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Linguistics

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Thisarticleisaboutthefieldofstudy.Forthejournal,seeLinguistics(journal).
"Linguist"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeLinguist(disambiguation).
Linguisticsisthescientific[1]studyoflanguage.[2]Therearethreeaspectstothisstudy:languageform,
languagemeaning,andlanguageincontext.[3]Theearliestactivitiesinthedescriptionoflanguagehave
beenattributedtoPini,whowasanearlystudentoflinguistics[4](fl.4thcenturyBCE),[5]withhisanalysis
ofSanskritinAshtadhyayi.[6]
Linguisticsanalyzeshumanlanguageasasystemforrelatingsounds(orsignsinsignedlanguages)and
meaning.[7]Phoneticsstudiesacousticandarticulatorypropertiesoftheproductionandperceptionof
speechsoundsandnonspeechsounds.Thestudyoflanguagemeaning,ontheotherhand,dealswithhow
languagesencoderelationsbetweenentities,properties,andotheraspectsoftheworldtoconvey,process,
andassignmeaning,aswellastomanageandresolveambiguity.Whilethestudyofsemanticstypically
concernsitselfwithtruthconditions,pragmaticsdealswithhowcontextinfluencesmeanings.[8]
Grammarisasystemofruleswhichgoverntheformoftheutterancesinagivenlanguage.Itencompasses
bothsound[9]andmeaning,andincludesphonology(howsoundsandgesturesfunctiontogether),
morphology(theformationandcompositionofwords),andsyntax(theformationandcompositionof
phrasesandsentencesfromwords).[10]
Intheearly20thcentury,FerdinanddeSaussuredistinguishedbetweenthenotionsoflangueandparolein
hisformulationofstructurallinguistics.Accordingtohim,paroleisthespecificutteranceofspeech,
whereaslanguereferstoanabstractphenomenonthattheoreticallydefinestheprinciplesandsystemof
rulesthatgovernalanguage.[11]ThisdistinctionresemblestheonemadebyNoamChomskybetween
competenceandperformance,wherecompetenceisindividual'sidealknowledgeofalanguage,while
performanceisthespecificwayinwhichitisused.[12]
Theformalstudyoflanguagehasalsoledtothegrowthoffieldslikepsycholinguistics,whichexploresthe
representationandfunctionoflanguageinthemindneurolinguistics,whichstudieslanguageprocessingin
thebrainandlanguageacquisition,whichinvestigateshowchildrenandadultsacquireaparticular
language.
Linguisticsalsoincludesnonformalapproachestothestudyofotheraspectsofhumanlanguage,suchas
social,cultural,historicalandpoliticalfactors.[13]Thestudyofculturaldiscoursesanddialectsisthe
domainofsociolinguistics,whichlooksattherelationbetweenlinguisticvariationandsocialstructures,as
wellasthatofdiscourseanalysis,whichexaminesthestructureoftextsandconversations.[14]Researchon
languagethroughhistoricalandevolutionarylinguisticsfocusesonhowlanguageschange,andonthe
originandgrowthoflanguages,particularlyoveranextendedperiodoftime.
Corpuslinguisticstakesnaturallyoccurringtextsorfilms(insignedlanguages)asitsprimaryobjectof
analysis,andstudiesthevariationofgrammaticalandotherfeaturesbasedonsuchcorpora.Stylistics
involvesthestudyofpatternsofstyle:withinwritten,signed,orspokendiscourse.[15]Language
documentationcombinesanthropologicalinquirywithlinguisticinquirytodescribelanguagesandtheir

grammars.Lexicographycoversthestudyandconstructionofdictionaries.Computationallinguistics
appliescomputertechnologytoaddressquestionsintheoreticallinguistics,aswellastocreateapplications
foruseinparsing,dataretrieval,machinetranslation,andotherareas.Peoplecanapplyactualknowledge
ofalanguageintranslationandinterpreting,aswellasinlanguageeducationtheteachingofasecondor
foreignlanguage.Policymakersworkwithgovernmentstoimplementnewplansineducationandteaching
whicharebasedonlinguisticresearch.
Areasofstudyrelatedtolinguisticsincludesemiotics(thestudyofsignsandsymbolsbothwithinlanguage
andwithout),literarycriticism,translation,andspeechlanguagepathology.

Contents
1 Nomenclature
2 Variationanduniversality
2.1 Lexicon
2.2 Discourse
2.3 Dialect
2.4 Structures
2.5 Relativity
2.6 Style
3 Approach
3.1 Generativevs.functionaltheoriesoflanguage
3.2 Methodology
3.3 Analysis
3.4 Anthropology
3.5 Sources
4 Historyoflinguisticthought
4.1 Earlygrammarians
4.2 Comparativephilology
4.3 Structuralism

4.4 Generativism
4.5 Functionalism
4.6 Cognitivism
5 Areasofresearch
5.1 Historicallinguistics
5.2 Sociolinguistics
5.3 Developmentallinguistics
5.4 Neurolinguistics
6 Appliedlinguistics
7 Interdisciplinaryfields
7.1 Semiotics
7.2 Languagedocumentation
7.3 Translation
7.4 Biolinguistics
7.5 Clinicallinguistics
7.6 Computationallinguistics
7.7 Evolutionarylinguistics
7.8 Forensiclinguistics
8 Seealso
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 Externallinks

Nomenclature

Beforethe20thcentury,thetermphilology,firstattestedin1716,[16]wascommonlyusedtorefertothe
scienceoflanguage,whichwasthenpredominantlyhistoricalinfocus.[17][18]SinceFerdinanddeSaussure's
insistenceontheimportanceofsynchronicanalysis,however,thisfocushasshifted[19]andtheterm
"philology"isnowgenerallyusedforthe"studyofalanguage'sgrammar,history,andliterarytradition",
especiallyintheUnitedStates[20](wherephilologyhasneverbeenverypopularlyconsideredasthe
"scienceoflanguage").[21]
Althoughtheterm"linguist"inthesenseof"astudentoflanguage"datesfrom1641,[22]theterm
"linguistics"isfirstattestedin1847.[22]ItisnowthecommonacademicterminEnglishforthescientific
studyoflanguage.
Today,thetermlinguistappliestosomeonewhostudieslanguageorisaresearcherwithinthefield,orto
someonewhousesthetoolsofthedisciplinetodescribeandanalyzespecificlanguages.[23]

Variationanduniversality
Whilesometheoriesonlinguisticsfocusonthedifferentvarietiesthatlanguageproduces,amongdifferent
sectionsofsociety,othersfocusontheuniversalpropertiesthatarecommontoallhumanlanguages.The
theoryofvariationthereforewouldelaborateonthedifferentusagesofpopularlanguageslikeFrenchand
Englishacrosstheglobe,aswellasitssmallerdialectsandregionalpermutationswithintheirnational
boundaries.Thetheoryofvariationlooksattheculturalstagesthataparticularlanguageundergoes,and
theseincludethefollowing.

Lexicon
Thelexiconisacatalogueofwordsandtermsthatarestoredinaspeaker'smind.Thelexiconconsistsof
wordsandboundmorphemes,whicharewordsthatcan'tstandalone,likeaffixes.Insomeanalyses,
compoundwordsandcertainclassesofidiomaticexpressionsandothercollocationsarealsoconsideredto
bepartofthelexicon.Dictionariesrepresentattemptsatlisting,inalphabeticalorder,thelexiconofagiven
languageusually,however,boundmorphemesarenotincluded.Lexicography,closelylinkedwiththe
domainofsemantics,isthescienceofmappingthewordsintoanencyclopediaoradictionary.Thecreation
andadditionofnewwords(intothelexicon)arecalledneologisms.
Itisoftenbelievedthataspeaker'scapacityforlanguageliesinthequantityofwordsstoredinthelexicon.
However,thisisoftenconsideredamythbylinguists.Thecapacityfortheuseoflanguageisconsideredby
manylinguiststolieprimarilyinthedomainofgrammar,andtobelinkedwithcompetence,ratherthan
withthegrowthofvocabulary.Evenaverysmalllexiconistheoreticallycapableofproducinganinfinite
numberofsentences.

Discourse
Adiscourseisawayofspeakingthatemergeswithinacertainsocialsettingandisbasedonacertain
subjectmatter.Aparticulardiscoursebecomesalanguagevarietywhenitisusedinthiswayfora
particularpurpose,andisreferredtoasaregister.[24]Theremaybecertainlexicaladditions(newwords)
thatarebroughtintoplaybecauseoftheexpertiseofthecommunityofpeoplewithinacertaindomainof
specialisation.Registersanddiscoursesthereforedifferentiatethemselvesthroughtheuseofvocabulary,

andattimesthroughtheuseofstyletoo.Peopleinthemedicalfraternity,forexample,mayusesome
medicalterminologyintheircommunicationthatisspecialisedtothefieldofmedicine.Thisisoften
referredtoasbeingpartofthe"medicaldiscourse",andsoon.

Dialect
Adialectisavarietyoflanguagethatischaracteristicofaparticulargroupamongthelanguage
speakers.[25]Thegroupofpeoplewhoarethespeakersofadialectareusuallyboundtoeachotherbysocial
identity.Thisiswhatdifferentiatesadialectfromaregisteroradiscourse,whereinthelattercase,cultural
identitydoesnotalwaysplayarole.Dialectsarespeechvarietiesthathavetheirowngrammaticaland
phonologicalrules,linguisticfeatures,andstylisticaspects,buthavenotbeengivenanofficialstatusasa
language.Dialectsoftenmoveontogainthestatusofalanguageduetopoliticalandsocialreasons.
Differentiationamongstdialects(andsubsequently,languagestoo)isbasedupontheuseofgrammatical
rules,syntacticrules,andstylisticfeatures,thoughnotalwaysonlexicaluseorvocabulary.Thepopular
sayingthata"languageisadialectwithanarmyandnavy"isattributedasadefinitionformulatedbyMax
Weinreich.
Universalgrammartakesintoaccountgeneralformalstructuresandfeaturesthatarecommontoalldialects
andlanguages,andthetemplateofwhichpreexistsinthemindofaninfantchild.Thisideaisbasedonthe
theoryofgenerativegrammarandtheformalschooloflinguistics,whoseproponentsincludeNoam
Chomskyandthosewhofollowhistheoryandwork.
"Wemayasindividualsberatherfondofourowndialect.Thisshouldnotmakeusthink,
though,thatitisactuallyanybetterthananyotherdialect.Dialectsarenotgoodorbad,niceor
nasty,rightorwrongtheyarejustdifferentfromoneanother,anditisthemarkofacivilised
societythatittoleratesdifferentdialectsjustasittoleratesdifferentraces,religionsandsexes."
[26]

Structures
Linguisticstructuresarepairingsofmeaningandform.Anyparticularpairingofmeaningandformisa
Saussureansign.Forinstance,themeaning"cat"isrepresentedworldwidewithawidevarietyofdifferent
soundpatterns(inorallanguages),movementsofthehandsandface(insignlanguages),andwritten
symbols(inwrittenlanguages).
Linguistsfocusingonstructureattempttounderstandtherulesregardinglanguageusethatnativespeakers
know(notalwaysconsciously).Alllinguisticstructurescanbebrokendownintocomponentpartsthatare
combinedaccordingto(sub)consciousrules,overmultiplelevelsofanalysis.Forinstance,considerthe
structureoftheword"tenth"ontwodifferentlevelsofanalysis.Onthelevelofinternalwordstructure
(knownasmorphology),theword"tenth"ismadeupofonelinguisticformindicatinganumberand
anotherformindicatingordinality.Therulegoverningthecombinationoftheseformsensuresthatthe
ordinalitymarker"th"followsthenumber"ten."Onthelevelofsoundstructure(knownasphonology),
structuralanalysisshowsthatthe"n"soundin"tenth"ismadedifferentlyfromthe"n"soundin"ten"
spokenalone.AlthoughmostspeakersofEnglishareconsciouslyawareoftherulesgoverninginternal

structureofthewordpiecesof"tenth",theyarelessoftenawareoftherulegoverningitssoundstructure.
Linguistsfocusedonstructurefindandanalyzerulessuchasthese,whichgovernhownativespeakersuse
language.
Linguisticshasmanysubfieldsconcernedwithparticularaspectsoflinguisticstructure.Thetheorythat
elucidatesonthese,aspropoundedbyNoamChomsky,isknownasgenerativetheoryoruniversal
grammar.Thesesubfieldsrangefromthosefocusedprimarilyonformtothosefocusedprimarilyon
meaning.Theyalsorunthegamutoflevelofanalysisoflanguage,fromindividualsounds,towords,to
phrases,uptoculturaldiscourse.
Subfieldsthatfocusonastructurefocusedstudyoflanguage:
Phonetics,thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsoundproductionandperception
Phonology,thestudyofsoundsasabstractelementsinthespeaker'smindthatdistinguishmeaning
(phonemes)
Morphology,thestudyofmorphemes,ortheinternalstructuresofwordsandhowtheycanbe
modified
Syntax,thestudyofhowwordscombinetoformgrammaticalphrasesandsentences
Semantics,thestudyofthemeaningofwords(lexicalsemantics)andfixedwordcombinations
(phraseology),andhowthesecombinetoformthemeaningsofsentences
Pragmatics,thestudyofhowutterancesareusedincommunicativeacts,andtheroleplayedby
contextandnonlinguisticknowledgeinthetransmissionofmeaning
Discourseanalysis,theanalysisoflanguageuseintexts(spoken,written,orsigned)
Stylistics,thestudyoflinguisticfactors(rhetoric,diction,stress)thatplaceadiscourseincontext
Semiotics,thestudyofsignsandsignprocesses(semiosis),indication,designation,likeness,
analogy,metaphor,symbolism,signification,andcommunication.

Relativity
Asconstructedpopularlythroughthe"SapirWhorfHypothesis",relativistsbelievethatthestructureofa
particularlanguageiscapableofinfluencingthecognitivepatternsthroughwhichapersonshapeshisorher
worldview.Universalistsbelievethattherearecommonalitiesbetweenhumanperceptionasthereisinthe
humancapacityforlanguage,whilerelativistsbelievethatthisvariesfromlanguagetolanguageandperson
toperson.WhiletheSapirWhorfhypothesisisanelaborationofthisideaexpressedthroughthewritingsof
AmericanlinguistsEdwardSapirandBenjaminLeeWhorf,itwasSapir'sstudentHarryHoijerwhotermed
itthus.The20thcenturyGermanlinguistLeoWeisgerberalsowroteextensivelyaboutthetheoryof
relativity.Relativistsargueforthecaseofdifferentiationatthelevelofcognitionandinsemanticdomains.
Theemergenceofcognitivelinguisticsinthe1980salsorevivedaninterestinlinguisticrelativity.Thinkers
likeGeorgeLakoffhavearguedthatlanguagereflectsdifferentculturalmetaphors,whiletheFrench
philosopheroflanguageJacquesDerrida'swritingshavebeenseentobecloselyassociatedwiththe
relativistmovementinlinguistics,especiallythroughdeconstruction[27]andwasevenheavilycriticisedin
themediaatthetimeofhisdeathforhistheoryofrelativism.[28]

Style
Stylisticsisthestudyandinterpretationoftextsforaspectsoftheirlinguisticandtonalstyle.Stylistic
analysisentailstheanalysisofdescriptionofparticulardialectsandregistersusedbyspeechcommunities.
Stylisticfeaturesincluderhetoric,[29]diction,stress,satire,irony,dialogue,andotherformsofphonetic

variations.Stylisticanalysiscanalsoincludethestudyoflanguageincanonicalworksofliterature,popular
fiction,news,advertisements,andotherformsofcommunicationinpopularcultureaswell.Itisusually
seenasavariationincommunicationthatchangesfromspeakertospeakerandcommunitytocommunity.
Inshort,Stylisticsistheinterpretationoftext.

Approach
Generativevs.functionaltheoriesoflanguage
Onemajordebateinlinguisticsconcernshowlanguageshouldbedefinedandunderstood.Somelinguists
usetheterm"language"primarilytorefertoahypothesized,innatemoduleinthehumanbrainthatallows
peopletoundertakelinguisticbehavior,whichispartoftheformalistapproach.This"universalgrammar"
isconsideredtoguidechildrenwhentheylearnlanguagesandtoconstrainwhatsentencesareconsidered
grammaticalinanylanguage.Proponentsofthisview,whichispredominantinthoseschoolsoflinguistics
thatarebasedonthegenerativetheoryofNoamChomsky,donotnecessarilyconsiderthatlanguage
evolvedforcommunicationinparticular.Theyconsiderinsteadthatithasmoretodowiththeprocessof
structuringhumanthought(seealsoformalgrammar).
Anothergroupoflinguists,bycontrast,usetheterm"language"torefertoacommunicationsystemthat
developedtosupportcooperativeactivityandextendcooperativenetworks.Suchtheoriesofgrammar,
called"functional",viewlanguageasatoolthatemergedandisadaptedtothecommunicativeneedsofits
users,andtheroleofculturalevolutionaryprocessesareoftenemphasizedoverthatofbiological
evolution.[30]

Methodology
Linguisticsisprimarilydescriptive.Linguistsdescribeandexplainfeaturesoflanguagewithoutmaking
subjectivejudgmentsonwhetheraparticularfeatureorusageis"good"or"bad".Thisisanalogousto
practiceinothersciences:azoologiststudiestheanimalkingdomwithoutmakingsubjectivejudgmentson
whetheraparticularspeciesis"better"or"worse"thananother.
Prescription,ontheotherhand,isanattempttopromoteparticularlinguisticusagesoverothers,often
favoringaparticulardialector"acrolect".Thismayhavetheaimofestablishingalinguisticstandard,
whichcanaidcommunicationoverlargegeographicalareas.Itmayalso,however,beanattemptby
speakersofonelanguageordialecttoexertinfluenceoverspeakersofotherlanguagesordialects(see
Linguisticimperialism).Anextremeversionofprescriptivismcanbefoundamongcensors,whoattemptto
eradicatewordsandstructuresthattheyconsidertobedestructivetosociety.Prescription,however,is
practicedintheteachingoflanguage,wherecertainfundamentalgrammaticalrulesandlexicaltermsneed
tobeintroducedtoasecondlanguagespeakerwhoisattemptingtoacquirethelanguage.

Analysis
Beforethe20thcentury,linguistsanalyzedlanguageonadiachronicplane,whichwashistoricalinfocus.
Thismeantthattheywouldcomparelinguisticfeaturesandtrytoanalyzelanguagefromthepointofview
ofhowithadchangedbetweenthenandlater.However,withSaussureanlinguisticsinthe20thcentury,the
focusshiftedtoamoresynchronicapproach,wherethestudywasmoregearedtowardsanalysisand
comparisonbetweendifferentlanguagevariations,whichexistedatthesamegivenpointoftime.

Atanotherlevel,thesyntagmaticplaneoflinguisticanalysisentailsthecomparisonbetweenthewaywords
aresequenced,withinthesyntaxofasentence.Forexample,thearticle"the"isfollowedbyanoun,
becauseofthesyntagmaticrelationbetweenthewords.Theparadigmaticplaneontheotherhand,focuses
onananalysisthatisbasedontheparadigmsorconceptsthatareembeddedinagiventext.Inthiscase,
wordsofthesametypeorclassmaybereplacedinthetextwitheachothertoachievethesameconceptual
understanding.

Anthropology
Theobjectiveofdescribinglanguagesistooftenuncoverculturalknowledgeaboutcommunities.Theuse
ofanthropologicalmethodsofinvestigationonlinguisticsourcesleadstothediscoveryofcertaincultural
traitsamongaspeechcommunitythroughitslinguisticfeatures.Itisalsowidelyusedasatoolinlanguage
documentation,withanendeavortocurateendangeredlanguages.However,now,linguisticinquiryuses
theanthropologicalmethodtounderstandcognitive,historical,sociolinguisticandhistoricalprocessesthat
languagesundergoastheychangeandevolve,aswellasgeneralanthropologicalinquiryusesthelinguistic
methodtoexcavateintoculture.Inallaspects,anthropologicalinquiryusuallyuncoversthedifferent
variationsandrelativitiesthatunderlietheusageoflanguage.

Sources
Mostcontemporarylinguistsworkundertheassumptionthatspokendataandsigneddataismore
fundamentalthanwrittendata.Thisisbecause:
Speechappearstobeuniversaltoallhumanbeingscapableofproducingandperceivingit,while
therehavebeenmanyculturesandspeechcommunitiesthatlackwrittencommunication
Featuresappearinspeechwhicharen'talwaysrecordedinwriting,includingphonologicalrules,
soundchanges,andspeecherrors
Allnaturalwritingsystemsreflectaspokenlanguage(orpotentiallyasignedone)theyarebeing
usedtowrite,withevenpictographicscriptslikeDongbawritingNaxihomophoneswiththesame
pictogram,andtextinwritingsystemsusedfortwolanguageschangingtofitthespokenlanguage
beingrecorded
Speechevolvedbeforehumanbeingsinventedwriting
Peoplelearnttospeakandprocessspokenlanguagemoreeasilyandearlierthantheydidwith
writing.
Nonetheless,linguistsagreethatthestudyofwrittenlanguagecanbeworthwhileandvaluable.Forresearch
thatreliesoncorpuslinguisticsandcomputationallinguistics,writtenlanguageisoftenmuchmore
convenientforprocessinglargeamountsoflinguisticdata.Largecorporaofspokenlanguagearedifficult
tocreateandhardtofind,andaretypicallytranscribedandwritten.Inaddition,linguistshaveturnedto
textbaseddiscourseoccurringinvariousformatsofcomputermediatedcommunicationasaviablesitefor
linguisticinquiry.
Thestudyofwritingsystemsthemselves,graphemics,is,inanycase,consideredabranchoflinguistics.

Historyoflinguisticthought
Mainarticle:Historyoflinguistics

Earlygrammarians
Mainarticles:PhilologyandHistoryofEnglishgrammars
TheformalstudyoflanguagebeganinIndiawithPini,the5th
centuryBCgrammarianwhoformulated3,959rulesofSanskrit
morphology.Pini'ssystematicclassificationofthesoundsof
Sanskritintoconsonantsandvowels,andwordclasses,suchas
nounsandverbs,wasthefirstknowninstanceofitskind.Inthe
MiddleEastSibawayh(
)madeadetaileddescriptionofArabic
in760ADinhismonumentalwork,Alkitabfialnahw(

,TheBookonGrammar),thefirstknownauthortodistinguish
betweensoundsandphonemes(soundsasunitsofalinguistic
system).Westerninterestinthestudyoflanguagesbegansomewhat
AncientTamilinscriptionat
[31]
Thanjavur
laterthanintheEast, butthegrammariansoftheclassical
languagesdidnotusethesamemethodsorreachthesame
conclusionsastheircontemporariesintheIndicworld.EarlyinterestinlanguageintheWestwasapartof
philosophy,notofgrammaticaldescription.ThefirstinsightsintosemantictheoryweremadebyPlatoin
hisCratylusdialogue,wherehearguesthatwordsdenoteconceptsthatareeternalandexistintheworldof
ideas.Thisworkisthefirsttousethewordetymologytodescribethehistoryofaword'smeaning.Around
280BC,oneofAlexandertheGreat'ssuccessorsfoundedauniversity(seeMusaeum)inAlexandria,where
aschoolofphilologistsstudiedtheancienttextsinandtaughtGreektospeakersofotherlanguages.While
thisschoolwasthefirsttousetheword"grammar"initsmodernsense,Platohadusedthewordinits
originalmeaningas"tchngrammatik"(),the"artofwriting",whichisalsothetitle
ofoneofthemostimportantworksoftheAlexandrineschoolbyDionysiusThrax.[32]Throughoutthe
MiddleAges,thestudyoflanguagewassubsumedunderthetopicofphilology,thestudyofancient
languagesandtexts,practicedbysucheducatorsasRogerAscham,WolfgangRatke,andJohnAmos
Comenius.[33]

Comparativephilology
Inthe18thcentury,thefirstuseofthecomparativemethodbyWilliamJonessparkedtheriseof
comparativelinguistics.[34]Bloomfieldattributes"thefirstgreatscientificlinguisticworkoftheworld"to
JacobGrimm,whowroteDeutscheGrammatik.[35]Itwassoonfollowedbyotherauthorswritingsimilar
comparativestudiesonotherlanguagegroupsofEurope.Thescientificstudyoflanguagewasbroadened
fromIndoEuropeantolanguageingeneralbyWilhelmvonHumboldt,ofwhomBloomfieldasserts:[35]
ThisstudyreceiveditsfoundationatthehandsofthePrussianstatesmanandscholarWilhelm
vonHumboldt(17671835),especiallyinthefirstvolumeofhisworkonKavi,theliterary
languageofJava,entitledberdieVerschiedenheitdesmenschlichenSprachbauesundihren
EinfluaufdiegeistigeEntwickelungdesMenschengeschlechts(OntheVarietyofthe
StructureofHumanLanguageanditsInfluenceupontheMentalDevelopmentoftheHuman
Race).

Structuralism

Mainarticle:Structuralism(linguistics)
Earlyinthe20thcentury,Saussureintroducedtheideaoflanguageasastaticsystemofinterconnected
units,definedthroughtheoppositionsbetweenthem.Byintroducingadistinctionbetweendiachronicto
synchronicanalysesoflanguage,helaidthefoundationofthemoderndisciplineoflinguistics.Saussure
alsointroducedseveralbasicdimensionsoflinguisticanalysisthatarestillfoundationalinmany
contemporarylinguistictheories,suchasthedistinctionsbetweensyntagmandparadigm,andthelangue
paroledistinction,distinguishinglanguageasanabstractsystem(langue)fromlanguageasaconcrete
manifestationofthissystem(parole).[36]SubstantialadditionalcontributionsfollowingSaussure's
definitionofastructuralapproachtolanguagecamefromThePragueschool,LeonardBloomfield,Charles
F.Hockett,LouisHjelmslev,mileBenvenisteandRomanJakobson.[37][38]

Generativism
Mainarticle:Generativelinguistics
Duringthelasthalfofthe20thcentury,followingtheworkofNoamChomsky,linguisticswasdominated
bythegenerativistschool.WhileformulatedbyChomskyinpartasawaytoexplainhowhumanbeings
acquirelanguageandthebiologicalconstraintsonthisacquisition,inpracticeithaslargelybeenconcerned
withgivingformalaccountsofspecificphenomenainnaturallanguages.Generativetheoryismodularist
andformalistincharacter.ChomskybuiltonearlierworkofZelligHarristoformulatethegenerative
theoryoflanguage.Accordingtothistheorythemostbasicformoflanguageisasetofsyntacticrules
universalforallhumansandunderlyingthegrammarsofallhumanlanguages.Thissetofrulesiscalled
UniversalGrammar,andforChomskydescribingitistheprimaryobjectiveofthedisciplineoflinguistics.
Forthisreasonthegrammarsofindividuallanguagesareofimportancetolinguisticsonlyinsofarasthey
allowustodiscerntheuniversalunderlyingrulesfromwhichtheobservablelinguisticvariabilityis
generated.
IntheclassicformalisationofgenerativegrammarsfirstproposedbyNoamChomskyinthe1950s,[39][40]a
grammarGconsistsofthefollowingcomponents:
AfinitesetNofnonterminalsymbols,noneofwhichappearinstringsformedfromG.
Afiniteset ofterminalsymbolsthatisdisjointfromN.
AfinitesetPofproductionrules,thatmapfromonestringofsymbolstoanother.
Aformaldescriptionoflanguageattemptstoreplicateaspeaker'sknowledgeoftherulesoftheirlanguage,
andtheaimistoproduceasetofrulesthatisminimallysufficienttosuccessfullymodelvalidlinguistic
forms.

Functionalism
Mainarticle:Functionaltheoriesofgrammar
Functionaltheoriesoflanguageproposethatsincelanguageisfundamentallyatool,itisreasonableto
assumethatitsstructuresarebestanalyzedandunderstoodwithreferencetothefunctionstheycarryout.
Functionaltheoriesofgrammardifferfromformaltheoriesofgrammar,inthatthelatterseektodefinethe
differentelementsoflanguageanddescribethewaytheyrelatetoeachotherassystemsofformalrulesor
operations,whereastheformerdefinesthefunctionsperformedbylanguageandthenrelatesthesefunctions

tothelinguisticelementsthatcarrythemout.Thismeansthatfunctionaltheoriesofgrammartendtopay
attentiontothewaylanguageisactuallyused,andnotjusttotheformalrelationsbetweenlinguistic
elements.[41]
Functionaltheoriesdescribelanguageintermofthefunctionsexistingatalllevelsoflanguage.
Phonologicalfunction:thefunctionofthephonemeistodistinguishbetweendifferentlexical
material.
Semanticfunction:(Agent,Patient,Recipient,etc.),describingtheroleofparticipantsinstatesof
affairsoractionsexpressed.
Syntacticfunctions:(e.g.subjectandObject),definingdifferentperspectivesinthepresentationofa
linguisticexpression
Pragmaticfunctions:(ThemeandRheme,TopicandFocus,Predicate),definingtheinformational
statusofconstituents,determinedbythepragmaticcontextoftheverbalinteraction.Functional
descriptionsofgrammarstrivetoexplainhowlinguisticfunctionsareperformedincommunication
throughtheuseoflinguisticforms.

Cognitivism
Mainarticle:Cognitivelinguistics
Inthe1950s,anewschoolofthoughtknownascognitivismemergedthroughthefieldofpsychology.
Cognitivistslayemphasisonknowledgeandinformation,asopposedtobehaviorism,forinstance.
Cognitivismemergedinlinguisticsasareactiontogenerativisttheoryinthe1970sand1980s.Ledby
theoristslikeRonaldLangackerandGeorgeLakoff,cognitivelinguistsproposethatlanguageisan
emergentpropertyofbasic,generalpurposecognitiveprocesses.Incontrasttothegenerativistschoolof
linguistics,cognitivelinguisticsisnonmodularistandfunctionalistincharacter.Importantdevelopmentsin
cognitivelinguisticsincludecognitivegrammar,framesemantics,andconceptualmetaphor,allofwhich
arebasedontheideathatformfunctioncorrespondencesbasedonrepresentationsderivedfromembodied
experienceconstitutethebasicunitsoflanguage.
Cognitivelinguisticsinterpretslanguageintermsofconcepts(sometimesuniversal,sometimesspecifictoa
particulartongue)thatunderlieitsform.Itisthuscloselyassociatedwithsemanticsbutisdistinctfrom
psycholinguistics,whichdrawsuponempiricalfindingsfromcognitivepsychologyinordertoexplainthe
mentalprocessesthatunderlietheacquisition,storage,productionandunderstandingofspeechandwriting.
Unlikegenerativetheory,cognitivelinguisticsdeniesthatthereisanautonomouslinguisticfacultyinthe
minditunderstandsgrammarintermsofconceptualizationandclaimsthatknowledgeoflanguagearises
outoflanguageuse.[42]Becauseofitsconvictionthatknowledgeoflanguageislearnedthroughuse,
cognitivelinguisticsissometimesconsideredtobeafunctionalapproach,butitdiffersfromother
functionalapproachesinthatitisprimarilyconcernedwithhowthemindcreatesmeaningthrough
language,andnotwiththeuseoflanguageasatoolofcommunication.

Areasofresearch
Historicallinguistics

Historicallinguistsstudythehistoryofspecificlanguagesaswellasgeneralcharacteristicsoflanguage
change.Thestudyoflanguagechangeisalsoreferredtoas"diachroniclinguistics"(thestudyofhowone
particularlanguagehaschangedovertime),whichcanbedistinguishedfrom"synchroniclinguistics"(the
comparativestudyofmorethanonelanguageatagivenmomentintimewithoutregardtopreviousstages).
Historicallinguisticswasamongthefirstsubdisciplinestoemergeinlinguistics,andwasthemostwidely
practicedformoflinguisticsinthelate19thcentury.However,therewasashifttothesynchronicapproach
intheearlytwentiethcenturywithSaussure,andbecamemorepredominantinwesternlinguisticswiththe
workofNoamChomsky.

Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguisticsisthestudyofhowlanguageisshapedbysocialfactors.Thissubdisciplinefocusesonthe
synchronicapproachoflinguistics,andlooksathowalanguageingeneral,orasetoflanguages,display
variationandvarietiesatagivenpointintime.Thestudyoflanguagevariationandthedifferentvarietiesof
languagethroughdialects,registers,andideolectscanbetackledthroughastudyofstyle,aswellas
throughanalysisofdiscourse.Sociolinguistsresearchonbothstyleanddiscourseinlanguage,andalso
studythetheoreticalfactorsthatareatplaybetweenlanguageandsociety.

Developmentallinguistics
Developmentallinguisticsisthestudyofthedevelopmentoflinguisticabilityinindividuals,particularly
theacquisitionoflanguageinchildhood.Someofthequestionsthatdevelopmentallinguisticslooksintois
howchildrenacquirelanguage,howadultscanacquireasecondlanguage,andwhattheprocessof
languageacquisitionis.

Neurolinguistics
Neurolinguisticsisthestudyofthestructuresinthehumanbrainthatunderliegrammarand
communication.Researchersaredrawntothefieldfromavarietyofbackgrounds,bringingalongavariety
ofexperimentaltechniquesaswellaswidelyvaryingtheoreticalperspectives.Muchworkin
neurolinguisticsisinformedbymodelsinpsycholinguisticsandtheoreticallinguistics,andisfocusedon
investigatinghowthebraincanimplementtheprocessesthattheoreticalandpsycholinguisticsproposeare
necessaryinproducingandcomprehendinglanguage.Neurolinguistsstudythephysiologicalmechanisms
bywhichthebrainprocessesinformationrelatedtolanguage,andevaluatelinguisticandpsycholinguistic
theories,usingaphasiology,brainimaging,electrophysiology,andcomputermodeling.

Appliedlinguistics
Mainarticle:Appliedlinguistics
Linguistsarelargelyconcernedwithfindinganddescribingthegeneralitiesandvarietiesbothwithin
particularlanguagesandamongalllanguages.Appliedlinguisticstakestheresultsofthosefindingsand
"applies"themtootherareas.Linguisticresearchiscommonlyappliedtoareassuchaslanguageeducation,
lexicography,translation,languageplanning,whichinvolvesgovernmentalpolicyimplementationrelated
tolanguageuse,andnaturallanguageprocessing."Appliedlinguistics"hasbeenarguedtobesomethingof
amisnomer.[43]Appliedlinguistsactuallyfocusonmakingsenseofandengineeringsolutionsforreal

worldlinguisticproblems,andnotliterally"applying"existingtechnicalknowledgefromlinguistics.
Moreover,theycommonlyapplytechnicalknowledgefrommultiplesources,suchassociology(e.g.,
conversationanalysis)andanthropology.(ConstructedlanguagefitsunderAppliedlinguistics.)
Today,computersarewidelyusedinmanyareasofappliedlinguistics.Speechsynthesisandspeech
recognitionusephoneticandphonemicknowledgetoprovidevoiceinterfacestocomputers.Applications
ofcomputationallinguisticsinmachinetranslation,computerassistedtranslation,andnaturallanguage
processingareareasofappliedlinguisticsthathavecometotheforefront.Theirinfluencehashadaneffect
ontheoriesofsyntaxandsemantics,asmodelingsyntacticandsemantictheoriesoncomputersconstraints.
Linguisticanalysisisasubdisciplineofappliedlinguisticsusedbymanygovernmentstoverifythe
claimednationalityofpeopleseekingasylumwhodonotholdthenecessarydocumentationtoprovetheir
claim.[44]Thisoftentakestheformofaninterviewbypersonnelinanimmigrationdepartment.Depending
onthecountry,thisinterviewisconductedeitherintheasylumseeker'snativelanguagethroughan
interpreterorinaninternationallinguafrancalikeEnglish.[44]Australiausestheformermethod,while
GermanyemploysthelattertheNetherlandsuseseithermethoddependingonthelanguagesinvolved.[44]
Taperecordingsoftheinterviewthenundergolanguageanalysis,whichcanbedoneeitherbyprivate
contractorsorwithinadepartmentofthegovernment.Inthisanalysis,linguisticfeaturesoftheasylum
seekerareusedbyanalyststomakeadeterminationaboutthespeaker'snationality.Thereportedfindings
ofthelinguisticanalysiscanplayacriticalroleinthegovernment'sdecisionontherefugeestatusofthe
asylumseeker.[44]

Interdisciplinaryfields
Withinthebroaddisciplineoflinguistics,variousemergingsubdisciplinesfocusonamoredetailed
descriptionandanalysisoflanguage,andareoftenorganizedonthebasisoftheschoolofthoughtand
theoreticalapproachthattheypresuppose,ortheexternalfactorsthatinfluencethem.

Semiotics
Semioticsisthestudyofsignprocesses(semiosis),orsignificationandcommunication,signs,andsymbols,
bothindividuallyandgroupedintosignsystems,includingthestudyofhowmeaningisconstructedand
understood.Semioticiansoftendonotrestrictthemselvestolinguisticcommunicationwhenstudyingthe
useofsignsbutextendthemeaningof"sign"tocoverallkindsofculturalsymbols.Nonetheless,semiotic
disciplinescloselyrelatedtolinguisticsareliterarystudies,discourseanalysis,textlinguistics,and
philosophyoflanguage.Semiotics,withinthelinguisticsparadigm,isthestudyoftherelationshipbetween
languageandculture.Historically,EdwardSapirandFerdinandDeSaussure'sstructuralisttheories
influencedthestudyofsignsextensivelyuntilthelatepartofthe20thcentury,butlater,postmodernand
poststructuralthought,throughlanguagephilosophersincludingJacquesDerrida,MikhailBakhtin,Michel
Foucault,andothers,havealsobeenaconsiderableinfluenceonthedisciplineinthelatepartofthe20th
centuryandearly21stcentury.[45]Thesetheoriesemphasisetheroleoflanguagevariation,andtheideaof
subjectiveusage,dependingonexternalelementslikesocialandculturalfactors,ratherthanmerelyonthe
interplayofformalelements.

Languagedocumentation

Sincetheinceptionofthedisciplineoflinguistics,linguistshavebeenconcernedwithdescribingand
analysingpreviouslyundocumentedlanguages.StartingwithFranzBoasintheearly1900s,thisbecamethe
mainfocusofAmericanlinguisticsuntiltheriseofformalstructurallinguisticsinthemid20thcentury.
Thisfocusonlanguagedocumentationwaspartlymotivatedbyaconcerntodocumenttherapidly
disappearinglanguagesofindigenouspeoples.TheethnographicdimensionoftheBoasianapproachto
languagedescriptionplayedaroleinthedevelopmentofdisciplinessuchassociolinguistics,
anthropologicallinguistics,andlinguisticanthropology,whichinvestigatetherelationsbetweenlanguage,
culture,andsociety.
TheemphasisonlinguisticdescriptionanddocumentationhasalsogainedprominenceoutsideNorth
America,withthedocumentationofrapidlydyingindigenouslanguagesbecomingaprimaryfocusinmany
universityprogramsinlinguistics.Languagedescriptionisaworkintensiveendeavour,usuallyrequiring
yearsoffieldworkinthelanguageconcerned,soastoequipthelinguisttowriteasufficientlyaccurate
referencegrammar.Further,thetaskofdocumentationrequiresthelinguisttocollectasubstantialcorpusin
thelanguageinquestion,consistingoftextsandrecordings,bothsoundandvideo,whichcanbestoredin
anaccessibleformatwithinopenrepositories,andusedforfurtherresearch.[46]

Translation
Thesubfieldoftranslationincludesthetranslationofwrittenandspokentextsacrossmediums,from
digitaltoprintandspoken.Totranslateliterallymeanstotransmutethemeaningfromonelanguageinto
another.Translatorsareoftenemployedbyorganisations,suchastravelagenciesaswellasgovernmental
embassiestofacilitatecommunicationbetweentwospeakerswhodonotknoweachother'slanguage.
TranslatorsarealsoemployedtoworkwithincomputationallinguisticssetupslikeGoogleTranslatefor
example,whichisanautomated,programmedfacilitytotranslatewordsandphrasesbetweenanytwoor
moregivenlanguages.Translationisalsoconductedbypublishinghouses,whichconvertworksofwriting
fromonelanguagetoanotherinordertoreachvariedaudiences.AcademicTranslators,specializeandsemi
specializeonvariousotherdisciplinessuchasTechnology,Science,Law,Economicsetc.

Biolinguistics
Biolinguisticsisthestudyofnaturalaswellashumantaughtcommunicationsystemsinanimals,compared
tohumanlanguage.Researchersinthefieldofbiolinguisticshavealsoovertheyearsquestionedthe
possibilityandextentoflanguageinanimals.

Clinicallinguistics
ClinicallinguisticsistheapplicationoflinguistictheorytothefieldsofSpeechLanguagePathology.
Speechlanguagepathologistsworkoncorrectivemeasurestocurecommunicationdisordersand
swallowingdisorders.

Computationallinguistics
Computationallinguisticsisthestudyoflinguisticissuesinawaythatis'computationallyresponsible',i.e.,
takingcarefulnoteofcomputationalconsiderationofalgorithmicspecificationandcomputational
complexity,sothatthelinguistictheoriesdevisedcanbeshowntoexhibitcertaindesirablecomputational

propertiesandtheirimplementations.Computationallinguistsalsoworkoncomputerlanguageand
softwaredevelopment.

Evolutionarylinguistics
Evolutionarylinguisticsistheinterdisciplinarystudyoftheemergenceofthelanguagefacultythrough
humanevolution,andalsotheapplicationofevolutionarytheorytothestudyofculturalevolutionamong
differentlanguages.Itisalsoastudyofthedispersalofvariouslanguagesacrosstheglobe,through
movementsamongancientcommunities.[47]

Forensiclinguistics
Forensiclinguisticsistheapplicationoflinguisticanalysistoforensics.Forensicanalysisinvestigateson
thestyle,language,lexicaluse,andotherlinguisticandgrammaticalfeaturesusedinthelegalcontextto
provideevidenceincourtsoflaw.Forensiclinguistshavealsocontributedexpertiseincriminalcases.

Seealso
Mainarticles:OutlineoflinguisticsandIndexoflinguisticsarticles
Cognitivescience
Historyoflinguistics
InternationalLinguisticsOlympiad
InternationalCongressofLinguists
LinguisticsDepartmentsatUniversities
Summerschoolsforlinguistics
Listoflinguists
OtherTermsandConcepts
Anthroponymy
Articulatoryphonology
Articulatorysynthesis
Asemicwriting
Axiomofcategoricity
Biolinguistics
Biosemiotics
ConceptMining
Corpuslinguistics
Criticaldiscourseanalysis
Cryptanalysis
Decipherment
Developmentallinguistics
Embodiedcognition
Endangeredlanguages
Globallanguagesystem
Glottometrics
Grammarian(GrecoRomanworld)
Integrationallinguistics

Integrationism
Interculturalcompetence
InternationalLinguisticOlympiad
Languageacquisition
Languageattrition
Languageengineering
Languagegeography
Linguistictypology
Machinetranslation
Metacommunicativecompetence
Microlinguistics
Naturallanguageprocessing
Onomastics
Orthography
Philology
Reading
Rhythminlinguistics
Secondlanguageacquisition
Signlanguages
Speakerrecognition
Speechprocessing
Speechrecognition
Speechsynthesis
SpeechLanguagePathology
Stratificationallinguistics
Textlinguistics
Writingsystems

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Externallinks
TheLinguistList(http://linguistlist.org/),aglobalonlinelinguisticscommunitywithnewsand
informationupdateddaily
Glossaryoflinguisticterms(http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm)by
SILInternational(lastupdated2004)
LanguageLog(http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/),alinguisticsblogmaintainedbyprominent
(popularscience)linguists
Glottopedia(http://www.glottopedia.org),MediaWikibasedencyclopediaoflinguistics,under
construction
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Computerizedcomparativelinguistics(http://www.elinguistics.net/)Calculatortocomparethe
relatedness(geneticproximity)forover160languages(fromAfartoZulu)
Linguistics(https://www.dmoz.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Linguistics)atDMOZ
AllAboutLinguistics(https://sites.google.com/a/sheffield.ac.uk/allaboutlinguistics2013
release/home)fromSheffieldUniversity,asanintroductiontolinguistics.
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