Exponentially tapered t-tube model of systemic

arterial system in dogs

K.C.

Chang*,

Y.Z. Tseng*,

Y.J. Lin* T.S. Kuot and H.I. Chen *

*Departments
of Physiology
and Medicine,
College of Medicine,
National Taiwan
Institute
of Electrical Engineering,
University;
%ection
of Biomedical
Engineering,
Research Laboratory, TzuNational Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan; *Cardiovascular
Chi Medical Research Center, Hualien, Taiwan
Received 1 September 1993, accepted 4 January

1994

ABSTRACT
This study determines the role of an asymmetric T-tube model as a representation of arterial
model consists of two non-unifrm

tubes connected in parallel.

mechanical
properties. The

The non-unzform properties

of each tube include

geometric and elastic tapering and each tube terminates in a complex load. Pulsatile pressure andflow

velociQ of the

ascending aorta were measured in 10 closed-chest, anaesthetized dogs. An exponentially tapered transmission line is
used to describe the non-unrfonn properties of the vasculature. The phase constant is a function of position along the
path length due to geometric and elastic tapers. This non-unijonn

T-tube model makes it possible to fit

the measured

pressure waveform in the ascending aorta. Model parameters could be estimated and used to interpret the physical
properties of the arterial system. The mathematical and experimental model impedance spectra are similar. There is a
close correspondence

between the impedance parameters

derived from

the non-unrfonn

T-tube

model and values

computed from measurements on dogs. The results suggest that inclusion of tube tapering improves the mathematical
model so that it closely represents the experimentally &rived arterial impedance

in closed-chest dogs. We conclude that

the non-unrform properties of wave-transmission paths may play an important role in governing the behaviour of an
asymmetric T-tube for the description of the arterial system.

Keywords:
model;

Exponentially
tapered
arterial input impedance

Med. Eng. Phys. 1994, Vol. 16, 370-378,

transmission

vascular

non-uniformity;

asymmetric

T-tube

September

INTRODUCTION
Vascular impedance is a useful description of the
physical properties of the arterial system, because it
encompasses
both the steady state and pulsatile
components
of the load presented
to the heart.
Many models have been pro osed to analyse the
impedance of the vasculature P-. One of the most
appealing models is the asymmetric
T-tube with
terminal loads. This model consists of two sections of
different lengths. The shorter section represents the
circulation of head, neck, and upper limbs (head or
upper body circulation),
and the longer section
represents the circulation of trunk and lower limbs
(body or lower body circulation). The model was first
suggested by McDonald
in 19683 to explain the
presence of two functionally discrete reflection sites
in the systemic arterial system, and subsequently
championed by ORourke and Avolio.
Recently, Burattini et ~1.~ proposed a modified
asymmetric
T-tube
model to relate the pulsatile
Correspondence and reprint requests to: Kuo-Chu Chang PhD,
Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan
University, No. 1, Sec. l;Jen-Ai Rd, Taipei, Taiwan.
0 1994 Butterworth-Heinemann
1350-4533/94/05370-09

line;

blood pressure and flow measured in the ascending

aorta. The purely terminal resistor was replaced by
the complex load. The model consisted of two
uniform tubes connected in parallel. The arterial
system is, however, structurally
non-uniform,.
Anatomical
tapering
is evident
as the lumen
radii and wall thicknesses
become progressively
smaller toward the periphery;
furthermore,
wall
stiffness increases with the distance from the heart.
Geometric
and elastic tapers cause a progressive
increase of the arterial impedance with distance. The
smooth change of vascular impedance could have a
substantial impact on the magnitude and/or timing
of pulse wave reflection,.
A really good model
should identify regularities
in a system and then
create a mathematical process that could emulate, to
a limited degree, the behaviour of the actual system.
Although a distributed
system with non-uniform
properties of the vasculature has been conceptually
proposed in previous reports%,
the mathematical
elaboration of the tapered T-tube model for which
the phase constant is a function of the path length
has never been accomplished.
In the present study, we incorporate the modified
asymmetric
T-tube
model
with
non-uniform

for BES
Med. Eng. Phys. 1994, Vol. 16, September

370

properties
of the transmission
tubes to relate the
pulsatile
pressure
and flow in the ascending
aorta.
An exponentially
tapered transmission
line is used to
describe
the non-uniform
property
of the vasculature ,18. We examine
the ability
of this model
when applied
to data from basal, vasoconstricted,
and vasodilated
states.
MATERIALS

AND METHODS

Experimental preparations
We used 10 mongrel
dogs of either sex weighing
12.3 f 1.2 kg. Each dog was anaesthetized
with pentobarbital
sodium
(25 mg kg- i.v.), intubated,
and
ventilated
with room air supplemented
with oxygen.
To measure
the aortic pulsatile
flow velocity
and
pressure,
a high-fidelity
micromanometer
(Model
SVPC-664D,
Millar
Instruments
Inc., USA)
was
inserted
through
the right carotid
artery and was
advanced
into the ascending
aorta. The left carotid
artery
was kept intact.
The pressure
sensor
and
electromagnetic
fluid velocity sensor were located at
the same position. The velocity sensor was connected
to a flowmeter
(Model
501D,
Carolina
Medical
Electronics,
Inc.,
USA).
In all dog experiments,
measurements
were taken under basal conditions.
In
addition,
one dog was given
a vasoconstrictor
(angiotensin
II, 15 ngkg-l)
and another
dog was
given a vasodilator
(Captopril,
0.5 mg kg-). Each of
these compounds
was administered
via an intravenous drip until the desired pressure effect, hypertension or hypotension,
was achieved,
and then waveforms were measured.
The analogue
waveforms
were
sampled
at 250Hz, digitized
and stored on a digital
computer
for off-line analysis.
Signals (5-10 beats at
steady
state)
were selected
on the basis of the
following
criterialg:
(1) recorded
beats with optimal
velocity profile;
(2) beats with an RR interval
less
than 5% different
from the average
value for all
recorded
beats;
(3) exclusion
of ectopic and postectopic beats. The optimal
flow velocity signal was
characterized
by a steady diastolic
level, maximal
systolic amplitude,
and minimal
late systolic negative how.
The
investigation
was performed
in
accordance
with the Home Office Guidance
on the
operation
of the Animals
(Scientific
Procedures)
Act
1986, published
by Her Majestys
Stationery
Office,
London.

Figure 1

T-tube arterial system model with asymmetric

head and
body ciculation paths. Each path consists of a non uniform lossless
transmission
tube and a complex terminal load. Properties of each
tube include a characteristic
impedance Z, and a characteristic
delay
time T for wave transmission
from one end of tube to the other.
Complex loads possess elements R,, C,,, and Rp as described in text
(modified from Burattini et a1.9)

the relation
between input impedance
Zini of the ith
tube,
characteristic
impedance
Zci and reflection
coefficient Fini at the entrance
of the ith tube, phase
constant pi and effective length d; can be described
by the following equations
(i=h,bj

Theoretical formulation
The asymmetric
T-tube
model
and its terminal
complex load are shown in Figure 1. The properties
of
each tube include
a characteristic
impedance
Z, at
the entrance
of the tube and a transmission
time 7.
r is the time for a wave to propagate
from one end of
the tube to the other. Properties
of the load are given
a high-frequency
tubeby the
load
elements:
matching
impedance
element
R,, a load compliance
C,, and a terminal
resistance
Rp. In this system, the
ascending
aorta section is not a part of the model,
and the input impedance
of the model is a parallel
combination
of the two arms of the T-tubea10~20.
From linearly
tapered
wave-transmission
theoryr8,

where j equals V-1

andw is the angular
frequency. The subscripts
h and b represent
the head and
body circulation,
respectively.
In the case of vascular
nonuniformity,
pi is a
function
of the path length due to geometric
and
elastic tapering.
The tapered transition
has a characteristic
impedance
that varies
continuously
in a
smooth fashion from the impedance
of one line to
that of the other. If we use a tapered transmission
line
to match a line with normalized
impedance
unity to a
load with normalized
impedance
ZL1, the taper has a
normalized
impedance
Zi which is a function
of the
distance 2 along the taper. With reference to Figure 2,
the step change d Zi in impedance
at z produces
a
differential
reflection coefficient
Med. Eng. Phys.

1994, Vol.

16, September

371

Vascular non-unifnnily

and impedance spectrum: K.C. Chang

et al
d(ln Zi)
-=dBi

In Z,i
(7)
&i

Again, substitution
of equation
(7) into equation
(4)
with the performance
of straightforward
integration
gives rise to an equation
as follows:

++

I
BOi

sin Figure 2

Tapered

transmission

line for ith tube

r.

= 1 ,-jWW2) ln &
In2
2

eOi

2
dTi=

2+dZi-~~
_
Zi+dZi+Zi

1 d
_ E-(In Zi) dz
2 dz

The total reflection coefficient at 2 could be assumed

to be the sum of all differential
contributions
dT,
from z to di and is*

Since the phase constant pi is related to the velocity

of propagation
of a sinusoidal
wave in the head and
body
tubes
by the equation:
pi(z) = o/+&(z),
in
which c@(z) is the phase velocity and is a function of
position along the taper, we have

Boj=
where u is a dummy
variable
that measured
the
distance
from the point 2 = 0 toward the load end.
The phase angle of the reflected wave arising at u is
2pi(2U) relative to the forward propagating
wave
at z. Differentiating
I?i(z) with respect to z gives

dri

1 d(ln

dr -2j/3jri---

2)

(2)

dt

Since ,B is a function
introduce
an auxiliary
equation
(2) as follows:

04

2Pi (2) d< = 2~ I 04 - dz

= 2wri

(9)

Qhik)

where
Ti =
7i
is the time for a wave to propagate
from the
beginning
to the end of the tube. Substitution
of
equation
(9) into equation
(8), leads to the following
important
equation:

of 2 along
the taper,
we
variable
Bj to integrate

(10)
Equation
(10) describes
the relation
between
the
input
reflection
coefficient,
the terminal
complex
load and the wave transmission
time over the entire
path length. The normalized
terminal
impedance
of
the ith tube could be expressed as follows:

and hence
dri
de_1 -ITi-

1 d(ln

ZJ

57

This is readily

integrated

(3)
to give

(4)

From equations
(l), (10) and ( 1 1), we can readily
calculate
the input
impedance
of the individual
tube. The input impedance
represented
by the Ttube model is the parallel
combination
of Zinh and
Zinb a3 below:

(5)

za(jO)

The exponential
taper-is
one for which 1n Zi varies
linearly,
and hence Zi varies
exponentially,
from
unity
t0
lnZLi.
Since
the phase
constant
is a
function
of the path length,
the relation
between
lnZi and lnZLi could be expressed as follows:

Total
aortic

where

Zinh(j@)

BOj=

2Pi k) dz

In Zi =

Pi(<)
Od,

d<
In ZLi

Med. Eng. Phys. 1994, Vol. 16, September

&I/l@)

(12)

peripheral
pressure,

Rp = $&b&t,

+&lb(@)

_resistance

P, to cardiac
+

(ratio of mean ascending

output,
Q) is

- Rpb)= P/Q

(13)

where Rph and RPb are peripheral

resistance
of the
head and body portions
of the circulation,
respectR,i, are chosen to adapt
ively. The load resistors,
the load with the tube at high frequencies.
Thus

(6)

Pi(z) dz
I
Differengating
In .Zi with respect to z: and substituting equations
(5) into equation
(6) with the performance
of variable
translation
gives
the following
equation:
372

zinb(jw)

,=

R*izci

(14)

R,c+i-Z,i

Wave reflection
is therefore absent
cies.
The model as it is formulated

at high
requires

frequena priori

Vascular

specification
of the peripheral
resistances
in the two
This
requirement
could
be
transmission
paths.
satisfied
when
the ratio
(K&
between
measured
descending
thoracic
aorta
mean
flow (&J
and
From this ratio and
cardiac output (Q) is calculated.
knowledgeof
Rp, the resistances
&, and Rpb can be
calculated.
&

= &I( 1 - &to)

Rpb = &l&t,

Calculation
of &,h and Rpb would reduce the number
of free model parameters
to six. In this study Kdto
could, however,
not be calculated
directly
because
all dogs studied
had closed chests. To conquer
this
deficiency,
we. took assumed
values
of Kdt, from
Campbells
report9 for all dogs under basal, vasoconstricted,
and vasodilated
states. The ratio of Kdl,
was assumed
to be 0.70, 0.62, and 0.76 under these
conditions,
respectively.
The result of the study with
these assumed values are satisfactory.
Parameter estimation method
Given the non uniform
T-tube
model and sampled
values of measured
aortic pressure,
P(t), and flow,
Q(t), the model parameters
could be estimated
and
functional
properties
of the
the
corresponding
arterial
load identilied8~i0.
The
six model
parameters
are the characteristic
impedances
at the
( CLh,
entrance
of tubes, (Z,,, Z,b), load compliances,
cLb), and wave transmission
times over the path
length in the individual
tubes, (rh, 76).
For estimating
parameters
P(t) is taken as output
variable.
variables
while Q(t) is the model input
Harmonics
of ascending
aortic
flow, Q( Jo),
are
calculated
by the fast Fourier
transform.
These
harmonics
are multiplied
by the T-tube
input
the corresponding
impedance,
Z, ( ju), t o calculate
harmonics
of ascending
aortic pressure,
P( jw):

Zz(jw)

(17)

Model-estimated
ascending
aorta
pressure
in the
time domain,
P(t),
is obtained
by applying
the
inverse
Fourier
transform
to harmonics
calculated
from equation
( 17). A normalized
root-mean-square
error, e* is calculated
as

e*=f

Ji

e(i)2

i=l

(18)

where
e(i.

impedance spectrum: K.C.

Chang

et al.

The quality by which the model fitted the data in

the parameter
estimation
process is judged
by the
from a linear
magnitude
of e* and by indices
of model-generated
on measured
data
regression
For perfect
correlation
of the measured
values.
variable,
the slope of regression
would equal 1.0, the
intercept
would
equal
0.0, and the coefficient
of
determination,
r2, would equal 1.0.

(15)
(16)

fb4 = QW)

non-unifomityand

Wave reflection phenomena

Pressure and flow waves at the input of individual
tubes
could
be dissected
into their forward
and
backward
travelling
components.
If time-dependent
signals are written
as a Fourier
series, it holds for
each harmonic
that,
P&w)+P,(jw)

=Pj(jiO)

P
n is the number
of data points, and P(i) and P(i) are
respectively
sample
values
of the measured
and
model-generated
aortic pressure
waveforms.
Parameters of the model are then adjusted
to minimize
e* using
the Nelder-Meade
Simplex
algorithml.
The algorithm
is a direct search method for finding
a functions
minimum.
The parameters
coincident
with the minimum
are taken as the model estimates
of arterial properties.

(i=h,6)

Q~(~wI + Qti(jw) = Qi(jm)

(19)

(20)

where Pi is pressure
and Qi is flow of ith tube. The
subscripts
f and r indicate
forward
and reflected
(backward),
respectively.
Equations
( 19) and (20)
show that pressure
and flow waves at the input of
individual
tubes are the sum of forward and backward waves.
Harmonics
of forward pressure
could be obtained
from
ascending
aortic
pressure
harmonics
after
estimation
of the model parameters,
that is after
calculating
tube
input
impedance
Zini (jo).
The
following
procedure
is used. The relation
between
forward and backward
transmitted
harmonic
waves
is given by the reflection coefficient Fini ( jw):
Pr,(jw)
Qti(jm)

= rini(jw)

Substituting
in
Pfi(jW)

pJ;(j)

= -rini(jm)

=P(jw)l[l

(21)

Qf;Cjw)

equations

(22)

(21) into Equation

(19) results

(23)

+rini(jw)l

Because

the following

Fini

= [zini(jw) -Z~ill[Zini(jw)

relation

holds:

+ Zil

(24)

by substituting
equation
(24) into equation
(23),
forward pressure
harmonics
in each tube could be
calculated
from P( jw) and Zini(jU).
After
forward
pressure
harmonics
have
been
calculated
and taking into account
that the following relations hold:

JjWVQfi1i(j4

P(i) -P(i)

=P(jw)

Pi(jw)lQti(jo)

= Zi

(25)

= -Z,

(26)

forward
flow harmonics
could be computed
from
equation
(25). Finally, backward
pressure harmonics
could be computed
from equation
(21) and backward
flow harmonics
from equation
(26). Time-dependent
signals are given by the inverse Fourier transform.
After setting
the ascending
aorta
characteristic
impedance
Z, equal to the parallel
combination
of
Z,, and Z&, we could infer forward
(Py, QJ) and
backward
(Pr, Q,) p ressure and flow waves at the
entrance
of the T-tube
model.
At this point,
the
Med. Eng. Phys. 1994, Vol. 16, September

375

Vascular non-untjxmity and impedance spcctmm: K.C.

Chang et al.

Table 1

Indices

of model

Dog

e*x

1BA
2BA
3BA
4BA
5BA
6BA
7BA
BBA
9BA
1OBA

4.76
8.27
6.71
5.48
5.52
10.13
11.68
5.15
5.48
6.54

Mean
fSD

applied

to experimental

data

Sl0pe

Intercept

rp

1.0049

0.992

-0.6837
0.0734

1.0075
0.9902
1.0083
1.0917
0.9943
1.0067
0.9968
0.9999

-0.8908
1.3621
-1.1272
- 1.6274
0.7795
-0.9149
0.3390
-0.0046

0.9829
0.9563
0.9881
0.9781
0.9734
0.9464
0.9363
0.9785
0.9770
0.9557

6.91
k2.39

1.0092
+o.o29i

-0.2695
+ 0.9354

0.9673
kO.0173

6.49
7.98

0.9949
1.0011

0.7190
-0.1665

0.9688
0.9543

9vc
1OVD

1o-4

fits when

e*, normalized
root-mean-square
error;
slope,
intercept,
and
r,
linear
regression
parameters
of the model output
variable,
P(t), on
measured
variable,
P(t). BA, VC, VD = basal, vasoconstricted,
and
vasodilated
conditions,
respectively

reflection

coefficient

could

be expressed

as follows:
(27)

By analogy
with equations
(2 l-26),
harmonics
of
forward and backward
pressure
and flow could be
computed
as Pf(jw)
= P(jo)l[l
+r,(jw)],
Qf(jw)
= (pf(jw)lZ,

J,(W)

= -LW
signals
form.

QfW4,

are obtained

= r,(_M) p(jw),
and Q,(@)
respectively.
Time-dependent
from the inverse Fourier
trans-

RESULTS
Data fit

Time (msec)

Figure 3

The solid lines

ascending
aorta, and the
tube model is represented

show the pressure

pressure
predicted
as dashed lines

Table 2

indices

Haemodynamic
P

and

and flow measured

in the
by our non-uniform
T-

estimated

global

parameters

Dog

(mmHg)

e
(ml s-)

Z,*
(dynes

IBA
2BA
3BA
4BA
5BA
6BA
7BA
BBA
9BA
1OBA

135
117
115
142
140
105
140
133
111
134

23
23
25
22
40
20
30
33
35
24

152
159
137
171
154
140
186
100
88
121

Our non-uniform
T-tube model fits the data well in
every dog. A summary
of the measures
indicating
goodness
of tit is given in Table 1 and an example
showing
the similarity
between
computed
and
measured
pressure and flow waveforms
is illustrated
in Figure 3. Figure 3 shows the measured
ascending

of the non-uniform
Z
(dynes

cm-)

T-tube

model
CL
(ml mmHg_)

RP
(dynes

197
156
162
210
115
129
144
84
106
127

0.0490
0.0690
0.1693
0.0637
0.2792
0.1759
0.1351
0.2511
0.4747
0.2339

7689
6769
6059
8552
4657
6927
6286
5409
4265
7452

cmm5)

*SD

128
15

28
+7

141
231

143
f39

0.1901
50.1286

6407
+ 1355

9vc
1OVD

142
102

22
34

100
71

128
93

0.2053
0.2834

8711
4016

Mean

P = mean aortic
pressure;
Q= mean aortic
flow; Z:= characteristic
data points obtained
from the ratio of the corresponding
harmonics
model-estimated
load compliance;
Rp = peripheral
vascular
resistance

374

Med.

Eng.

Phys.

1994, Vol.

16, September

impedance
of pressure

calculated
and flow;

cm-)

by averaging
high-frequency
moduli
of impedance
Z, = model-estimated
characteristic
impedance;
CL =

aortic pressure (solid line in the lower panel) and

flow (solid line in the upper panel) in dog 1. The
dashed line in the lower panel represents
the
ascending aortic pressure estimated
by the nonuniform T-tube model. The haemodynamic data and
global characteristic
impedance
estimated
by the
model are shown inTable 2. Since the model lumps
vessels,
characteristic
impedance
cannot
be
measured directly in vivo. However, in the case
of the largest arteries Z, can be estimated
from
the spectrum
of the input impedance.
We take
the characteristic
impedance,
that is calculated
by averaging
the high-frequency
magnitudes
of
impedance
data points, as the golden standard.
These data points are obtained as the quotient of
the corresponding
harmonics
of ascending
aortic
pressure
and flow. The estimated
characteristic
impedance at the entrance of the non uniform Ttube is 143 + 39 dynes cmm5. It is close to the calculated characteristic
impedance,
141 zlz3 1 dyne s cmP5.
Table 3 shows the estimates of parameters
of the
individual tubes that represent the head circulation.
The model-estimated
parameters of the body circulation are given in Table 4. In the basal state, the
estimated time for a propagated wave to traverse the
body-end section of the circulation is greater than
the time to traverse the head-end section (47.60f
20.56 vs. 19.78+5.35ms).
On the other hand, the
characteristic impedance at the entrance of the body
circulation is lesser than that at the entrance of the
head circulation (278 & 95 vs. 3 15 f 101 dyne s cmm5).
In describing
the pulsatile properties
of terminal
loads, the load compliance at the termination of the
body circulation is greater than that at the termination of the head circulation
(0.1266 f 0.1053 vs.
0.0635+_ 0.0308 ml mmHg-).

80 -

Forward
and
backward
pressure
waves
at the
entrance
of head and body transmission
paths are
calculated
from
the measured
ascending
aortic
3 Estimated and calculated
by the non-uniform T-tube model

parameters

4 Forward and backward pressure components as described

by the non-uniform T-tube model at the entrance of the head
circulation (dashed lines), body circulation (dotted lines), and in the
ascending aorta (solid lines) are shown in the upper and lower panel,
respectively

of head circulation

RPh

Estimated and calculated

the non-uniform T-tube model

Tube

parameters

Load
R.h

~$mmHg-)

%ynesa&)

(III:

0.0350
0.0190
0.0974
0.0325
0.0784
0.0477
0.0491
0.0738
0.1045
0.0978

407
519
287
421
307
261
249
242
193
266

29.00
23.94
14.63
23.77
18.54
13.56
22.56
15.58
22.66
13.54

320
0.0635
f 104 rtO.0308

315
flO1

19.78
+5.35

293
201

289
198

8.72
15.24

Dog

(dynes cmm5)

IBA
2BA
3BA
4BA
5BA
6BA
7BA
8BA
9BA
IOBA

25 628
22564
20197
28 505
15523
23089
20950
18027
14214
24838

413
531
291
427
313
264
252
245
196
269

Mean
*SD

21354
-t4516

9vc
1OVD

22744
16392

Subscript
h = head
circulation.
Rp = peripheral
resistance;
R. =
high-frequency
tube-matching
impedance;
CL = load compliance;
Z,= characteristic
impedance
at the entrance of the tube; 7=
transmission time

CL,

Dog

(dynes cm-)

IBA
2BA
3BA
4BA
5BA
6BA
7BA
8BA
9BA
IOBA

10988
9 674
8 659
12221
6 655
9 899
8983
7 729
6 094
10649
9 155
1936

Mean
*SD

9VC
1OVD

14120
5321

of body circulation

by

Tube

RPb

0.0568
0.1061

400

Figure

Table 4

Load

300

Time (msec)

Forward and reflected waves

Table

200

100

(ml mmHg-)

Z,b
(dynes cm-)

Tb
(ms)

228
388
432
188
262
354
129
245
248

0.0140
0.0500
0.0719
0.03 12
0.2008
0.1283
0.0859
0.1773
0.3710
0.1361

384
222
371
417
183
255
340
127
235
243

84.89
62.42
20.89
69.26
48.15
39.04
48.73
35.95
47.28
19.28

287
f99

0.1266
kO.1053

278
+95

47.60
f20.56

232
181

0.1484
0.2075

229
175

25.67
21.07

Rob
397

The subscript b indicates

3 for abbreviations

the body circulation.

See footnote to Table

Med. Eng. Phys. 1994, Vol. 16, September

315

Va.wuccular
non-unifnni~

and impedance spectmm: K.C. Chang et a.1

pressure
after estimation
of the model parameters.
The time course of head-end
reflected wave (dashed
line) and body-end
reflected
wave (dotted line) is
showed in the lower panel of Figure 4. Since the
characteristic
impedance
at the entrance
of the Ttube is equal to the parallel combination
of Z,, and
and reflected
pressures
in the
Z cb, the forward
ascending
aorta could be computed
(solid lines in
Figure 4).

estimated at the entrance of the body circulation,

and
the dashed lines are those at the entrance of the head
circulation.
The solid lines are compatible
with the
circle data points obtained
from the ratio of corresponding harmonics
of the ascending
aortic pressure
and flow.

DISCUSSION
Non-uniform

Impedance patterns
Since the harmonic
amplitudes
are low at frequencies above 20 Hz, they have little effect upon the time
domain waveforms,
but the errors appear to be large.
The aortic input impedance
spectra in the same dog
are shown in Figure 5. The solid lines represent
the
predicted spectra at the entrance
of the non-uniform
T-tube
model.
The
dotted
lines are the spectra

1 i:
: I,

: I,
i

0.8 - i
::
:

:
t>
:
,

O0

,O

10

20

15

2-

T-tube system

Models have many purposes. For some purposes, the

lumped
windkessel
or even the total
peripheral
of
the
arterial
resistance
models
system
are
adequate4~72223. The
T-tube
model
with uniform
tubes is also adequate
for many purposes having to
do with pulsatile
pressure
and flow transmission
behaviourslO.
However,
the
arterial
system
is
geometrically
and
thermodynamically
(viscoelastically)
non-uniform,2.
The
vascular
impedance
varies gradually
between
the aortic arch and the
peripheral
arteries.
The
retrograde
waves in the
vasculature
are generated
wherever there is a change
in vascular im edance of the path through which the
blood flows 3!? The uniform model might not reflect
the properties
of geometric
and elastic tapering
of
the vasculature,
which could minimize
the presence
and influence
of wave reflections.
As a result, the
asymmetric
T-tube
model with uniform tube could
be advanced to relate the pulsatile pressure and flow.
We propose in this report a non-uniform
version of
the asymmetric
T-tube
model to infer the physical
properties
of the vasculature.
The
exponentially
tapered transmission
line is used to describe the nonuniform
properties
of the vasculature.
This
is
because the reflection
coefficient
spectrum
has been
reported to indicate that the arterial system acts as a
low-pass filter for wave reflection phenomena*.
This
low-pass filtering is presumed to be due to elastic and
geometric
differences,
such
as tapering,
between
proximal
and distal portions of the arterial tree25-27.
The input reflection
coefficient
for an exponential
taper
has a first minor-lobe
maximum
which
is
less
than
20%
of the
major-lobe
maximum*.
Furthermore,
the inertia
and compliance
per unit
length in the transmission
line could vary exponentially with the distance
zl. In the present
study,
there
is a close
correspondence
between
the
impedance
parameters
derived
from
our
nonuniform
T-tube
model and values computed
from
measurements
on dogs.

Explanation of results

L
0

I
5

10

Frequency

15

20

(Hz)

Figure 5 Input impedance

spectra of head circulation
(dashed
lines), body circulation
(dotted
lines), and the whole systemic
vasculature
(solid lines) as described by our non-uniform
T-tube
model are shown. Circles are data points obtained from the ratio of
ascending
aortic
pressure
harmonics
to the corresponding
flow
harmonics

376

Med. Eng. Phys.

1994, Vol. 16, September

In the basal state,

rb is always
estimated
to be
greater
than rh. Since T depends
on wave velocity
and transmission
path length and since the length of
vessels leading to the body end of the circulation
is
greater than that of the vessels leading to the head
end, we expect
rb to be greater
than rh, as the
model estimated.
Our non-uniform
T-tube
model gives estimates
of
Z& that are, on the average, 88.25%
of estimates of Zch
in the basal state. This is in agreement
with the
findings of Cox and Pace2*, who found that Z,b was
12% less than Z& On the other hand, our result is in

Vascularnon-unifonity and impedancespectrum:K. C. Changet al.

contrast
to the findings of Burattini
and Campbel18,
et al. lo, who found that
Campbell
et al., and Burattini
was significantly
(24%,
21% and 32%,
respec%b
tively) larger than Z,,,. All their studies adopted the
uniform T-tube model to relate the pulsatile pressure
and flow in the ascending
aorta. In comparison
with
the uniform T-tube
model, our non-uniform
T-tube
has slightly better fits to the measured
signals, with
the smaller
magnitude
of e* (6.91 k2.39
US. 8.06
of
* 3.22 x lo+, p < 0.05) and the larger coefficient
determination,
r*, (0.9673 f 0.0173 vs. 0.9472 zb 0.0350,
p < 0.05). The better model fit and more reasonable
estimates
in Z,, and Z,b are the improvement
of our
non-uniform
T-tube
model over the earlier T-tube
More
studies
are
required
to delineate
model.
relative
responsiveness
of the estimated
Z,b and
Z,,, to the uniform and non-uniform
T-tube models.
The parameter
that describes
the distensibility
of
large arteries
is tube compliance.
Since
we have
spatial
tapering
of our tube for which
the phase
constant
is a function
of the path
length,
the
calculation
of tube compliance
from the knowledge
of Zci and 7, seems to be meaningless.
The T-tube
model encourages
investigators
to use
this model to assess the influence of wave reflections
on heart-arterial
coupling.
From equation
(21) with
its inverse Fourier transform,
the backward
pressure
waves from the head end and body end are calculated.
When
these
equations
are applied
to the
measured data from dog 1, the result is the backward
waves shown in Figure 4. In the basal state,
the
backward
waves from head end and body end of the
circulation
are distinct,
each wave arriving
at wellseparated
times
and each wave having
sufficient
amplitude
to make a noticeable
impression
on the
With
the T-tube
measured
pressure
waveform.
model,
there
is the opportunity
to estimate
the
strength
of these head-end
and body-end
reflected
waves respectively,
and their contribution
to left
ventricular
loading.
Such could not be done with a
single-tube
or windkessel
model.

Limitations

of model

Our
non-uniform
T-tube
model
is necessarily
a
reduced
representation
of the
systemic
arterial
system. Many important
aspects of arterial distribution and wave transmission
have not been included in
the model. The most significant
features not represented in the model are wave attenuation,
non-linear
pressure-diameter
relation,
and vessel
branching
beyond main branching
into head and body circulation at the level of the aortic arch. Therefore,
head
and body tubes are assumed
to be loss free and are
loaded with an effective low-pass filter complex load
rather than with branching
elements.
Non-linearities
arise from the elastic properties
of
arterial
wall* as well as from
the existence
of
convective
acceleration
which is mainly
caused by
the arterial diameter
tapering.
The convective
acceleration
is negligible
compared
with the transient
acceleration
if a characteristic
velocity of the distribthe wave propagation
uted flow, Q, is less than
is most valid for the
speed, cp,,. This assumption
higher harmonics,
wherein
q becomes
quite small

compared
to $h. Even at the lowest harmonics
f/$h is
never greater than about 0.1, as can be inferred from
studies
of the harmonic
spectra
of blood
flow
contours.
The usefulness
of the concept
of impedance
rests
on the assumption
that the arterial system is linear
with
respect
to pressure
and
flow.
The
linear
model assumes that the variables
at each harmonic
frequency
are independent
of all others,
whereas
non-linearity
implies
an
interaction
between
different harmonics.
Linearity
guarantees
that impedance is an indication
of the physical
state of the
blood vessel, not of the particular
pulsations
that
exist at the moment*.
Although
perfect linearity
is
not to be expected in any biological system, there are
many
findings31-35
suggesting
that
the
arterial
system
is approximately
linear
with
respect
to
impedance,
at least within the accuracy
of present
techniques
for measuring
the
input
impedance
spectrum
in viuo. Since the validity of linear models
depends on the needs of a particular
application,
in
the present study the relationship
between pressure
and flow is assumed to be linear.
Nevertheless,
our non-uniform
T-tube
model is an
appealing
modification
with respect to the uniform
T-tube
system.
Information
related
to path length
and wave velocity
is contained
within
the single
parameter
r. To estimate
path length,
an extra
assessment
of wave velocity
would be required.
It
deserves further quantitative
analysis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This
study
was
National
Science
634).

supported
Council

by grants
from
the
(NSC
81-0412-B-002-

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