid lubricants considerably
below 1). This very property on the other hand necessitates a high degree of precision in manufacture to avoid
contact of the mating surfaces. Because of the relatively
low load-carrying capacity of gas films, only conformal
surfaces can be lubricated.
Besides the high speed and precision machinery mentioned by Gross, bearings in nuclear engineering lubricated with coolant gases were described by H. H. Heath in
Vo1182 Pt 3A

P. BEUERLEIN AND W. H. KARA

566

Table 36.1. Approximate cost reiative to mineral oil

his paper. This application makes use of the great resistance against radiation and thermal decomposition of certain gases.

Solids
The most widely used inorganic solid lubricants are
graphite and molybdenum disulphide. Although the
mechanism of lubrication with solids is still a matter of
discussion, practical and research experience shows cases
where lubrication with solids offers advantages.
The higher thermal stability of graphite and molybdenum disulphide compared with mineral oils is beneficial at temperatures above 200C. Journal bearings of
trucks in ceramic kilns are very often lubricated with
graphite suspended in an easily vaporizing hydrocarbon.
Rolling bearings for this application are available with
molybdenum disulphide bonded in a surface layer.
Lubrication of slow moving flat surfaces with molybdenum disulphide has proved advantageous due to the
low coefficient of friction. The same is true for the lubrication of highly stressed threads.
The application of molybdenum disulphide in high
vacuum is, as was shown by Anderson and Glenn, not
so far solved to complete satisfaction.
The success of lubrication with solids depends to a
large extent on the proper application to the surfaces to be

Synthetic Oils
Organic acid esters
Triarylphosphate esters
Chlorinated diphenyls
Fluorocarbon
Polyglycol
Silicones
Polypheny lether

5-1 5
5
5
300

5
30-70
250

Process Fluids
Plastic Solids
Greases based on mineral oil
Greases based on di-esters
Greases based on silicones

1-2

10-30
60-250

Gases
Solids
Graphite
Molybdenum disulphide

2-5
10-15

lubricated. I n the simplest form rubbing on to the surface

to establish orientation of the lamellae seems essential. In
more sophisticated applications bonding to the surface by
means of metals or resins is recommended.
The best known organic solid lubricant is polytetrafluorethylene (p.t.f.e.). Strictly speaking p.t.f.e. cannot be

Table 36.2
Lubricant Lubricating system 'Maintenance Investment
cost
cost
Journal bearings

Oil

Grease

Rolling bearings

Oil

Grease

Gears

Oil

Grease

Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1967-68

Rate of
ieat removal
by lubricant

By hand
Circulating system

High
Low

Low
High

Small
High

Ring lubrication
Sinter bearings

Low
Low

LOW
Low

Moderate
Small

By hand
Centralized system

High
Low

LOW

High

Nil
Nil

Oil mist

Low

High

Small

Bath

Low

Low

Small

Splash

LOW

Low

Moderate

Packed

Low

Low

Nil

Centralized system

Low

High

Nil

Bath

Low

Low

Moderate

Circulating system

Low

High

High

By hand
Housing filled

High
Low

High
Low

Nil
Nil

Remarks

Only for very low requirements

Necessary oil throughput through bearings
must be ensured
Only for moderate circumferential speeds
Onlv for moderate circumferential speeds
and low specific pressures
Only for very low requirements
Good pumpability of grease required if
long lines to bearings and operation at
low ambient temperature
If compressed air in necessary quantity
and cleanliness available, investment
costs are moderate
Careful design and filling required to avoid
excessive churning
Careful design of housing (e.g. gears)
necessary to ensure adequate oil supply
Overfilling must be avoided. Maintenance
costs are only low if re-lubrication period
not too short
Possibility for used grease to escape must
be provided. Shield delivery lines from
heat
Careful design of housing required to ensure adequate oil supply to all gears and
to avoid excessive churning
Jets have to be properly designed and
placed to ensure even oil distribution
and heat removal
Only for very low requirements
Only for small, low-speed gears
Vol182 Pt 3A

SELECTION OF LUBRICANTS

regarded as a lubricant but as a structural material with

unique physico-chemical properties-low friction, little
adhesion to other substances, chemical resistance against
attack of almost all substances up to about 250C, and fire
resistance. Owing to the low mechanical strength and bad
thermal conductivity p.t.f.e. is used normally either in thin
foils or filled with metal powders.

Cost of lubricants
It is not the intention to quote here prices for different
types of lubricants, These prices vary due to individual
quality, additive-content, offtake, etc. Table 36.1 gives
only a general idea of relative costs of different lubricants.
For process fluids no relative cost is quoted as it is
assumed for this purpose that the fluid in question is
available anyway in the required amount and purity. The
same is true for gases.
Cost of maintenance and investment
Generally it can be said that when less maintenance effort
is intended, the higher is the necessary investment cost for
the lubricating system. Table 36.2 gives a very general
survey over different lubricating systems and some indications of maintenance and investment costs. More detailed
information can only be supplied for specific cases.
In this context development costs for special types of
bearings, for instance, those which are lubricated with
gases or certain process fluids, have to be taken into
account as this special design effort may influence the cost
of lubrication considerably.
APPENDIX 36.1
REFERENCES

(I)

BLOK,H. The conceptualintegration of tribology and tribo-

design into machine design, Address to the American

Society of Mechanical Engineers (New York), 30th
November 1966.
(2) THEYSE,
F. H. Fundamentals of hydrodynamic lubrication
and their consequences in design engineering, Wear 1964
7 Part I: 419; Part 11: 477.
(3) SASSENFELD,
H. and WALTHER,A. Gleirlagerberechnungen, VDI-Forschhfr 1954, 441 (Diisseldorf, VDIVerlag).
(4) BARWELL,F. T. Lubrication of bearings 1956 (Butterworths Scientific Publications, London).

Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1967-68

37

567

Betriebssichere Gleitlager 1958 (SpringerVerlag, Berlin-Gtrttingen-Heidelberg).

(6) PINKUS,0. and STERNLIMT,
B. Theory of hydrodynamic
lubrication 1961 (McGraw-Hill, New York-TorontoLondon).
(7) GBTTNER,
G. H. Einfiihrung in die Schmiertechnik, Part 1,
1961:Part 2. 1966 (Karl Marklein-Verlaa, Diisseldorf).
(8) VOGELFOHL,
G. Geringste zul;issige Sch&rschichtdicke
und tfbergangsdrehzahl, Komtruktion 1962 14 (Heft 12),
461.
(9) LECHNER,
G. Die Erwarmung der Zahnrader im Betrieb,
Schmiertechnik 1967 14 (No. l), 13.
(10) BLOK,H. Lubrication as a gear design factor, International Conference on Gearing (London) 1958.
(11) DAWSON,
P. H. Pitting of lubricated gear teeth and rollers,
Power Transmission 1961 30,208.
(12) DAWSON,
P. H. The effect of metallic contact on the pitting
of lubricated rolling surfaces,J. mech. Engng Sci. 1962 4,
16.
(13) DAWSON,
P. H. The effect of metallic contact and sliding
on the shape of the S-N curve for pitting fatigue, Proc.
Symposium on Fatigue in Rolling Contact 1964 (Instn
Mech. Engrs, London).
(14) DAWSON,
P. H. Experiments on the effect of metallic contact on the pitting of lubricated rolling surfaces, Proc.
Symposium on Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 1965
(Instn Mech. Engrs, London).
(IS) NIEMANN,G. and RICHTER,W. Versuchsergebnisse zur
Zahnflankentragfahigkeit,Konstruktion 1960 12: Parts I,
11: (No. 5), 185; Part 111, IV: (No. 6),236; PartsV,VI:
(No. 7), 269; Part VII : (No. S), 319; Part VIII : (No. 9),
360; Part IX: (No. lo), 397.
(16)NIEMANN,G. and OHLENDORFF,
H. Verlustleistung und
Erwarmung von Stirnradgetrieben, Z. Ver. dt. Ing. 1960
(No. 6), 216.
(17) FOWLE,
T. I. Correlation of the I.A.E. and F.Z.G. gear rigs
by the critical scuffing temperature theory, Proc. Symposium on Gear Lubrication 1966 (Instn Mech. Engrs,
London).
(IS) DUDLEY,
D. W. PracticaE gear design 1954 (McGraw-Hill,
New York-Toronto-London).
(19)NIEMANN,G. Maschinenelemente, Vol. 2: Getriebe 1961
(Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Gottingen-Heidelberg).
(20) NIEMANN,
G., RETTIG,H. and LECHNER,
G. Scuffing tests
on gear oils in the F.Z.G. apparatus, A.S.L.E. Trans.
1961 4,71.
(21) NIEMANN,G. and ASSMANN,H. Experience with the
F.Z.G. apparatus for testing gear oils, J. Insf. Petrol.
1966 52,88.
(22) NIEMANN,
G. and RETTIG,
H. Der F.Z.G.-Zahnradkurztest
zur Prufung von Getriebetrlen, Erd6l Kohle 1954 7 , 640.
(23) HARTLEY,
A. L. Advantages of a planned lubrication programme, Mech. Engng 1955,23.
(24) BUSKE,A. Der Einfiuss:der Lagergestaltungauf die Belastbarkeit und die Betriebssicherheit, Srahl Eisen 1951 71
(No.26), 1420.
(5) VOGELPOHL,
G.

Vol182 Pt 3A