VOL 8

REHAB

THE

GUIDE

HVAC/PLUMBING

PATH(PartnershipforAdvancingTechnologyinHousing)isanewprivate/publicefforttodevelop,demon
strate,andgainwidespreadmarketacceptancefortheNextGenerationofAmericanhousing.Through
theuseofneworinnovativetechnologiesthegoalofPATHistoimprovethequality,durability,environ
mentalefciency,andaffordabilityoftomorrowshomes.
Initiated at the request of the White House, PATH is managed and supported by the Department of
HousingandUrbanDevelopment(HUD).Inaddition,allFederalAgenciesthatengageinhousingresearch
andtechnologydevelopmentarePATHPartners,includingtheDepartmentsofEnergyandCommerce,as
well as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA).Stateandlocalgovernmentsandotherparticipantsfromthepublicsectorarealsopartnersin
PATH.Productmanufacturers,homebuilders,insurancecompanies,andlendersrepresentprivateindus
tryinthePATHpartnership.
TolearnmoreaboutPATH,pleasecontact:

PATH

SuiteB133

4517thStreetSW

Washington,DC20410

202-708-4250(fax)

e-mail:pathnet@pathnet.org

website:www.pathnet.org

DISCLAIMER
ThestatementsandconclusionscontainedinthisreportarethoseofStevenWinterAssociates,Inc.and
donotnecessarilyreecttheviewsoftheDepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment.StevenWinter
Associates,Inc.hasmadeeveryefforttoverifytheaccuracyandappropriatenessofthereportscontent.
However,noguaranteeoftheaccuracyorcompletenessoftheinformationoracceptabilityforcompliance
withanyindustrystandardormandatoryrequirementofanycode,law,orregulationiseitherofferedor
implied.Theproductslistedinthereportareincludedonlyasexamplesofsomeavailableproducts.No
endorsement,recommendation,orevaluationoftheseproductsortheiruseisgivenorimplied.

H VA C / P L U M B I N G
VOLUME 8 OF THE REHAB GUIDE

TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD3
1.INTRODUCTION4
2.HVACDESIGN&ENGINEERING6
3.DISTRIBUTIONSYSTEMS11
4.HEATING19
5.COOLING25
6.HEATPUMPS31
7.INDOORAIRQUALITY36
8.CONTROLS42
9.FIREPLACES&CHIMNEYS47
10.DOMESTICHOTWATERHEATING54
11.PLUMBINGDESIGN&ENGINEERING61
12.WATERSUPPLY&DISTRIBUTIONSYSTEMS63
13.DRAIN,WASTE,&VENTSYSTEMS67
14.FUELSUPPLYSYSTEMS73
15.APPLIANCEVENTS&EXHAUSTS75
16.FIREPROTECTIONSYSTEMS78
APPENDIX:PROFESSIONALASSOCIATIONS&RESEARCHCENTERS81

Preparedfor:
U.S.DepartmentofHousing
andUrbanDevelopment
OfceofPolicyDevelopment
andResearch
Preparedby:
StevenWinterAssociates,Inc.
BuildingSystemsConsultants
Norwalk,CT
ContractDUIOOCOOOOO5956
August1999

CREDITS
STEVENWINTERASSOCIATES,INC.STAFFMEMBERS
WHOWEREINSTRUMENTALINTHEDEVELOPMENTAND
PRODUCTIONOFTHISGUIDEBOOKINCLUDE:
StevenWinter
Principal-in-charge
MichaelJ.Crosbie,Ph.D.,RA
ProjectmanagerandEditor-in-chief
DianeGrifthsandDonaldClem
Projectteammembers
ChristophWeigelandMasakiFurukawa
Illustrators

U.S.DEPARTMENTOFHOUSINGANDURBANDEVELOPMENT
OFFICEOFPOLICYDEVELOPMENTANDRESEARCH,AFFORDABLE
HOUSINGRESEARCHANDTECHNOLOGYDIVISION
DavidEngel
Director
NelsonCarbonell
Seniorarchitect
GUIDEBOOKDESIGN
AndrewP.Kner
ArtDirector
MicheleL.Trombley
AssistantArtDirector
ElizabethRosen
Symbols

FOREWORD

PresidentClintonrecognizesthatresearchandtechnologicalinnovationarecrucialifAmericaistomeet
itsaffordablehousingneeds.In1998,thePresidentintroducedamajornewinitiative:ThePartnershipfor
AdvancingTechnologyinHousing(PATH).Thisinitiativebringstogetherleadersfromthehomebuilding,
productmanufacturing,insurance,andnancialindustries,aswellasrepresentativesfromfederalagencies,
tospurhousingdesignandconstructioninnovations.
Thankstothedevelopmentofnewmachineryandmaterialsandthecreationofnewtechnologies
andtechniques,theconstructionindustryhasmadegreatprogress.Butabreakthroughmaterial,alaborsavingtool,oracost-cuttingtechniqueisonlyvaluableifitiswidelyadopted,whichmeanstheconstruction
industrymustrstbecomeawareofthesenewdevelopments.
TheDepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopmentcanhelp.Wehavecommissionedasetof
guidebooksthatwillpresentstate-of-the-arttechniques,materials,andtechnologiesforhousingrehabil
itation.Thisvolume,HVAC/Plumbing,istheeighthofnineguidebooksknowncollectivelyasTheRehab
Guidethatwillappearoverthenextfewyears.
Wearepresentingtheseguidebooksbecause,likeresearchandtechnologicalinnovation,housing
rehabilitationisanessentialcomponentofAmericascommitmenttoprovideaffordablehousing.Iam
pleasedtopresentthisimportantpublicationinthehopethatitwillbecomeavaluableresourcethatleads
toaffordable,highqualityrehabilitation,andthustobetterhousingforallAmericans.

AndrewCuomo,Secretary
U.S.DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment

INTRODUCTION
ThisseriesofguidebookshasbeenproducedbytheU.S.DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment
tokeepthedesignandconstructionindustryabreastofinnovationsandstate-of-the-artpracticesinhome
rehabilitation.Asistoooftenthecase,innovativetechniques,materials,technologies,andproductsare
slowtomaketheirwayintoacceptedpractice. Itisevidentthatsuchinnovationswillnotadvanceunless
theindustryismadeawareofthemandtheyaretested. TheRehabGuide isintendedtoacceleratethis
processbyinformingbuilders,architects,engineers,andotherhousingrehabilitationprofessionalsabout
suchinnovationsandstate-of-the-artpractices.
TheRehabGuide wasalsopromptedbythelackofacomprehensivepublicationtomakethe
designandconstructionindustryawareofinnovativeandcost-savingdevelopmentsinhousingrehabilitation.
Professionaltrademagazines,conferences,andtradeshowsoffersomedisseminationofthisinformation,
buttheyarerarelyfocusedexclusivelyonhousingrehabilitation,asthisseriesis,noraretheycomprehensive.

FOCUS OF THE REHAB GUIDE

The focus of this series is on housing rehabilitation, which is different than home improvement.
Rehabilitatemeanstorestoretogoodcondition,notnecessarilytoimprovetoastatethatissignicantly
differentthantheoriginal.Thisisaneline,butitdistinguishesthisseriesfromhomeimprovement
bookswrittenfortheamateur.TheRehabGuide focusesonbuildingtechnology,materials,components,
andtechniquesratherthanprojectssuchasaddinganewroom,convertingagarageintoaden,or
nishinganattic.NorisTheRehabGuide intendedtobeadiagnostictool;anumberofsuchbooksare
alreadyavailabletotheindustry.
Thecontentforthisguidebook,HVAC/Plumbing,hasbeengatheredfromprofessionalsinthe
housingrehabilitationeld;manufacturersandsuppliersofinnovativetechnologies,materials,components,
tools,andequipment;tradeshows,conferences,reports,andpublicationsconsideringsuchissues;trade
organizations;andbuildingresearchcenters.

A NOTE ON SOURCES
Avarietyofexcellentresourcesexistsforinformationonheating,ventilating,andair-conditioning(HVAC)and
plumbingsystemsandissues.ThisOldHouseHeating,Ventilation,andAirConditioning,publishedby
Little, Brown and Company, is a comprehensive book on HVAC and water heating system alternatives.
PlumbingaHouse,publishedbyTheTauntonPress,isanexcellentsourceforinformationonplumbingsys
tems.MonthlypublicationsofinterestincludetheEnergyDesignUpdate, EnvironmentalBuildingNews,
JournalofLightConstruction,HomeEnergy,OldHouseJournal,ThisOldHouse,and TraditionalBuilder.
Helpful information is also accessible via the Internet. Most equipment manufacturers and
monthlymagazineshaveWebsiteswherespecicproductinformationandpastarticlescanberetrieved.
TheDepartmentofEnergyprovidesawealthofinformationonenergyconservingtechniquesandtech
nologiesatwww.eren.doe.gov/consumerinfo/.

LEAD PAINT HAZARD

Thehazardofleadpaintinhousesconstructedbeforethe1980sisnotdiscussedintheTheRehabGuide
becausethereisextensivematerialavailablefromHUD,theEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),andother
sources.However,ifyouareanon-protorrehabcontractorrehabilitatingpre-1978housingforsaleorrent,
orifyouareahomeownerrehabilitatingahomeforyourownuse,youarestronglyurgedtohavethehome
testedforleadpaint.Thisisespeciallycriticalifthehomewillbeoccupiedbyyoungchildren.Verysmall

amountsofleadinpaintordustcanpoisonchildrenifswallowedorinhaled,causingdamagetothebrainand
otherorgans,resultinginhealthproblemsandreducedintelligence.Ifleadpaintisfound,itiscriticalthatall
rehabilitationbedoneverycarefullytoreducethepossibilityofleadpoisoningtoyouoryourworkers.Proper
workpracticeswillminimizetheriskofspreadingleadcontaminationandincreasingoccupantexposure.
OneofthebestandmostrecentsourcesonthissubjectistheHUDpublication,LeadPaintSafety:
aFieldGuideforPainting,HomeMaintenance,andRenovationWork.AnothergoodpublicationistheEPA
brochure, Reducing Lead Hazards When Remodeling Your Home. Both can be obtained by calling the
NationalLeadInformationCenterat800-424-LEADorbydownloadingfromthewebsiteoftheHUDOfceof
LeadHazardControl,www.hud.gov/lea.AverycomprehensivesourceistheHUDpublication,Guidelinesfor
theEvaluationandControlofLead-BasedPaintHazardsinHousing,whichgivesguidanceoncontrollinglead
hazards,leadpaintandrehabwork,riskassessment,monitoring,inspections,residentandworksiteprepa
ration,workerprotection,androutinebuildingmaintenance.ThispublicationisavailablethroughHUD-User;
youcanalsodownloadacopyofthisdocumentfromtheHUDwebsiteat:www.hud.gov:80/lea/learules.html.
HUDhasnewregulationsonlead-basedpainthazardsinfederallyownedhousingandhousing
receivingfederalassistance.IfyouwillbeusingHUDfundsforrehabilitationthroughgrants,insurance,
orothertypesofassistance,thenthereareprotectiveproceduresthatmustbefollowed.TheOccupational
SafetyandHealthAdministrationwebsiteatwww.osha.govhasinformationonworkerprotectionrequire
ments. In addition, many states and localities have their own rules regarding lead-based paint, which
shouldbefollowedwhenundertakingrehabilitation.

HOW THE GUIDE IS ORGANIZED

NinevolumeswilleventuallymakeupTheRehabGuideinitsentirety,andtheyarelistedonthebackcover
ofthisvolume.Eachoneisdevotedtodistinctelementsofthehouse,andwithineachvolumeisarangeof
issuesthatarecommontothatelementofhomerehabilitationwork.Thisvolume,forexample,coverstop
icsfromnewpipingmaterialsfortherepairofanexistingplumbingsystemtothecriteriaforselectionofan
entirelynewcentralheatingsystem.Eachvolumeaddressesawiderangeoftechniques,materials,andtools,
andrecommendationsbasedonregionaldifferencesaroundthecountry.ThroughoutTheRehabGuide,
specialattentionisgiventoissuesrelatedtoenergyefciency,accessibledesign,andsustainability.
TheRehabGuide iswrittenandpresentedinaformatintendedforeasyuse.Thespiralbound
volumesopenatsothattheycanbeeasilyphotocopied,andtheycanbeassembledandstoredinasin
glethree-ringbinder.Withineachvolume,drawings,photos,andothergraphicmaterialssupplementwrittendescriptionsofabroadrangeofitems:state-of-the-artandinnovativebuildingtechnology,products,
materials,components,constructionandmanagementtechniques,tools,equipment,softwarevirtually
anyandallitemsthatmakehousingrehabilitationmoreefcientintermsofcostandtime.Whilethecontentfocusesonpresenttechnologiesandtechniquesthatarecurrentlypartofthehouse-buildingindustry,
The Rehab Guide also includes information on materials, products, and procedures from other con
structionsectors(suchascommercial,industrial,institutional)thatarerelevanttohousingrehabilitation.
Theinformationisorganizedindifferentsectionsaccordingtorehabsubjects,andunderhead
ingsthatmakethisbookeasytounderstand.EssentialKnowledgegivesthereaderabasicoverviewof
theimportantissuesrelatedtothesectionheading.Next,Techniques,Materials,Toolspresentsstate-ofthe-artandinnovativeapproachestoaccomplishingthework.Eachentryisexplainedindetail,including
itsadvantagesanddisadvantages.Thismakesiteasyforreaderstocompareapproachesandchoosethe
onethatismostapplicabletotheirparticularproject.Bydesign,theTechniques,Materials,Toolssec
tion is an overview, not a detailed description of implementation. Further Reading lists the valuable
resourcesrelevanttothesubjectthatreaderscangotoformoredetailedinformation.Finally,Product
Informationprovidesnamesandaddressesofmanufacturersofproducts,materials,systems,andcom
ponentsmentionedinthetextsothatmoreinformationcanbeobtained.Byvirtueoftheirbeinglisted
here,suchproductsarenotnecessarilybeingrecommended;theirexistenceandavailabilityarebeing
broughttothereadersattention.Newproductsshouldbecarefullyevaluatedintheeldastotheirper
formance.Theproductlistsarenotnecessarilycomprehensive,andweencouragereaderstobringnew
materialsandproductstoourattentiontobeincludedinlatereditionsofTheRehabGuide.
5

2
H VA C D E S I G N &
ENGINEERING
2.1

HVACSYSTEMSOVERVIEW
Heating,ventilation,andair-conditioning(HVAC)systemsthatareproperlyoperatingandappropriatefor
thehomearecriticalforthecomfortandsafetyofthehomeoccupants.RichardTretheweyofThisOld
HousestatesthatthehomesHVACsystemsandplumbingsetthefoundationonwhichthefamilysphys
icalcomfortandhealthdepend.Theireconomicwell-beingisnotonlyaffectedbytheinitialpurchase
price,but,perhapsmoreimportantly,bythecostofoperatingandmaintainingthesystems.
WhatconstitutesanHVACsystemisafunctionofthehome,theclimate,andtheoccupants.Itis
safetosaythatallhomeshaveaheatingsystemofsomekind,butitisonlyoverthelast20yearsthatsum
merairconditioningbeyondopeningwindowsbecameprominent.In1970,aboutone-thirdofnewsin
glefamilyhomeshadcentralairconditioning;thegureisnowoverthree-quarters.And,thepracticeof
installingmechanicalventilationsystemshasonlymaturedinthelast10yearswiththeemphasisontighter
homes and high-efciency equipment. Todays HVAC systems can include smart controls, air ltering,
humidicationand/ordehumidication(Fig.1).

FIGURE1
6

HVACSYSTEMCOMPONENTS

WhenevaluatingtherehabilitationneedsofahomesHVACsystem,theappropriatenessofthecurrent type ofsystemformeetingtheexpectationsoftodayshomeoccupantsneedstobeconsidered.They

expecttobecomfortableinthewinterandsummerwithoutpayingexorbitantenergybills.Whileahomewith
electricbaseboardheatingandpassivecooling(i.e.naturalventilation,shading,etc.,withnoequipment)
wasfairlycommonandacceptable20yearsago,thehighwinterelectricbillsduetotheincreasedcostof
electricityandpoorlevelofcomfortduringthesummerhavediminisheditspopularitysignicantly.Evenif
thebaseboardsystemisingoodoperatingcondition,itmaybeappropriatetoconsideritsreplacement.
Ifitisdeterminedthatthetypeofsystemisappropriate,thesystemperformancemustthenbe
considered.Arethereopportunitiestoimprovetheperformanceoftheexistingsystemorisitawiserdeci
siontosimplyreplacetheoldsystemwithanewerone?Generallyspeaking,iftheheatingsystemequip
mentismorethan15yearsoldortheheatpumporairconditionerismorethan10yearsold,itshould
probablybereplaced.Theenergysavingswiththehigherefciencyequipmentavailabletodaywillpayfor
thenewequipmentwithinafewyears.Thetypicalnewgasfurnacesoldin1975hadanefciencyof63
percent;by1988,thetypicalefciencyhadincreasedto75percent;and,in1997,86percentofthefur
nacesshippedhadefcienciesgreaterthan80percent.Nevertheless,replacementisnotalwaystheanswer
andthereareanumberofalternativesforrehabilitatingtheexistingsystem.
ThisguidelinewillreviewtheattributesofmanyalternativesforrehabilitatingHVACsystems.It
discussestheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofvariousmodicationstoexistingsystemsaswellasequip
menttechnologieswhichmaybeconsideredforsupplementingorreplacingtheexistingsystem.
As a nal note before moving into the discussion of alternatives, it is critically important to
understandhowHVACsystemsinteractwithothersystemsthroughoutthehome.Adecisionconcerning
thekitchenrangeexhaustventcancausethegasfurnacetobackdraft.Undercertaincircumstances,an
attic ventilator can increase cooling loads rather than decrease them by drawing conditioned air up
throughtheceiling.Whentheoldnatural-draftfurnaceisreplacedwithaclosed-combustionsystem,the
homespressureandinltrationratewillbealtered,and,asaresult,itsindoorairquality.Muchofthe
interactionofthesesystemsrevolvesaroundthepressurizationanddepressurizationofspaces.Lackof
considerationfortheeffectsofvariousdevicesonhomepressurecanresultincostlyexcessiveinltration,
damagingcondensationinwalls,ordangerouslevelsofcarbonmonoxideinthehome.Theseissueshave
beenenhancedbytodaysconstructionandinsulationpracticeswhichmakehomestighterandtherefore
easiertopressurizeordepressurize.Itisimportanttounderstandandconsiderthewhole-houseimpli
cationsofeachsystemmodication.Contractorswhoarenarrowlyfocusedonaparticulartradeoftendo
nottakealloftheinteractionswithinthehouseintoconsideration.

FURTHER READING
BuildingEnergyEfciency,U.S.Congress,OfceofTechnologyAssessment,U.S.GovernmentPrinting
Ofce,May1992.
ThisOldHouseHeating,Ventilation,andAirConditioning,RichardTretheweywithDonBest,Little,
BrownandCompany,1994.
UnderstandingVentilation,JohnBower,TheHealthyHouseInstitute,1995.

2.2

REPLACEMENTSYSTEMSIZING
Inmanyinstances,thedecisionwillbemadetoreplacetheexistingheatingandcoolingsystemratherthan
rehabilitateit.Theoldsystemmaybewellbeyonditsexpectedlife.Manynewersystemsaremoreefcient
andcanquicklypayforthemselvesinreducedenergybills.Theavailabilityoffuelsmayhavechanged
(e.g.,naturalgasmaynowbeavailable)sincethesystemwasoriginallydesignedandinstalled.
7

Iftheoldheatingand/orcoolingsysteminthehousebeingrehabilitatedisbeyondretrotting
and needs to be replaced, there are two primary reasons why it should not simply be replaced with
anothersystemofthesamesize.Theoldphilosophyofbiggerisbetternolongerapplies.Systemswere
traditionallyoversized,causingthemtocycleonandofffrequently.Cyclingthatresultsfromoversizingis
inefcientandhardontheequipment.Also,rehabworkmayalsoincludetheadditionofmoreorbetter
insulation,andbetterperformingwindowsanddoors.Thiswillreducetheheatingandcoolingloadsand
allowforasmallercapacitysystemtobeinstalled.
Adesignloadanalysisshouldbeconductedtodeterminethecurrentheatingandcoolingcapacity
needs.Therearevariousmethodsandlevelsofsophisticationforperformingtheseanalyses.
Mostequipmentvendorsareequippedwithworksheetsorcomputersoftwaretoestimatethe
appropriatesizeofthesystemforthehome.Theywilltypicallyperformasizingcalculationaspartofthe
salesprocess.Whilesuchaservicefromthedealerisavailableatnocost,itshouldberememberedthat
thedealerissellingequipment,notefciency.Methodsareoftenover-simpliedwithfactorsofsafetybuilt
in,resultinginover-sizedequipment.Analternativeistosizethesystemyourself.Thereisamultitudeof
booksavailablethatprovideinstructions,datatables,andexamplesforperformingsystemsizingcalcula
tions. It is recommended that calculations be performed more than once with different methods and
sourcestoprovidecondenceintheresults.Whilesizingthesystemmaycostamodestamountoftime,
lackofexperiencebythenoviceestimatormayresultinmistakes.Basicestimatingtechniquesmayalso
notproperlyaccountforuniqueaspectsofthehome.Anotheralternativeistohireaconsultanttosizethe
system.Professionalenergyspecialistsandauditorscanevaluatethehomeandproviderecommendations
onthesizeandtypeofequipment.Theadvantagehereisthebenetofanexperiencedprofessionalwho
isfocusedonenergyefciency,butconsultingfeesmaybehefty.

FURTHER READING
Cooling and Heating Load Calculation Manual, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioningEngineers,Inc.,1791TullieCircle,N.E.,Atlanta,GA30329,404-636-8400.
Consumers Directory of Certied Efciency Ratings for Residential Heating and Water Heating
Equipment,GasApplianceManufacturersAssociation.
DirectoryofCertiedUnitaryProducts,AirConditioningandRefrigerationInstitute,4301NorthFairfax
Drive,Suite425,Arlington,VA22203;703-524-8800.
ResidentialLoadCalculationManualJ,AirConditioningContractorsofAmerica,1712NewHampshire
Ave.,NW,Washington,DC20009;202-483-9370.
SimpliedDesignofHVACSystems,WilliamBobenhausen,NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.1994.

2.3

ENERGYSOURCES
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Themostcommonenergysourcesforresidentialusearenaturalgasforspaceandwaterheatingandelec
tricityforcooling.Otherheatingenergysourcesincludeelectricity,oil,propane,andthesun.Inafew
instances,woodorcoalmayevenbetheprimaryheatingfuel.Naturalgasisapotentialenergysourcefor
coolingaswell.
Themostappropriatefuelchoiceforaparticularhomedependsonitsavailability,price,andthe
climate.Someofthesefactorsmayhavechangedsincethehomewasbuiltandthefuelchoicethatwas
madethenmaynotbethemostappropriatechoicenow.Naturalgas,apopularchoicenow,wasnotread-

ilyavailablepriortoWorldWarIIandembargoeswereplacedonnewgasservicesforaperiodinthe
1970s.Consultthelocalutilitiestodeterminetheavailabilityandrateschedulesfortheenergyalterna
tives.Inmostinstances,theprimaryenergysourcesofelectricity,naturalgas,andoilshouldbeconsid
ered.Oldcoal-redsystemsshouldbeconvertedtoamore-efcientandcleanerfuelalternativesuchas
oilorgas.Variousenergysourcesarediscussedbelow.

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

1.ELECTRICITYASANENERGYSOURCE.
Inregionswithamildheatingseason,electricitymaybethemostappropriatefuelforheatingandcool
ingneeds.Itisthemostlogicalchoiceforcoolingand,ifheatingloadsaresmall,anyhighercostofelec
tricitywillnotbeaseverepenalty.And,insomeareassuchastheNorthwestwherehydroelectricplants
providemuchoftheelectricity,itisquiteeconomical.Inthecaseofelectricairconditionersandheat
pumps,electricityisnotuseddirectlyasanenergysourcebutindirectlytopumpheatfromonelocation
toanother.Forheatpumpsintheheatingmode,theenergysourceisthesunwarmingtheairforairsourceheatpumpsandgroundforground-sourceheatpumps.
ADVANTAGES: Electric resistance heating systems are inexpensive to install, reliable, quiet, and clean.
Electricairconditionersarethemostcommontypeofmechanicalcooling.Electricheatpumpscanserve
bothheatingandcoolingneeds.
DISADVANTAGES:Generallythemostexpensivefuelchoice.Servicetohomemayneedtobeupgraded.
Electricresistanceheating(notheatpumps)isprohibitedbycodeinsomeareas.
2.NATURALGASASANENERGYSOURCE.
Inmostheating-seasondominatedclimates,naturalgasisthefuelofchoiceforspaceandwaterheating
needs.Theresidentialspaceheatingmarketsharesfornaturalgasare59%,72%,and48%,intheWest,
Midwest,andNortheast,respectively.Mostofthecountrysgasprocessingplantsarelocatedinsixstates:
Texas,Louisiana,Oklahoma,Wyoming,KansasandNewMexico.Canadaisanothersignicantsource.The
useofnaturalgasasaheatingfuelsurgedwiththepost-WorldWarIIconstructionofthousandsofmiles
ofpipelinefortransportation(Fig.2).Transportationcostsstillmakeupalargeportionoftheconsumers
priceforgas.Majorinvestmentsinthepipelinesystemduringthe1980sandearly1990simprovedthe
supplytoareasintheNortheast,WestCoastandFlorida.Withthederegulationofthegasindustry,gas
pricesfellapproximately50%from1985to1991.Marketcompetitionhasledtoinnovationandadvances
intechnologyfortheexploration,extraction,andtransportationofnaturalgas.

FIGURE2

MAJORNATURALGASPIPELINES

ADVANTAGES:Generallytheleastexpensivefuelasidefromsolarenergy.Nostoragetankisrequired.
DISADVANTAGES: Initialinstallationcostmaybehighifgasisnotalreadysuppliedtothehome.Notavailable
inallareas.
3.OILASANENERGYSOURCE.
Oiliscommonlyusedforheatingincoldclimateswherenaturalgasisnotreadilyavailable.Itistypically
moreexpensivethangasunlesslocatednearaportorreneryorattheendofthenaturalgaspipeline.
TheNortheastU.S.islocatedattheendofthegaspipelineandgasisnotavailablethroughouttheregion.
Heatingloadsaresignicantandelectricityisexpensive.Thus,oilhasa36%marketshareaccordingto
the1993census.
ADVANTAGES:Generallylesscostlythanelectricity.
DISADVANTAGES: Potentialforsupplyshortagesanddramaticpriceuctuations.Storagetankrequired
withassociatedenvironmentalconcernsandregulations(undergroundtanks,soilcontamination,etc.).
4.PROPANEASANENERGYSOURCE.
Propane,orliquidpetroleumgas(LPG),istypicallyanalternativewhenelectricityisunattractive(usually
becauseofprice)andnaturalgasisnotavailable.Propanecomesfromnaturalgasprocessingandcrude
oilreningandapproximately85%ofthecountryssupplyisproduceddomestically.Itistransportedin
aliquidstatebypipeline,railcar,ortanktrucktoretailmarkets.
ADVANTAGES:Canbeusedformostgas-redequipmentwithonlyminormodications.
DISADVANTAGES:Requiresanon-sitestoragetank.
5.SOLARASANENERGYSOURCE.
Theuseofsolarenergytoprovideaportionofthehomesspaceorwaterheatingisagoodoptioninmany
geographicareas.Passivesystemsusebuildingorientationandconstructionmaterialstoenhancenatural
processestocollect,store,anddistributeheat.Activesystemsemploypumpsand/orfans.Hybridsystems
usesmallpumpsorfanstoenhancetheperformanceofapassivesystem.Photovoltaic(PV)systemscon
vertsolarenergydirectlytoDCpowerwhichisinvertedtoACpowerforhomeuse.Unfortunately,themar
ketadvancementofthistechnologyissufferingfromthecostlyandlimitedproductionoftheultra-pure
siliconwaferswhicharethemaincomponentofthePVsystem(Fig.3).
ADVANTAGES:Minimaloperatingcost.Environmentallybenign.
DISADVANTAGES:Initialcostfordesignandinstallation.Optimumlocationissuesandaesthetics.

FIGURE3

PHOTOVOLTAICPANELWITHSILICONWAFERS

FURTHER READING
10

PassiveSolarDesignStrategies:GuidelinesforHomeBuilders,PassiveSolarIndustriesCouncil,1331
HStreetNW,Suite1000,Washington,D.C.20005;202-628-7400.
SimpliedDesignofHVACSystems,WilliamBobenhausen,NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.1994.

DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
BytheendofWorldWarI,themajorityofurbanhomesandmanyruralhomeswerecentrallyheatedby
ahot-air,hot-water,orsteamdistributionsystem.Todaytherearefourbasicmethodsormediafordis
tributingheatinthehome:steam,air,water,andelectricresistance.Allhaveuniquecharacteristicswhich
mayormaynotbedesirableforthehousebeingrehabilitated.
Steamisoneoftheoldesttypesofcentralheatdistributionsystems.Aboilerproducessteam
pipedthroughthehousetoradiators,whichprovideconcentratedheatingsurfacesineachroom.Such
systemsareeitherone-pipeortwo-pipe.One-pipesystemsrequirealargerpipebecausesteamrisesto
theradiatorswhilecondensatereturnsinthesamepipefromtheradiatorstotheboiler.Ifthesinglepipe
istoosmall,steamwillforcecondensatebackupthepipe,causingnoiseassteamslugsthroughpockets
ofwater.Two-pipesystemsusesmallerpipebuttwiceasmuchofitbecauseseparatesteamsupplyand
condensatereturnlinesareinstalled.Gravityoracondensatepumpmaybeusedtoreturnthecondensate
totheboiler,dependingontheheightofthecondensatepipingrelativetotheboiler.Two-pipesystems
installedafterWorldWarIincludesteamtrapstopreventsteamfromgettingintothereturnpiping.
Airisbyfarthemostcommondistributionmediumforheatingandcoolingsystems.Forced-air
heatingsystemswereusedin63%ofthehomesintheU.S.,accordingto1993censusdata.Originalgrav
ityairdistributionsystemsreliedonnaturalconvection.Heatedwarmairwouldriseanddistributeitself
throughthehomeascoldairfelltobereheated.Thesesystemsoftenresultedinuneventemperaturesin
thehome.Aselectricitybecameavailabletohomes,forced-airsystemsreplacedmostofthegravitysystems.
Thesesystemsemployforcedconvection,usinganelectricfan,topushthehotairthroughductworkand
supplyregistersthroughoutthehomeandpullcoldairthroughthereturn(Fig.1).Convertingagravitysys
temtoaforced-airsysteminvolvesmorethanaddingafantothesystem.Anewductworksystemshould
beinstalledwithproperductsizesandregisterlocationstoassuretheappropriatedistributionofwarmair
throughoutthehome.

FIGURE1

TYPICALFORCED-AIRDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM

11

Water,orhydronic,systemsareefcientbecausethehigherheatcapacityofwaterrequiresless
pumping energy than fan energy in an air system. They are also inherently safer than steam systems
becauseitisnearlyimpossibletorunahot-waterboilertodangerouspressures.Oldhotwatersystems
reliedongravityow.Hotwaterexpandsasitisheated,risestotheradiators,andforcesthecondensed
waterthroughthereturnpipingtotheboiler.Anexpansiontankwithanoverowpipedischargesany
extrawaterinthesystem.Todayssystemsemployapumpandforcedow(Fig.2).Hotwatermovesata
greaterspeedwithbetterheattransferefciencythroughsmallerpipes.Inatypicalhydronicsystem,hot
waterpassesthroughannedpipeinabaseboardradiatorlocatedatthebaseoftheoutsidewall.Airis
warmedandrisesbyconvectiontocirculateintotheroom.(Theyarecalledradiators,butmoreheatis
deliveredviaconvectionthanradiation.)Trueradiantsystemswithpipesembeddedintheoorarealso
availableataninstallationcostpremium.

FIGURE2

TYPICALHYDRONICDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM

Electricresistancedistributionsystemstypicallyusebaseboards(Fig.3),butmayincludewall
unitsorradiantsystemsusingembeddedcableorpanels.Thesesystemsaresometimesreferredtoas
zonalordirectbecausetheprimarysourceofheatingorcoolingiswithinthespace.Thereisnodistrib
utionsystemfromacentrallylocatedsystem.Incommonelectricbaseboardsystems,theairisheatedand
reliesonconvectiontodistributeheattotheroom,similartohydronicbaseboardsystems.Electricitycan
alsobeusedinradiantpanelsystemswhichcanbesurfacemountedtoexistingwallsandceilings.Electric
resistancesystemsaretypicallyinexpensivetoinstall,butgenerallymoreexpensivetooperatebecauseof
thehighcostofelectricity.However,effectiveuseofcontrolsandzoningcanreduceoperatingcosts.
Independentofthetypeofdistribution,theexistingsysteminanolderhomeislikelytoneed
majorrepairorreplacement.Corrosionandleaksinductworkandpipingcancontributetoinefciency,
poorcomfort,andpoorindoorairquality.Asbestosinsulationmayalsobepresentontheoldductwork
orpipes.Ifso,itshouldbeeitherremovedorencasedbyaprofessionalcontractor.Iftheasbestosinsu
lation is in good condition, encasing it may be more cost effective than removal. Recommendations
regardingtheremovalanddisposalofasbestosareavailablefromtheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency
(EPA)AsbestosInformationHotline:800-438-2474.

12

FIGURE3

ELECTRICBASEBOARD

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

1.REHABTHEEXISTINGFORCED-AIRDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM.
Restoringtheexistingdistributionsystemwilllikelyinvolvesealingthesupplyductworktominimizethe
lossofconditionedairbeforeitreachesthesupplyregisters.AccordingtoaHUDstudy,leakyductwork
canincreaseheatingandcoolingcostsbyasmuchas30%andcauseairpressureproblemsthatresultin
draftsandunevenroomtemperatures.Returnductworkshouldbesealedsothatunconditionedairfrom
anatticorcrawlspaceisnotpulledintothesystem.Insteadofsealingtape,masticshouldbeusedbecause
itsealsbetter,lastslonger,andiseasiertoapply.Arelativelynewsystemforsealingducts,particularlyuse
fulinretrotsituationswhereaccesscanbelimited,isaerosolizedmastic.Ductsaresealedfromthe
insidebypumpingaerosolizedmasticintotheductsunderpressure.Themasticmigratesthroughthesys
temandsealssmallleakswithoutcoatingtheinterioroftheducts.Notethatthisworksforsmallopen
ingsonly.Oncesealed,allsupplyandreturnductsthatpassthroughunconditionedspacesuchasattics,
crawlspaces,andbasementsshouldbeinsulatedtominimizeconductionlossesinthewinter(andgains
inthesummer,ifusedforairconditioning).Oldregistersandgrillesthatarenolonger(orneverwere)
adjustableshouldbereplacedwithnewadjustableequipmentforbetterairdistributionandcomfort.
ADVANTAGES:Improvedefciency,comfort,andsafety.
DISADVANTAGES:Rehabilitationofapoorlydesignedsystemprovidesminimalbenet.
2.REHABTHEEXISTINGHYDRONICDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM.
Forhotwatersystems,restoringtheexistingdistributionsystemwilllikelyinvolvereplacingrustedpipesec
tionsandinsulatingpipesrunningthroughunconditionedspaces.Thebesttypeofpipeinsulationconsists
of3sectionsofextruded-foamthatisslitsoitcanbeappliedoverthepipe.Valvesthatarenolongeroper
ableshouldbereplaced,asshouldoldbaseboardradiatorswithbentnsorguards.Replacingradiators
isprobablymoreanissueoflifestyleandaesthetics.Finnedcopperradiatorsworkfasterandhaveahigher
heatoutputthanold-stylecast-ironradiators,butthecast-ironradiatorsholdmorewaterandgiveoffheat
foralongertime.Thereare3-waythermostaticbypassvalves,suchasthosedistributedbyEnerjee,which
canberetrottedtoexistinghydronicbaseboardunits.Whentheroomtemperaturesensedatthevalveis
satisfactory,circulatinghotwaterisbypassedaroundthenned-tubetominimizetheheatdistributedtothe
room.Thistypeofvalveisintendedforusewithcontinuouslycirculatingsystems,butcouldbeusefulfor
redistributingtheloadsonahydronicsystemwithoutchangingthebaseboardunits.
Forsteamsystems(Fig.4),restoringtheexistingdistributionsystemwilllikelyinvolverepairing
orreplacingradiatorvalves,whichserveasanon/offcontrol,andshouldeitherbefullyopenorclosed.
Wornvalveseatscanresultingurglingassteamleaksin,butcondensatecantowback.Thestempack13

ingformostradiatorinletvalvesdeteriorateswithtime;thevalvescanberepackedwithspecialgraphiteimpregnatedcord.Brokenvalvehandlesshouldbereplacedwithnewhandlesofinsulatingplastic.Vents
controltherateatwhichsteamenterstheradiator(andthustheradiatorsoutput)byregulatingtheamount
ofairinandoutoftheradiator.Iftheradiatorneverheatsup(neverhisses)orsteamcomesoutofthevent
(continuouslyhisses),theventneedstobereplaced.Replacementofventswiththeproperspeedcanalso
helpwithunbalancedheatdistributioninthehome.Ventscomeinfourspeeds(veryslow,slow,fast,and
veryfast)orvariable.Forroomsthattendtooverheat,useaslowerventandviceversa.Vacuumventsallow
airtoescape,butnotreenterastheradiatorcools.Avacuumiscreatedwithintheradiatorasthesteam
condensesandhotsteamisdrawnintotheradiatorratherthancoldair.Thiscanresultinamoresteady
outputofheat.Specialpacklessairtightcontrolvalvesneedtobeinstalledinconjunctionwiththevac
uumvents.Radiatorsshouldbeslopedslightlytowardsthesteamvalve.Iftheyarenot,condensatewill
likelypoolatthefarendoftheradiatorandsteambubblingthroughwillgurgle.Ashimshouldbeplaced
undertheradiatorfeetfarthestfromthevalvetoslopetheradiatorslightlytowardsthevalve.
ADVANTAGES:Lowcostandleastdisruptive.
DISADVANTAGES:Hydronicsystemsareonlysuitableforheating.

FIGURE4

STEAMRADIATOR

3.REHABTHEEXISTINGELECTRICRESISTANCESYSTEM.

Whileelectricresistancesystemsarerelativelysimplewithfewparts,theremaystillbetheneedforreha

bilitation.Inadditiontocleaning,damagednsornguardsshouldberepairedorreplacedbecausethey

affecttheperformanceofabaseboard.

ADVANTAGES:Improvedperformance.

DISADVANTAGES:Replacementoftheentireunitmaybesimplerthanrepairingorreplacingcomponents.

14

4.INSTALLANEWCONVENTIONALFORCED-AIRDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM.

Conventionalforced-airdistributionsystemsarebyfarthemostcommontypeofheatingsystem.However,

theyarenotoriousforbeingthecauseofinefciencyanddiscomfort.Poorlydesignedandinstalledductwork

canhavehighlevelsofairleakageandpoortemperaturecontrol.Systemsareoftendesignedwithpoorly

insulatedductworkrunningthroughunconditionedspace.Adesignwhichkeepsductworkwithinthecon

ditionedspaceavoidsmanyoftheseproblems.Ductlossesarereducedbecauseconditionedairisleaking

intotheconditionedspaceandconductionlossesarelowerbecausetemperaturedifferencesbetweenthe

supplyandsurroundingairareless.Thelocationofsupplyoutletsdependsuponwhethertheemphasisis

onheatingorcooling.Forheating-dominatedsystems,standardpracticehasbeentoinstallsupplyregisters

alongtheoutsidewallsunderwindowstocountercolddraftscomingfromwindows.However,inatightly

constructedhomewithinsulatingwindows,interiorwallregisterscanbeusedtosaveonductmaterial.For

cooling-dominatedsystems,ceilingsupplydiffusersaremostappropriate.Ductsareusuallymadeofsquare

and/orroundsheetmetal,butinsulatedductboardandexductarealsowidelyused.Fiberglassductboard

isquieterthansheetmetalductsbecausesuchductsattenuatetheblowernoisethatcanpropagatethrough

theductsystem.Caremustbetakentoavoidproblemswithcondensation,whichcontributestomoldgrowth,

ifthesystemisusedforairconditioning.OwensCorninghasintroducedEnDuraCoataductboardsystem

withanantimicrobialacrylicinteriorcoatingtoresistthegrowthoffungiandbacteria.

ADVANTAGES: Distribution system widely used and accepted. Can readily include air conditioning,

humidication,orairpurication.Fastresponding.

DISADVANTAGES:Signicantspacerequirementsofductworkcanmakeinstallationinanexistingstruc

ture difcult and costly if the previous distribution system was not air. Duct system leakage can cause

inefciency.Forced-airsystemscanbenoisy.

5.INSTALLAMINI-DUCTHVACSYSTEM.

Thereareatleasttwosystemsonthemarket,UnicoandSpacePak,thatfeaturesmall-diameter,exible

ductworkthatcanpassthroughstudsandjoistsandsnakethroughnarrowopeningsandaroundcorners

(Fig.5).Thetypicalsystemdeliverslessairathighervelocitiesthanconventionalforced-airsystems;to

achievethesameheatingorcoolingcapability,theairisdeliveredathighertemperatureswhenheating

andlowertemperatureswhencooling.Airisdischargedthroughplasticcollarswith2diameterholesin

theceiling,oor,orwall.Sinceairissuppliedatmoreextremetemperaturesandhighervelocities,these

outletsmustbestrategicallyplacedtoavoidblowingdirectlyonoccupants.Specialsoundattenuatingtub

ingisusedattheendofeachsupplyruntominimizethenoisecausedbyhighairvelocities.

ADVANTAGES: Ducts can be installed in tight areas. Lower supply air temperatures may provide better

humiditycontrolinthesummer.

DISADVANTAGES:Systemisunfamiliartobuildingprofessionals.Lowerinstallationcostmightbeoffsetby

higherequipmentcost.

FIGURE5

MINI-DUCTDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM

15

6.INSTALLANEWHYDRONICDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM.
Therearealternativetypesofhydronicsystemstoconsider.Systemsinvolvingtraditionalbaseboardscan
besingle-pipeortwo-pipe,andradiantsystemsarealsoanoption.Allhydronicsystemsrequireanexpan
siontanktocompensatefortheincreaseinwatervolumewhenitisheated(i.e.,thevolumeof50oFwater
increasesalmost4%whenitisheatedto200oF).Single-pipehydronicsystemsaremostcommonlyused
inresidences.Theyemployasinglepipewithhotwaterowinginaseriesloopfromradiatortoradiator.
Thedrawbacktothisarrangementisthatthetemperatureofthewaterdecreasesasitmovesthrougheach
radiator.Thus,largerradiatorsareneededforthoselocationsdownstreamintheloop.Acommonsolu
tiontothisismultipleloopsorzones.Eachzonehasitsowntemperaturecontrolwithcirculationpro
videdbyasmallpumporzonevalveineachloop(Fig.6).Two-pipehydronicsystemsuseapipeforsupplyinghotwatertotheradiatorsandasecondpipeforreturningthewaterfromtheradiatorstotheboiler.
Therearealsodirect-andreverse-returnarrangements(Fig.7).Thedirect-returnsystemcanbedifcult
tobalancebecausethepressuredropthroughthenearest-radiatorpipingcanbesignicantlylessthanfor
thefarthestradiator.Reverse-returnsystemstakecareofthebalancingproblem,butrequiretheexpense
ofadditionalpiping.Oriceplatesatradiatorinletsorbalancingvalvesatradiatoroutletscanalsobeused
tobalancethepressuredropsinadirect-returnsystem.

FIGURE6

MILTI-ZONESINGLE-PIPEHYDRONICDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM

FIGURE7

TWO-PIPEHYDRONICDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEMS

16

Radiantsystemsrunhotwaterthroughplasticpipeortubingtypicallyembeddedinoorslabs
orunderframedoors(Fig.8).Systemsinvolvingpanelsthatlooklikebaseboardmoldingorpanelsthat
canmountinthewallorceilingarealsoavailable.Thesesystemswarmthesurroundingobjectsrather
thantheairandcangenerallyprovidebettercomfortthanbaseboardsystems.Theintroductionofcrosslinked polyethylene (PEX) tubing to the U.S. market in the 1980s revolutionized the installation of
hydronicoorheatingwithfastinstallationandlongerservicelife.
Therearealsoradiantcoolingsystemswhichinvolverunningcoolwaterthroughthesamepipe
ortubingorpanelsasusedforheating.Thesesystemsmustbedesignedcarefullytoinsurethatthetem
peratureoftheradiantsurface(oor,ceiling,orwallpanel)remainsabovethedewpointoftheroomair.
Otherwise,harmfulandpotentiallydangerous,inthecaseofaslipperyoor,condensationcanoccur.For
thisreason,radiantcoolingsystemstypicallysupplementanothertypeofcoolingsystem.
ADVANTAGES:Smallpipingortubingismoreadaptabletoanexistingbuildingstructurethanductwork.
Hydronicsystemsareclean,quiet,havefewerheatlosses,andcanbeeasilyzoned.
DISADVANTAGES:Hydronicsystemsareonlyusedforheating.Radiantcoolingsystemsarenotcommonly
usedandarethereforemoredifculttodesignandusuallymorecostlythanotheralternatives.

FIGURE8

HYDRONICRADIANTFLOORHEATINGSYSTEM

7. INSTALLAZONALSYSTEM.

Azonalsystemutilizesindividualin-spaceheatersineachoftheroomstobeheated.Essentially,thereisno

distributionsystemwithitsinherentlossesandinefciencies.Signicantsavingscanbeachievedthrough

theuseofsetbackcontrolsandzoning;providingheatwhenandwhereitisneeded.Theseheaterscanbe

electricorgasandmayemploynaturalconvection,fan-forcedconvection,and/orradiationtotransmitthe

heattothespace.Someunitsalsoincludeathermalstoragemediumtoimprovecomfort.

Gasspaceheatersareavailablefromseveralmanufacturersinarangeofcapacities.Theunits
employsealed-combustionsothereisnopotentialofmixingcombustiongaseswiththeinternalairvia
spillageorbackdrafting.Direct-ventunitsoperatewithefcienciesof60to75%.Theymountonanexter
nalwallandventthecombustiongasesthroughthewall(Fig.9).Power-ventedunitswithefciencies
above80%canducttheexhaustgasessotheyhavemorelocationexibility.
Electric heaters are less expensive than gas-red heaters but electricity is typically the more
expensivefuel.Electricbaseboardheatersarethemostcommonzonalheaterinresidentialapplications.
Otherelectricunitsincludewall,kickspace,oorandceilingheaters.Baseboardunitstypicallyrelyon
naturalconvectionwhiletheothertypesincludeafantoaugmenttheconvectionprocess.Someunitsare
17

availablewithtwostagestobettermatchtheoutputtotheload.Othersincludeanelectricimmersionele
mentandaliquidsolutionhermeticallysealedincoppertubing.Thethermalcapacitanceoftheliquid
servestomodulatetheoutputoftheunit.
Radiantsystemsthatuseceiling,wall,oroorpanelswithelectricwiringembeddedarealsoa
typeofzonalsystem.Theseunitscanbefasterrespondingthanhydronicradiantsystems.
ADVANTAGES:Zonalsystemsareinexpensivetoinstall,offerexibility,andprovidezone-controlcapability.
DISADVANTAGES:Thetypesofzonalsystemsdiscussedonlyprovideheating.

FIGURE9

DIRECT-VENTGASSPACEHEATER

FURTHER READING
ModernHydronicHeatingforResidentialandLightCommercialBuildings, JohnSiegenthaler,Delmar
Publishers,1995.
RenovatingOldHouses,GeorgeNash,Newton,CT:TheTauntonPress,1992.
SimpliedDesignofHVACSystems,WilliamBobenhausen,NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,1994.
TheOld-HouseJournalGuidetoRestoration. PatriciaPoore,editor;NewYork:PenguinBooks,1992.

PRODUCT INFORMATION
BurnhamRadiantHeatingCo.,P.O.Box3079,Lancaster,PA17604;717-397-4701;www.burnham.com.
Enerjee,24S.LafayetteAve.,Morrisville,PA19067;215-295-0557;www.enerjee.com.
EmpireComfortSystems,918FreeburgAvenue,Belleville,IL62222;800-851-3153;www.empirecomfort.com.
Owens Corning World Headquarters, One Owens Corning Parkway, Toledo, OH 43659; 419-248-7817;
www.owenscorning.com.
RadiantTechnology,11AFarberDrive,Bellport,NY11713;800-784-0234;www.radiant-tech.com.
SpacePak,Mestek,Inc.,Westeld,MA;413-564-5530;www.spacepak.com.
SSHC,Inc.,146ElmStreet,OldSaybrook,CT06475;800-544-5182;www.sshcinc.com.
18

Unico,Inc.,4160MeramecStreet,St.Louis,MO63116;800-527-0896;www.unicosystem.com.

H E AT I N G
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Therearetwobasictypesofcentralheatingplants:furnaces(usedwithairdistributionsystems)andboil
ers(usedwitheitherhydronicorsteamsystems).Anotherlesscommonalternativeistouseadomestic
hotwaterheatertosupplyhotwatertoahydroniccoilinanairhandlingunitorforaradiantsystem.These
systemsareoftenreferredtoascombinationsystemsandaregaininginpopularity.
Warm-airfurnaces(Fig.1)arethemostcommonresidentialheatingsystemintheU.S.According
to1993censusdata,furnacesareusedin37%ofelectrically-heatedhomesand69%ofgas-heatedhomes.
Ifagas-oroil-redfurnaceispresentlyinstalledinthehousetoberehabilitated,itisprobablymuchless
efcientthantodaysfurnaces.Theefciencyofmostgas-oroil-redfurnacesinstalled20yearsagois
between50%and65%.Standardsthatwentintoeffectin1994requirethatfurnacessoldtodaybeatleast
78%efcient.Thisstandardessentiallyeliminatedtheuseofstandingpilotsongasfurnaces,andelec
tronicignitiondevicesandventdampersbecamestandard.Gas-redmodelswithefcienciesover90%
andoil-redmodelswithefcienciesashighas87%areavailabletoday.
Furnacesareavailableinupow,downow,andhorizontalcongurations.Upowsystemsare
themostcommon,withblowersdrawingairintothebottomandsupplyingheatedairoutthetoptothe
ductsystem.Downowsystemsdrawairinatthetopandsupplyheatedairoutthebottomforoorduct
systems.Horizontalsystemsdrawairinonesideandsupplyheatedairouttheotherside.Theyareused
inattics,crawlspaces,belowoors,orsuspendedfromceilings.

FIGURE1

GAS-FIREDFURNACE

19

Accordingto1993censusdata,boilersareusedforheatingin15%ofhomesacrosstheU.S.and
approximately45%ofthoseintheNortheast(Fig.2).Governmentstandardsrequirethattodaysresidential
combustionboilershaveefcienciesofatleast80%.TheQuantumLeapboilerbyDunkirkRadiatorhasa
95%efciency.Whileboilerefcienciesaretypicallylowerthanfurnaceefciencies,totalsystemefciency,
includingdistributionsystemlosses,canbehigherbecauseductlossesaretypicallyhigherthanpipelosses.
Electricfurnacesandboilersoperatewitha100%fuelconversionefciency.However,distribu
tionsystemlossesoftenmakethemlessefcientasasystemthanelectricbaseboardorotherzonalsys
tems.Ifanelectricfurnaceispresentlyinstalledinthehome,theintegrityoftheductworksystemshould
beexaminedandimprovedasaminimum(seeSection3).Iftheelectricfurnaceorboilerissituatedin
acoldclimate,seriousconsiderationshouldbegiventoconvertingittoagas-redsystemtoreduceoper
atingcosts.
Thissectionwillfocusonfuel-burning,orcombustion,systems.Incombustionsystems,com
bustionoccurswithinachamberandaircirculatesovertheoutsidesurfacesofaheatexchanger.Thecir
culationairdoesnotcomeincontactwiththefuelortheproductsofcombustion,whichareventedtothe
outside.Traditionalcombustionsystemsarenaturaldraft(oratmosphericvent)withadrafthoodtocarry
thecombustiongasesthroughtheventtotheoutdoors.Thedrafthoodhasareliefairopeningtoassure
thattheexitofthecombustionheatexchangerisatatmosphericpressure.Fan-assistedorpowered-com
bustion systems use a small blower to force (forced-draft, power burner) or induce (induced-draft,
mechanicaldraft,powervent)theueproductsthroughthesystem.Fan-assistedsystemsdonotrequirea
drafthood,resultinginreducedoff-cyclelossesandimprovedefciency.
Backdraftingofcombustionappliancesoccurswhenthesurroundingareaisdepressurizedand
the appliance relies on natural draft to carry the combustion gases through the vent to the outdoors.
Backdrafting can be dangerous when deadly combustion gases are drawn into the living space.
Depressurizationcanoccurwhenotherdevicessuchasexhaustfans,waterheaters,clothesdryers,and
replacesaredrawingairfromthespaceandexhaustingittotheoutside.Thebestsolutiontothisprob
lemistheinstallationofadirect-ventcombustionsystemthatusesoutsideairforcombustionanddoes
nothaveadrafthood.Thisisreferredtoasasealedcombustionsystembecausethecombustionairis
isolatedfromtheindoorair.
Thefollowingaretechniquesforimprovingthesafety,efciencyand/orreducingtheoperating
costsoftheexistingcombustionfurnaceorboilersystem.Forsafetyreasons,allmodicationsshouldbe
performedbyaqualiedmechanic.

FIGURE2
20

GAS-FIREDBOILER

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

1.FOROIL-FIREDSYSTEMS,INSTALLAFLAME-RETENTIONBURNER.
Flame-retentionburnershavesmallerairintakesandamoreconcentratedamethatenablesthemto
burnhotterandmoreefciently.
ADVANTAGES: Improvedcombustionefciency.
DISADVANTAGES: None.
2.INSTALLAVENTDAMPER.
Aventdamperisaapperinstalledintheueofadrafthood-equippednaturaldraftfurnaceorboiler.
(Fan-assistednaturaldraftsystemsdonothavedrafthoods.)Whentheburnersareignited,thedamper
isopentoallowcombustiongasestoexhaustuptheuetooutdoors.Thedampercloseswhentheburn
ersareshutofftoreduceexltrationofheatedairfromthehouseandtopreventresidualheatfromthe
heatexchangerfromescapinguptheue.TheNAECAstandardspassedin1987madeventdampersa
standardfeatureoftodaysnatural-draftfurnaces.
ADVANTAGES: Improvedefciencyifthefurnaceislocatedintheconditionedspaceandisusingindoor
airforcombustion.
DISADVANTAGES: Oflessvalueifthecombustionairisdrawnfromoutsideorunconditionedspace.
3.REPLACETHESTANDINGPILOTWITHANELECTRONICSPARKIGNITOR.
Oldfurnacesandboilersemployastandingpilotthatconsumesasmallamountofgascontinuously.The
NAECAstandardspassedin1987essentiallyeliminatedthisenergy-wastingpractice.Electronicignitions
useanelectricsparkorahotsurfaceasanignitionsourceforthegasmixturewhenheatingisneeded.
ADVANTAGES: Improvedefciency.
DISADVANTAGES: Costofnewignitionsystem.
4.FOROIL-FIREDFURNACES,DOWNSIZETHEBURNERNOZZLE.
Theringrateofanoil-redfurnaceiscontrolledbythepumppressureandtheoricesizeoftheburner
injectionnozzle.Thenozzlesareratedingallonsperhour.Ifthehomesheatingloadshavebeenreducedor
thesystemwasover-sizedinitially,thenozzlesizemaybereducedtodecreasethecapacityofthefurnace.
ADVANTAGES: Improvedcomfortthroughlesssystemcycling.
DISADVANTAGES: Smallernozzlesbecomecloggedmoreeasilybysediment.Fuellineltersmayneedto
bechangedmorefrequently.
5.INSTALLANADVANCED,HIGH-EFFICIENCYGASFURNACE.
High-efciencygasfurnacescanofferasignicantimprovementinefciency.Efciencyratingsbetween
84%and89%arenotcommonbecauseacidiccorrosivecondensateformsattheseefcienciesandthe
modestimprovementinefciencyisnotworththeaddedmaterialcostneededtowithstandtheconden
sate.Thus,highefciencymeansjumpingfromefcienciesinthelow80stothelow90s.Therearesev
eralalternativesavailableforthosewhowanttoinstallanadvancedandefcientfurnacesystem,includ
ingpulseandcondensingcombustiontechnologies.
Nearlyeverymajorfurnacemanufacturerincludesacondensingfurnaceintheirproductline.
Condensingfurnacesaredesignedtocondensethewatervaporfromtheexhaustgasesandcapturethe
heatofcondensation.Thisisdonebyloweringthetemperatureofthecombustiongaseswithasecond
heatexchangerinthefurnace(Fig.3).Condensingfurnacesareexpensivebecausetheyrequirecorrosionresistantmaterials,buttheycanhaveefcienciesashighas97%.
PulsecombustionisatechnologypatentedbyLennoxthatinvolvesself-perpetuatingpulsesat
a rate of approximately 60 times per second. Air and fuel are mixed in the combustion chamber and
ignitedbyasparkfromasparkpluginamannersimilartoanautomobileinternalcombustionengine.
Theincreaseinpressureuponignitionclosesthegas/airinletvalve.Thecombustionproductsareforced
21

throughanexhaustpipeandthegas/airinletvalvereopenswiththereductioninpressure.Thenextcom
bustionpulseisignitedbytheheatremainingfromthepreviouspulse.Pulsecombustionfurnaceshave
efcienciesof91%to97%.
Afewmanufacturersprovidefurnaceswithtwo-speedorevenvariablespeedmotors.Thesesys
temscanimprovecomfortandrunquieterwhenusedwithzoningsystems,withanair-conditioningsys
temthatrequiresahigherairow,orwhenitisdesirabletorunthefancontinuouslyforventilationair
supply.TheCarrierWeathermaker8000andTraneXV-80aretwosuchproducts.
ADVANTAGES: Loweroperatingcosts.Higherefciencysystemshavelowertemperatureexhaustgasesso
PVCpipingcanbeusedforventing,asignicantadvantageifachimneyisnotcurrentlyinplace.Themultispeedsystemsprovidebettercomfortbecauseoutputfollowsloadmoreclosely.Thelow-speedsettingcan
providedehumidicationcapabilitywithanACunit.
DISADVANTAGES: Higherinitialcostandtheexistinguemayneedtobedownsized.Allfan-assistedfur
nacesconsumemoreelectricitythanoldfurnacesthatdidnotuseafaninthecombustionairstream.
Localcodemayrequireaneutralizercartridgeforcondensatedisposal.Ifcondensatecannotbedrained
bygravity,acondensatepumpisnecessary.

FIGURE3

CONDENSINGFURNACE

6.INSTALLACOMBINATIONSYSTEM.

Combinationsystemsuseonecombustiondevicetoprovidespaceandwaterheating.Thesesystemselim

inatethegasfurnaceanditsuebyrunningahotwatercoilfromthedomestichotwaterheatertotheair-

handlingunitorahydronicradiantsystem(Fig.4).TheGasResearchInstituteestimatesthatnearlyamil-

lionofthesesystemshavebeeninstalledintheU.S.

Typically,potablewaterisusedintheair-handlerheatingcoil.Forhydronicradiantsystems,a
separateheatexchangerinthewaterheaterisusedtocirculatenon-potablewaterthroughtheradiantsys
tempiping.Thisisacoderequirementinmostareas.
Waterheatersspecicallydesignedforthesesystemsareavailable.Theyhaveanextrasetoftaps
forsupplyandreturnofthespaceheatingwaterandhigherrecoveryratesanddirect-ventingasoptions.
ADVANTAGES: Eliminatesthefurnaceanditsventingrequirements.
DISADVANTAGES: Dealerconfusionoversizinganddesigningofsystems.
22

FIGURE4

COMBINATIONHEATINGSYSTEM

7.INSTALLANADVANCEDHIGH-EFFICIENCYBOILER.

Condensingboilersarelesscommonthanfurnacesbecausetheytypicallyarenotcompatiblewiththehigh

return-watertemperatures,suchasthe160 Fofahydronicbaseboardsystem.Theyareappropriatefor

thelowertemperaturesofradiantsystems.However,DunkirkRadiatorproducestheQuantumLeapboiler

withanefciencyof95%.Thisunit,whichusesanaluminumheatexchanger,isacondensingboilereven

athighreturn-watertemperatures.Condensationathighreturn-watertemperaturesisaccomplishedby

heatingandsaturatingtheincomingcombustionairtoraiseitsdewpoint.Thisisdonewiththeconden

sateinanevaporativetower(Fig.5).

ADVANTAGES: Loweroperatingcosts.Higherefciencysystemshavelowertemperatureexhaustgasesso

PVCpipingcanbeusedforventing.Improvedsafetydevicesandcontrolsoveranoldboilersystem.

DISADVANTAGES: Higherinitialcost.

FIGURE5

QUANTUMLEAPCONDENSINGBOILER

23

FURTHER READING
AConsumersGuidetoHomeImprovement,Renovation&Repair,TheEnterpriseFoundation,Robert
M.Santucci,BrookeC.Stoddard,andPeterWerwath,JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,1995.
Consumers Directory of Certied Efciency Ratings for Residential Heating and Water Heating
Equipment, Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association, available from ETL Testing Laboratories, Inc.;
607-753-6711.
1996ASHRAESystemsandEquipmentHandbook,ASHRAE,1791TullieCircle,NE,Atlanta,GA30329;
404-636-8400.

PRODUCT INFORMATION
ApolloHydroHeat&Cooling,ADivisionofStateIndustries,500BypassRoad,AshlandCity,TN37015;615792-4371;www.stateind.com.
BurnhamCorporation,P.O.Box3079,Lancaster,PA17604;717-397-4701;www.burnham.com.
CarrierNorthAmericanOperations,P.O.Box4808,CarrierParkway,Syracuse,NY13221;315-432-6000;
www.carrier.com.
DunkirkRadiatorCorporation,85MiddleRoad,Dunkirk,NY14048;716-366-5500;www.dunkirk.com.
LennoxIndustries,2100LakeParkBoulevard,Richardson,TX75080;214-497-5000;www.davelennox.com.
TraneCompany,3600PammelCreekRoad,LaCrosse,WI54601;608-787-3111;www.trane.com.
YorkInternationalCorporation,631SouthRichlandAvenue,York,PA17403;717-771-7890;www.york.com.

24

COOLING
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Manyoldhomesreliedonpassivecoolingtheopeningofwindowsanddoors,andtheprovisionof
shadingdevicesduringthesummermonths.Homesweredesignedwithwindowsonoppositewallsto
encouragecrossventilationandlargeshadetreesreducedsolarheatgains.Thisapproachisstillviablein
manyareastodayandimprovedthermalperformance(insulatingvalue)windowsareavailablethatallowfor
largerwindowareastoletinmoreairinthesummerwithouttheheatlosspenaltyinthewinter.However,
increasedoutdoornoiselevels,pollution,andsecurityissuesmakerelyingonopenwindowsalessattractive
optioninsomeareastoday.
Anair-conditioningsystemofsomekindmayalreadybeinstalledinthehome.Itmaybeawin
dowairconditionerorthrough-the-wallunitforcoolingoneortworooms,oracentralsplit-systemair
conditionerorheatpump.Inanyevent,theperformanceofthesesystemsintermsofprovidingadequate
comfortwithoutexcessiveenergyuseshouldbeinvestigated.Theageoftheequipmentalonewillprovide
some indication. If the existing system is more than ten years old, replacement should be considered
becauseitismuchlessefcientthantodayssystemsandnearingtheendofitsusefullife.
TherefrigerantcommonlyusedintodaysresidentialairconditionersisR-22.Duetothesuspi
cionthatR-22depletestheozonelayer,manufacturerswillbeprohibitedfromproducingunitswithR-22
in2010.TheleadingreplacementsforR-22areR-134AandR-410Aandnewproductsarenowavailable
withthesenon-ozone-depletingrefrigerants.CarriersbrandnamefortheR-410ArefrigerantisPuron.
Theperformancemeasureforelectricairconditionerswithcapacitieslessthan65,000Btuhisthe
SeasonalEnergyEfciencyRatio(SEER).Thisisaratingofcoolingperformancebaseduponrepresentative
residentialloads.ItisreportedinunitsofBtuofcoolingperwatthourofelectricenergyconsumptioninclud
ingtheunitscompressor,fans,andcontrols.ThehighertheSEERthemoreefcientthesystem.However,the
highestSEERunitmaynotprovidethemostcomfort.Inhumidclimates,someofthehighestSEERunitsexhibit
poordehumidicationcapabilitybecausetheyoperateathigherevaporatortemperaturestoattainthehigher
efciency.ASEERofatleast10isrequiredbyNAECAforconventionalcentralsplit-systemair-cooledsystems.
Coolingsystemoptionsvarywidely,dependinguponthelevelofcontrolandcomfortdesiredby
thehomeowner.Fanscanincreasecirculationandreducecoolingloads,buttheircoolingcapabilityis
directlylimitedbytheoutdoorconditionssotheymaybeunsatisfactoryinhotclimates.Radiantbarriers
canpossiblyreducecoolingloadsinveryhotclimates.Evaporativecoolerscanbearelativelyinexpensive
and effective method of cooling in dry climates such as the Southwest. Electric air conditioning is the
answerforthosewhowanttomaintainacomfortableindoortemperatureandhumidityevenunderthe
mostsevereoutdoorconditions.Over75%ofnewhomesintheU.S.areequippedwithsomeformofcen
tralairconditioning;morespecically,50%ofthehomesintheNortheast,75%intheMidwest,95%in
theSouth,andapproximately60%intheWest.Electricairconditioningltersandremovesmoisturefrom
theairaswellasreducingitstemperature.Itcanbeagoodinvestmentbecause,inmostpartsofthecoun
try,thepaybackissignicantwhenthehouseissold.

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

1.INSTALLACIRCULATIONFAN.
Airmovementcanmakeyoufeelcomfortableevenwhendry-bulbtemperaturesareelevated.Acircula
tionfan(ceilingorportable)(Fig.1)thatcreatesanairspeedof150-200feetperminutecancompen
satefora4 Fincreaseintemperature.
ADVANTAGES:Thesameceilingcirculationfancanalsobebenecialintheheatingseasonbyredistributing
warmairthatcollectsalongtheceiling.
25
DISADVANTAGES:Canbenoisy.

FIGURE1

CEILINGCIRCULATIONFAN

2.INSTALLAPOWERATTICORROOFTOPVENTILATOR.

Theseunitsareusedtoassistthenaturalowofairthroughtheatticspace(Fig.2).Withoutgoodventila

tion,attictemperaturescanexceed130 Fonwarm,sunnydays.Increasingtheatticventilationresultsina

cooleratticspace,reducingthecoolingloadonthespacebelow.ToestimatetherequiredCFM-ratingofan

atticventilator,multiplytheatticoorareabyafactorof0.75andincreasethevalueby15%iftheroofis

darkandwillabsorbheat.Theexhaustedairisreplacedbyoutsideairenteringthrougheavevents.

ADVANTAGES:Inexpensiveandeasytoinstall.

DISADVANTAGES:Doesnotdirectlycoolthelivingspace.Ifatticventareaisinsufcient,thefancandraw

airthroughtheceilingoftheconditionedspaceandpotentiallydepressurizethespace.

FIGURE2

POWEREDATTICVENTILATOR

3.INSTALLAWHOLE-HOUSEVENTILATORORFAN.

Whole-houseventilatorsaretypicallyinstalledintheatticooroverahallwayorstairway.Theypullhot

airfromthelivingspaceandexhaustitintotheatticwhereitexitsthroughtheatticvents.Freshcoolerair

isdrawninthroughopenwindows.Specicareasofthehomecanbeventilatedbyselectivelyopeningand

closingdoorsandwindows.TheHV1000unitbyTamarackTechnologies(Fig.3)usesefcientfanmotors

tominimizeenergyuseandnoiseandhasanautomaticdoorassemblythatprovidesanairtightsealwith

aninsulatingvalueofR-22.Itusestwoside-by-sidefansratherthanonelargefansothattheunitcaneas

ilytbetween16"or24"oncenterjoistswithnojoistcutting.

ADVANTAGES:Caneliminatetheneedformechanicalairconditioninginmoderateclimates.

DISADVANTAGES:Noisy.Limitedcoolingcapabilityinwarmorhumidclimates.Candepressurizethehome

ifwindowsarenotopen.Increasedheatlossduringthewinterifthesystemisnotsealedandinsulated.

26

FIGURE3

HV1000WHOLE-HOUSEVENTILATOR

FIGURE4

TWO-STAGEEVAPORATIVECOOLER

4.INSTALLARADIANTBARRIER.

Inhotclimates,whereatticscanbecomeveryhotandairconditioningductsareoftenintheattic,aradi

antbarriermaybebenecial.Itcanreducethecoolingloadonthehomeandreducetheincreaseinsup-

plyairtemperatureasconditionedairtravelsthroughthesupplyductsintheatticbeforereachingthe

roomstobeconditioned.Radiantbarriersaremadeofmaterialsthataregoodatreectingheat.They

reecttheradiantheatemanatingfromahotroof,andcomeinavarietyofforms,includingfoil,paint

coatings,andchips.

ADVANTAGES:Fairlysimpletoinstall.Canreducethesizeoftheairconditionerneeded.

27

DISADVANTAGES:Canberelativelyexpensive.Dustcanseriouslydegradetheperformancebydullingthe
reectivesurface.
5.INSTALLANEVAPORATIVECOOLER.

IndryclimatessuchastheSouthwest,anevaporativecoolerorswampcoolermayprovidesufcient

cooling. This system cools an airstream by evaporating water into it; the airstreams relative humidity

increaseswhilethedry-bulbtemperaturedecreases.A95F,15%RHairstreamcanbeconditionedto75F,

50%RH.Thesimplestdirectsystemsarecentrallylocatedanduseapumptosupplywatertoasaturated

padoverwhichthesupplyairisblown.Indirectsystemsuseaheatexchangerbetweentheairstreamthat

iscooledbyevaporatingwaterandthesupplyairstream.Themoisturelevelofthesupplyairstreamisnot

affectedasitiscooled.CoolTechIndustriesmanufacturesatwo-stageunitthatemploysanindirectrst

stagecoupledtoadirectsecondstage(Fig.4).Moistureisaddedtothesupplyairstream,butnotasmuch

aswithadirectevaporativecooler.

ADVANTAGES:Lowerinstallationandoperatingcoststhanelectricairconditioning.Noozone-depletingrefrig

erantinvolved.Providehighlevelsofventilationbecausetheytypicallyconditionandsupply100%outsideair.

DISADVANTAGES:Bacterialcontaminationcanresultifnotproperlymaintained.Onlyappropriatefordry,

hotclimates.

6.INSTALLANELECTRICAIRCONDITIONER

(seeSection6onHeatPumpsaswell).

Electricairconditionersthatemploythevaporcompressionrefrigerationcycleareavailableinavarietyof

sizesandcongurations,rangingfromsmallwindowunitstolargecentralsystems.Themostcommonform

ofcentralairconditioningisasplit-systemwithawarmairfurnace(Fig.5).Thesameductworkisusedfor

distributingconditionedairduringtheheatingandcoolingseasons.Supplyairiscooledanddehumidied

asitpassesoveranA-shapedevaporatorcoil.Theliquidrefrigerantevaporatesinsidethecoilasitabsorbs

heatfromtheair.Therefrigerantgasthentravelsthroughrefrigerantpipingtotheoutdoorunitwhereitis

pressurizedinanelectrically-drivencompressor,raisingitstemperatureandpressure,andreturnedtoa

liquidstateinthecondenserasitreleases,ordumps,theheattotheoutdoorsasafandrawsoutdoorair

inoverthecondensercoil.Theuseoftwo-speedindoorfanscanbeadvantageousinthistypeofsystem

becausethecoolingloadcanoftenrequirehigherairowsthantheheatingload.Thelowerspeedcanbe

usedfortheheatingseasonandforimproveddehumidicationperformanceduringthecoolingseason.

FIGURE5

28

SPLIT-SYSTEMAIRCONDITIONER

Anotherelectricairconditioningsystemcongurationisthepackagedterminalairconditioner
(PTAC)(Fig.6).Theseunitsaresimilartowindowairconditionersinthattheyareasinglepackage,but
theyalsoprovideheatandaredesignedtobeinstalledthroughanoutsidewall.Acommonapplicationis
motelrooms.Theircoolingcapacitiesaretypicallylargerthanwindowunitsandsmallerthancentralsys
tems.Mostoftheunitsareequippedwithelectricheatingandcanbeinstalledwithouttheneedforan
HVACcontractorbecausethereisnoductworkorrefrigerantpipinginvolvedintheinstallation.Noisecan
beaproblemandthewallpenetrationscanbeasourceofuncomfortableairleakageinthewinter.
ADVANTAGES:Removeslatentheat(moisture)inadditiontosensibleheatinmorehumidclimates.
DISADVANTAGES:Compressorandcondenserfancanbenoisy.

FIGURE6

PACKAGEDTERMINALAIRCONDITIONER

FIGURE7

GAS-FIREDCHILLERSYSTEM

7.INSTALLAGAS-FIREDCHILLER.

Forthesituationwherecentralairconditioningisdesiredandelectricityisveryexpensiveorthecostof

additional electrical service is excessive, there are gas-red alternatives. For some 30 years, Robur

Corporationhasmanufacturedsmalltonnageabsorptionproducts.Thethree-andve-tonServelsystems

areair-cooledabsorptionchillersthatutilizeammonia.Thesystemisself-containedinanoutdoorunit

andchilledwaterpipingisruntoanindoorairhandlerunit(Fig.7).

29

ADVANTAGES:Loweroperatingcostsinareaswithhighelectricitypricesandlowgasprices.Avoidsthe
additionalelectricalservicerequiredforacentralelectricair-conditioningsystem.Doesnotuseanozonedepletingrefrigerant.
DISADVANTAGES:Highinitialcost.Limitedmarketinfrastructureandservicesupport.Morecomplexsys
temswithgreatermaintenancerequirements.

FURTHER READING
1996HVACSystemsandEquipmentHandbook,Atlanta,GA,AmericanSocietyofHeating,Refrigerating
andAir-ConditioningEngineers,Inc.
SimpliedDesignofHVACSystems,WilliamBobenhausen,NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,1994.
This Old House Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning, Richard Trethewey, Little, Brown and
Company,1994.

PRODUCT INFORMATION
CarrierNorthAmericanOperations,P.O.Box4808,CarrierParkway,Syracuse,NY13221;315-432-6000;
www.carrier.com.
CoolTechIndustries,Inc.,8230PostRoad,FairOaks,CA95628;916-536-0902;www.smartcool.com.
RoburCorporation,2300LynchRoad,Evansville,IN47711;812-424-1800;www.robur.com.
Tamarack Technologies, Inc., P.O. Box 490, West Wareham, MA 02576; 800-222-5932;
www.tamtech.com.
TraneCompany,3600PammelCreekRoad,LaCrosse,WI54601;608-787-3111,www.trane.com.
YorkInternationalCorporation,631SouthRichlandAvenue,York,PA17403;717-771-7890;
www.york.com.

30

H E AT P U M P S
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Heatpumpsrepresentasinglesystemthatcanprovidebothheatingandcooling.Asinglesourceofenergy
electricityistypicallyused,andventsandchimneysforcombustionproductscanbeeliminated.
Heatpumpswereintroducedtotheresidentialmarketinthe1950sandearlysystemshadproblemswith
reliabilityandcomfort.Todaysheatpumpsystemsaremuchmorereliableandefcient.
Theinstallationofanewheatpumpsystemaspartofahomesrehabilitationshouldbeconsid
eredifanexistingheatpumpisnearingtheendofitsexpectedlife(15to20years)ortheexistingheat
ingsystemneedsreplacementandtheadditionofairconditioningisdesirable.Heatpumpsarealogical
HVACsystemchoiceinclimateswithsignicantcoolingloadsandmodest heatingloads.Ifheatingloads
aresmall,alessexpensiveelectricresistanceheatingandelectricairconditioningsystemmaybemore
logical.Ifheatingloadsarelarge,agasfurnace/airconditionercombinationmaybetheoptimumchoice.
Whencooling,heatpumpsusethevaporcompressionrefrigerationcyclejustlikeelectricair
conditioners (see Section 5). To provide heating, heat pumps are equipped with reversing and check
valvestorunthecyclebackwards,removingheatfromtheoutdoorsanddumpingitindoors(Fig.1).
Unfortunately, as outdoor temperatures drop and heating loads increase, the capacity of a heat pump
declines(Fig.2).Inmostclimates,aheatpumpneedstobeequippedwithasupplementalheatsystem,
whichistypicallyelectricresistanceheat.

FIGURE1

HEATPUMPCYCLE-HEATINGMODE

Thereisavarietyofheatpumptypes,eachwithdifferentstandardsforratingefciency,butthe
most common rating terms are SEER (Seasonal Energy Efciency Ratio) for cooling performance and
HSPF (Heating Seasonal Performance Factor) for heating performance. The SEER is the same rating
methodusedforairconditioningsystems(seeSection5).TheHSPFistheratiooftotalheatingoutputin
Btuofaheatpumpduringitsnormalannualusageperiodtothetotalelectricpowerinputinwatthours
during the same period. It is reported in units of Btu of heating per watthour of electric energy con31

FIGURE2

HEATPUMPCAPACITYANDAMBIENTTEMPERATURERELATIONSHIP

sumption,includingtheunitscompressor,fans,andcontrols.ThehighertheHSPFthemoreefcientthe
system.AnHSPFofatleast6.8isrequiredbyNAECAforconventionalcentralsplit-systemair-cooledheat
pumpsystemswithcapacitiesofvetonsorless.However,itshouldbenotedthatair-sourceheatpump
heatingefciencyvariesdramaticallywithoutdoortemperature.Ifconsideringaheatpumpforacoldcli
mate(i.e.,colderthanIndianapolis,whichisrepresentativeofthetypicalusedfortherating),acom
parisonofperformanceatmoresevereconditionsmaybemorebenecialthanrelyingontheHSPFcom
parison.Inotherwords,twoheatpumpsmayhavethesameHSPFrating,butperformquitedifferentlyat
coldconditions.Ground-sourceheatpumpsusetheCoefcientofPerformance(COP)asanefciencyrat
ingratherthanHSPF.However,GSHPsdonothavethevaryingconditionsthatair-sourceunitshavesomul
tiplyingtheCOPby3.4providesavaluethatiscomparabletotheHSPF.Makesuretheground-looppump
ingenergyisincludedintheefciencycalculation.
Inareaswherethecoolingloadislargerelativetotheheatingload,aheatpumpmayprovidea
morecomfortableyear-roundsolutionthanagasfurnace/airconditionercombination.Whenafurnaceis
usedincombinationwithanairconditionerinacoolingloaddominatedclimate,asignicantlyoversized
furnacemayberequiredtoobtainblowerperformancethatiscompatiblewiththesizeofthecoolingcoil.
Unlessthefurnacehasavariableortwo-speedblower,thiswillproduceshort-cyclingduringtheheating
season,whichcompromisescomfort.

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

32

1.INSTALLASPLIT-SYSTEMAIR-SOURCEHEATPUMP(ASHP).
Thisisbyfarthemostcommonresidentialheatpumpsystem.Itisverysimilartothesplit-systemaircon
ditioner (see Section 5), but operates in the winter as well to provide heating. The indoor unit has a
blower,theheatpumpcoil,andasupplementalheatingsectionthatusuallycontainselectricresistance
heatingelements.Alternativestousingelectricresistanceheatingduringcoldperiods,whenthecapacity
of the heat pump is insufcient, include hydronic coils from the domestic hot water heater (see
CombinationSysteminSection4)oradd-onheatpumps.Add-onheatpumpsareheatpumpsadded
toagasfurnace.Theheatpumpoperateswithdecliningefciencyasoutdoortemperaturesdroptothe
pointwhereitbecomesmoreeconomicaltooperatethegasfurnace.Two-speedheatpumpswithmultispeedfansandatwo-speedcompressorarecapableofvaryingthecapacityofthesystemtobettermatch
theloadandavoidtheinefcienciesofcyclingonandofffrequently.
ADVANTAGES:Mostcommonheatpumpsystemwithawell-establishedserviceinfrastructure.
DISADVANTAGES:Heatingperformancedropssignicantlywithcolderoutdoortemperatures.

2.INSTALLASINGLE-PACKAGEAIR-SOURCEHEATPUMP.

Iftheinstallationofanoutdoorcompressor/condenserunitisaproblembecauseofnoise,aesthetics,or

vandalism,theInsiderheatpumpmanufacturedbyConsolidatedTechnologyCorporation(Fig.3)maybe

aviablesolution.Thisunit,originallydesignedformanufacturedhomes,containsallofthecomponents

inasinglepackagethatisapproximatelythesizeofafurnace.Afanisusedtodrawoutdoorairinover

theoutsidecoilandexhaustsit.Anotherfandrawsreturnairfromthespaceovertheinsidecoiland

returnstheconditionedairtothespace.

ADVANTAGES:Easierinstallationwithnooutdoorunitandrefrigerantlines.

DISADVANTAGES:Noiseofcompressorwithinthelivingspace.

FIGURE3

SINGLE-PACKAGEAIRSOURCEHEATPUMP

HEATPUMP

3.INSTALLAPACKAGEDTERMINALHEATPUMP(PTHP).

ThesesystemsareverysimilartoPTACs(seeSection5)excepttheyuseanelectricheatpumptoprovide

heatingratherthanrelyingsolelyonelectricresistanceforheating.

ADVANTAGES:Noductworkorrefrigerantlinestobeinstalledonsite.Zonecontrolcapability.

DISADVANTAGES: Unitscanbenoisyandthewallpenetrationscanbeasourceofunwantedinltration.

4.INSTALLONEORMOREDUCTLESSSPLITSYSTEMSORMINI-SPLITS.

Thesesystemsaresimilartoconventionalsplitsystemsinthattheyhaveanoutdoorcondenserunitand

anindoorevaporator/airhandlerunitconnectedbyrefrigerantpiping.However,theindoorunitislocated

directlyinoradjacenttotheconditionedspace.Thereisnoductworkrequiredfordistributingtheair.

Severalindoorunitscanbeusedinconjunctionwithasingleoutdoorunit(Fig.4).

ADVANTAGES:Easiertoinstallthanductedsystemsifnoductingisalreadyinplace.Zonecontrolcapa

bility.Canbelinkedwithmotiondetectorstominimizeoperatingtime.

DISADVANTAGES:Operateonrecirculatedaironlyandhavenomeansforprovidingfreshair.Although

verypopularinJapanandEurope,theyarenotwidelyusedormanufacturedintheU.S.

33

FIGURE4

DUCTLESSSPLITSYSTEM

5.INSTALLAGROUND-SOURCEHEATPUMP(GSHP).

Asthenameimplies,GSHPsusethegroundasthesourceforheatduringthewinterratherthanoutdoor

air(Fig.5).TheycanbeanattractiveoptiontoASHPsincolderclimateswherethegroundtemperatureis

warmerandlessvariablethantheairtemperature.Inthemorecommonclosed-loopdesign,aground

loop of polybutylene or high-density polyethylene pipe is buried and water or antifreeze solution is

pumpedthroughittoabsorbheat.Thepipecanbeburiedverticallyorhorizontally,straightorcoiledlike

aslinky.Installationwilldependonsoilconditions,drillingversustrenchingcosts,andspaceavailabil

ity.Open-loopsystemspumpgroundwaterfromawellthroughaheatexchangerandthendischargeit.

Theyavoidthecostofaburiedgroundloop,buthavetoaddresswaterqualityandcodeissues.Some

GSHPsincludedesuperheaters(seeSection10)forwaterheatingasanintegralpartofthesystem.

ADVANTAGES:UsuallymoreefcientonaseasonalbasisthanASHPbecausethegroundtemperatureis

higherthantheairtemperature.GSHPsdonotneedtodefrostlikeASHPs.

DISADVANTAGES: Installationcostofthegroundloop.

FIGURE5

34

OPENLOOPGSHP

CLOSEDLOOPGSHP

FURTHER READING
1996HVACSystemsandEquipmentHandbook,Atlanta,GA,AmericanSocietyofHeating,Refrigerating
andAir-ConditioningEngineers,Inc.
ARI Directory of Certied Applied Air-Conditioning Products, Arlington, VA, Air-Conditioning &
RefrigerationInstitute.
Closed-Loop/Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems: Installation Guide, Stillwater, OK, International
Ground-SourceHeatPumpAssociation,1988.

PRODUCT INFORMATION
CarrierNorthAmericanOperations,P.O.Box4808,CarrierParkway,Syracuse,NY13221;315-432-6000;
www.carrier.com.
ConsolidatedTechnologyCorporation,P.O.Box1537,OliveHill,KY41164;606-786-5366.
EMICorporation,5780SuccessDrive,Rome,NY13440;315-336-3716;www.enviromaster.com
TraneCompany,3600PammelCreekRoad,LaCrosse,WI54601;608-787-3111,www.trane.com.
WaterFurnace International, Inc., 9000 Conservation Way, Fort Wayne, IN 46809; 800-222-5667;
www.waterfurnace.com.
York International Corporation, 631 South Richland Avenue, York, PA 17403; 717-771-7890;
www.york.com.

35

INDOORAIR
QUALITY
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Ashomesconstructedsincethe1980shavebecometighterinordertoreduceinltrationtoimprove
comfortandsaveenergy,concernsaboutindoorairqualityhavegrown.Thelistofindoorpollutantsis
long,butthemostcommoninclude:formaldehydefumesfrombuildingmaterials,furniture,curtains,and
carpet;organicgasesfromaerosols,paints,solvents,andairfresheners;carbonmonoxideandnitrogen
dioxidefromunventedappliancessuchasgasranges;dustmites,moldspores,andmildew.
Tight homes without a mechanical ventilation system can depressurize when devices such as
exhaust fans or clothes dryers operate and remove air from conditioned space. Depressurization can
causeback-draftingofcombustionappliancesandpotentiallyincreasedradonlevels(Fig.1).
The simplest way to improve indoor air quality is through a controlled ventilation system.
Mechanicalventilationsystemsarenowrequiredinnewhomesbysomebuildingcodes,particularlyin
theNorthwestandCanada.Therecommendedamountofventilationairisasubjectofdebatebyexperts
in the eld. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
Standard62recommends15cfmofoutsideairperpersonor0.35airchangesperhour(ACH)forresi
dences.Thisstandardhasbeencontroversialandisunderrevision.Aproposedrevisionuses5cfmper
100squarefeetofhousearea.TheHomeVentilatingInstitute(HVI),aventilationequipmenttradeorga
nization,recommends0.5ACH.
Ventilationsystemsassurethatadequatefreshairisbroughtintothehometoreplacetheindoor
airthatisremoved.Thereareseveraldifferentmechanicalventilationapproaches.Inadditiontomechan
icalventilationforindoorairquality,humidiersanddehumidiersmaybeinstalledtocontrolhumidity
andaircleanerscanbeusedforthosesensitivetoaircontaminantssuchasdustandpollen.

FIGURE1
36

DEPRESSURIZATIONINDUCEDBACK-DRAFTING

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

1.INSTALLAMECHANICALVENTILATIONSYSTEM.
There are three basic types of mechanical ventilation systems: exhaust, supply, and balanced (Fig.2).
Exhaustandsupplysystemstypicallyuseasinglefanthateitherpullsairfromthehomeorpushesairinto
thehomeinconjunctionwithintentionalairinletsorpressurereliefoutlets.Thesesystemseitherdepres
surizeorpressurizethehome.Depressurizationcancauseproblemswithcombustionappliancebackdrafting and potentially increased radon inltration. Pressurization can promote detrimental moisture
inltrationintobuildingmaterials.Toavoidtheseproblems,balancedmechanicalventilationsystemstyp
icallyuseatleasttwofans,supplyandexhaust,tomaintainaneutralpressureinthehome.Themost
energy-efcienttypeofbalancedmechanicalventilationsystemisaheatrecoveryventilatororair-to-air
heatexchanger(Fig.3).Thesesystemsincludeaheatexchangertoexchangeheatbetweentheexhaustand
supplyairstreams.Freshsupplyairispreheatedinthewinterandprecooledinthesummer.Amongthe
manufacturersofthesetypesofsystemsisNutechEnergySystems,whichhasintroducedtheLifebreath
CleanAirFurnace(Fig.4),designedtodrawinoutsideairataratethatisapproximately10%ofthetotal
supplyairow.Inregionswithsignicantmoisturedifferencesbetweensupplyandexhaustairstreams,
enthalpywheelsmaybeusedastheheatexchanger.Thewheelsincludeadesiccantmaterialonaheat
wheeltoabsorbandreleasemoistureandheat.
ADVANTAGES:Betterhealthandsafetybecausethesupplyofanadequateamountoffreshairtothehome
isassured.
DISADVANTAGES:Initialinstallationandfanoperatingcostcanbehigh.Filtermaintenanceisrequired.
Additionalheatingandcoolingloadsareplacedontheexistingheatingandcoolingsystem.Additional
loadisminimalwithheatorenthalpyrecoveryventilators.

EXHAUST

SUPPLY

BALANCED

FIGURE2

MECHANICALVENTILATIONTYPES

37

FIGURE3

BALANCEDSYSTEMWITHAHEATRECOVERYVENTILATOR

FIGURE4

LIFEBREATHCLEANAIRFURNACE

2.INSTALLAHUMIDIFIER.
Lowindoorhumiditycanbeproblematicincoldclimatesduringtheheatingseason.Cold,winterairholds
lessmoisturethanwarmsummerair(80 Fairat50%RHcontainstwiceasmuchwateras42 Fairat
100%RH).Lowindoorrelativehumiditycanleadtodryskin,nosebleeds,andrespiratoryproblems.An
indoorrelativehumidityof35to50%isrecommended.Therearethreebasichumidiertypesforresi
dentialapplications:pan,wetted-element,andsteam.Ultrasonicandimpeller-typehumidiers,whichemit
amistintotheair,arediscouragedbecausetheyrequiretheuseofdemineralizedordistilledwatertoavoid
circulatingharmfulmineralsintotheair.Whole-househumidiersareusedinconjunctionwithawarmairfurnace.Pan-typehumidiersuseapanofwaterinthefurnaceplenum.Aswarmairowsoverthepan,
waterevaporatesintotheair.Aheatingelementcanbeusedtoincreasethewatertemperatureandtherate
of evaporation and/or wicking plates can be used to increase the pans effective surface area (Fig. 5).
Wetted-elementhumidiersuseaplasticpadthatrotatesthroughareservoirofwater(Fig.6).Asairpasses
throughthepad,waterevaporatesintotheairstream.Steamhumidiersuseheatingelementstoboilthe
38

waterinapan.Theyprovidehigherhumidicationoutputthanotherhumidiertypes.Honeywellproduces

a steam humidier for residential applications that independently controls the furnace fan to provide

humidiedairtothespaceevenwhenthefurnaceisnotrunningtosupplyheat.Anissuewithalltypesof

humidiersisdisposalofmineraldepositsthataccumulateinthewaterreservoir.Automaticushingsystems

areavailable,butrequireadrainandusemorewater.Humidierswithoutaushingsystemshouldbe

cleanedroutinely,everyoneortwomonths,toremovethedeposits.Humidistatsaretypicallyusedtocon

trolhumidiers.ResearchProductshasintroducedanAprilairewhole-househumidierthatmonitorsthe

outdoorhumidityandautomaticallyprovidestheoptimumhumiditytothehome.

ADVANTAGES:Higher,morecomfortableheatingseasonhumidityallowslowerthermostatsettingswithout

sacricingcomfort(forexample,airat69Fand35%RHprovidesthesamelevelofcomfortas72Fand

19%RH).

DISADVANTAGES: Ifimproperlycontrolled,excessiveindoorhumiditycancausedamagingcondensation

problems.Maintenancerequiredtoremovemineraldepositsonnon-ushingsystems.

FIGURE5,6

FIGURE7

PANHUMIDIFIER

WETTED-DRUMHUMIDIFIER

ULTRA-AIREPURIFYINGDEHUMIDIFIER

39

3.INSTALLADEHUMIDIFIER.

Highlevelsofindoorhumiditycannotonlycausecomfortproblems,butalsohealthconcernswiththe

potentialforincreasedgrowthofmoldandbacteria.Inseveresituations,buildingmaterialsandfurnish

ingscanbedamagedbymildew.

Highlevelsofhumiditycanoccurinatighthomewheninternallygeneratedmoisturebypeople,
cooking,orshoweringisnotexhausted.Condensationontheinsideofcoldwindowsandwithinwallinsu
lationinthewintercanbedamaging.BathfanssuchastheSmartSensebyNutoneautomaticallyactivate
whenhighhumiditylevelsaredetected.
Highhumiditylevelscanalsooccurinthesummeriftheventilationsystemintroduceshumid
outsideairtotheconditionedspace.Dehumidiersappropriateforresidentialapplicationsemployrefrig
erationtocooltheairbelowitsdewpointtoremovemoisture.Thisprocessalsomightcooltheairlower
thandesired.Thecool,dryaircanbereheatedbypassingitovertheunitscondensercoil.Therearesev
eral manufacturers of these types of systems, such as Therma-Stor Products Ultra-Aire Air Purifying
Dehumidier,whichcombinesadehumidierwithanoutdoorairinletforventilationairandanoptional
95%efcientpleatedmedialter(Fig.7).
ADVANTAGES:Humidityisproperlycontrolledindependentoftemperature.Atlowerindoorhumidities,
thermostatsettingscanberaisedtoachievethesamelevelofcomfort.
DISADVANTAGES:Canbecostlytoinstallandoperate.
4.INSTALLANAIRFILTERORCLEANER.
Peoplewhoareparticularlysensitivetoaircontaminantssuchasdustandpollen,maybenetfromahighefciencyairlteroraircleaner.Airpollutantsareeitheraparticulateoragasandtherearespecictypes
ofltersforeachcategory.Particulatepollutantsincludemoldspores,pollen,housedust,animaldander,
clothingandfurnishingbers,anddirt.Mostltersaredesignedforparticulateremoval.Gasesinclude
combustion gases, by-products of human and animal metabolism, and volatile organic compounds.
Adsorptiontypelterssuchascharcoalareusedforgaspollutants.Tobaccoandwoodsmokeareboth
particulatesandgasesandrequireacombinationofltertypes.Thestandardlterinafurnaceorairconditioningsystemistypicallyonlygoodforfairlylargeparticulates.Atestfordeterminingtheefciency
ofalteristheatmospheric-spot-dusttest,whichmeasuresparticlesbetween0.3and6micronsinsize.
Astandard1-thickfurnaceltermayonlybe3to5%efcientaccordingtoanatmospheric-spot-dusttest.
Thestandardfurnace/airconditionerlterisamedialterbecauseitismadeofmaterialthatisdesigned
totrapparticulates.Thehigherthemedialterefciency,thegreatertheinitialcostandoperatingcost
duetohigherpressuredropandthusfanenergyrequirements.
Anothertypeofairlter,anelectrostaticprecipitator,givesparticulatesastatic-electriccharge
to capture them. The charged particulates are then collected by oppositely charged metal plates.
Electrostaticprecipitatorsareoftenratedat90%efciency(atmospheric-spot-dusttest),butthemetal
platesmustbecleanedoftentomaintainefciency.Thesetypesofairltersalsoproducesmallamounts
ofozonethatcanthenbecapturedinasubsequentadsorptionlter.Theydonothavethepressuredrop
problemofmedialters.Electrostaticairltersaremedialtersthatuseaspecialbrousplasticmater
ialthatbecomeschargedasairpassesthrough(Fig.8).Oppositelychargedparticlesintheairstreamthen
clingtotheltermedia.Theyareabout10to15%efcient(atmospheric-spot-dust-test),buthavealower
pressuredroppenaltythana30to60%efcientmedium-efciencymedialter.
Completeaircleaningsystemswillincludeaparticulatelterandanadsorptionlter.Thereare
alsosystemsthataddresstheneedforventilationair.Therma-StorProductsmanufacturestheFilter-Vent
Systemthatbringsinoutsideair,combinesitwithindoorair,anddrawsthemixedairthrougha90to
95%medialterandanactivatedcarbonlter.
ADVANTAGES:Theonlymethodofprovidingpollutant-freeindoorairinanareawithhighlevelsofoutdoorpollutantsand/orforthoseoccupantswhoareespeciallysensitive.
DISADVANTAGES:High maintenance.Uncleanedmedialtersproduceanexcessivelyhighpressuredrop.
Anuncleanedelectrostaticprecipitatororlterwillbeineffective.Highinitialandoperatingcosts.Air
cleanersalonedonotbringinoutsideairsotheyarenotasubstituteforaventilationsystem.
40

FIGURE8

ELECTROSTATICAIRFILTER

FURTHER READING
ASHRAEStandard62-1989,VentilationforAcceptableIndoorAirQuality,Atlanta,GA,AmericanSociety
ofHeating,RefrigeratingandAir-ConditioningEngineers,1989.
CertiedHomeVentilatingProductsDirectory,HomeVentilatingInstitute,DivisionofAMCA,30West
UniversityDrive,ArlingtonHeights,IL60004;847-394-0150.
UnderstandingVentilation,JohnBower,TheHealthyHouseInstitute,1995.

PRODUCT INFORMATION
American Aldes Ventilation Corporation, 4537 Northgate Court, Sarasota, FL 34234; 800-255-7749;
www.oikos.com/aldes.
Honeywell,Inc.,1985DouglasDr.North,GoldenValley,MN55422;800-328-5111;www.honeywell.com.
Nutech Energy Systems, Inc., 270 Regency Ridge, Suite 210, Dayton, Ohio 45459; 937-439-6676;
www.lifebreath.com.
ResearchProductsCorporation,1015EastWashingtonAvenue,P.O.Box1467,Madison,WI53701;800545-2219;www.resprod.com.
Therma-StorProducts,P.O.Box8050,Madison,WI53708;800-533-7533;www.thermastor.com.
Trion,Inc.,P.O.Box760,Sanford,NC27331;919-775-2201;www.trioninc.com.

41

CONTROLS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
A critically important aspect of an HVAC systems ability to efciently maintain comfort is its controls.
Today,nearlyallheatingand/orcoolingsystemsarecontrolledbyathermostat.Evenfactory-builtwood
replacesareavailablewiththermostatcontrol.ThesophisticationofthermostatsandotherHVACsystem
controlshasevolveddramaticallyoverthelastdecadewiththeadvancementofelectroniccontrols.As
controlsforresidentialsystemsarerelativelyinexpensive,andtheirtechnologyhasadvancedsignicantly
inthepastfewyears,itiscosteffectivetoreplaceoldercontrolsthatmaynotbeoperatingproperly.
Athermostatsensestheroomairtemperatureandcontrolstheheatingsystemviaanelectrical
switchaccordingtoanoccupant-selectedsetpointtemperature.Linevoltagethermostatsaretypicallyused
forzonalelectricresistanceheatingsystemsandlowvoltagethermostatsareusedforcentralsystems.
Thermostatsshouldbelocatedabout5abovetheoorwheretheywillsenseanairtemperaturerepre
sentativeoftheroomorareabeingcontrolled.Locationnearaheatsourcesuchasthesupplyregisteror
heatsinksuchasawindowwillresultinpoorcomfortcontrol.
Old-styleelectromechanicalthermostatsfoundinmanyrehabprojectsemployeitheramercury
orsnap-actionswitch,abimetalliccoil,andananticipator(Fig.1).Thebimetalliccoilexpandsandcontractsasitheatsandcools,activatinganddeactivatingtheswitchthatcontrolsfurnaceorboileropera
tion.Theanticipatorisatinyheaterthatheatsthebimetalliccoiltocompensateforitsslowresponseto
changingairtemperature.Adjustmentofthethermostatdialestablishestheangleorthetensionofthe
bimetalliccoiltothecontacts.Thereareversionsofthesethermostatsthatincludeanelectricclockto
switchthethermostatbetweentwotemperaturesettingstoachieveanenergy-savingsetbackcondition.An
eight-hourovernightsetbackduringtheheatingseasonsaves1%to2%perdegreeofsetback.Aneighthourmiddaysetupduringthecoolingseasonsaves1%to3%perdegreeofsetup.

FIGURE1

42

ELECTRICALTHERMOSTAT

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

1.REPLACETHEBIMETALTHERMOSTATWITHANELECTRONICPROGRAMMABLE
THERMOSTAT.
Whileelectromechanicalthermostats(Fig.2)arelowerincostthanelectronicprogrammablethermostats,
theirperformanceintermsofdeadbandanddroopispooreraswell.Deadbandisanindicatorofthe
swinginroomtemperaturebetweenheating/coolingsystemcycles.Droopisanindicatorofhowwellthe
anticipatorisfunctioning.Thermostatsalsodegradeovertimeascalibrationslipsandmechanicalparts
stick.Anoldelectromechanicalthermostatcanbecleanedandrecalibrated,butabettersolutionistosim
plyreplaceitwithanewelectronicthermostat.Electronicthermostatsemployathermistorratherthana
bimetallic coil for sensing the room air temperature. It is more sensitive and fast responding.
Microprocessorprogrammingallowsforseveraldifferenttemperaturesettingsthroughoutthedayandfor
differentdaysoftheweek.Someunitsprovidefordifferentsettingsforweekdaysandweekendsorweekdays,Saturdays,andSundays.TheLightstatthermostathastheabilitytoadjustthethermostatsettingusing
thelightlevelintheroomasanindicatorofwhetherpeopleareintheroom.Honeywellhasathermostat
thatsenseslightinglevelsandoccupancy.Thermostatsarealsonowavailableaswirelessremotecontrol
devices.Theymaybeplacedonthecoffeetableinthecenteroftheroomnexttothetelevisionremote.
HomeAutomationmanufacturesalineofthermostatsthatcancommunicatewithhomeautomationsys
tems,personalcomputers,andutilitydemand-sidemanagementprograms.Inaregionwithreal-timepric
ing,theRC-91modelhastheabilitytodisplaythereal-timeenergypriceandtheusercanthensetthether
mostataccordingly.
ADVANTAGES:Energysavingsthroughmorecapabilitytosetbacktemperatureduringunoccupiedornight
timehours.Moreaccurateandresponsiveforbettercomfortcontrol.
DISADVANTAGES: Somewhat higher cost. Just like VCRs, there may be some homeowners that have
difcultyfollowingthesequentialstepstoprogramthemproperly.Sometypesofheatdistributionsystems
suchasradiantandhydronicbaseboardsystemsarenotasresponsiveasforcedairandthetimerequired
torecoverfromathermostatsetbackmaybeunacceptable.

FIGURE2

ELECTRONICPROGRAMMABLETHERMOSTAT

2.INSTALLAHUMIDISTAT.
Typically, heating and cooling systems are designed to maintain comfort in terms of temperature only.
Humidityisallowedtouctuate.Inwarmhumidclimates,itmaybedesirabletocontroltheaircondi
tioning system to maintain comfort humidity as well as temperature conditions. In colder climates, a
humidiermaybeinstalledtomaintainhigherandmorecomfortableindoorhumiditylevels.Ineithersit43

uation,theinstallationofahumidistat(ordehumidistat,dependingonthesituation)isappropriate.The

locationofthehumidistatcanvary.Itcanbeintheroomnextto,orintegralwith,thethermostatorinthe

returnairduct.Thehumidistatworksinasimilarmannertothethermostat.Itsenseshumidityandturns

theairconditionerorhumidieronoroffbaseduponahumiditysetpoint.Fortwo-speedaircondition

ers,thedehumidistatmaytriggerthesystemtogotolowspeedforenhanceddehumidicationcapability.

ADVANTAGES:Bettercontrolofhumidityforimprovedcomfortandairquality.

DISADVANTAGES:Calibrationneedstobecheckedperiodically.Whencontrollinganairconditioningsys

teminhumidclimates,cancauseover-cooling.

3.INSTALLACONTROLSYSTEMTHATSENSESOUTDOORCONDITIONSAND
ADJUSTSACCORDINGLY.
Moresophisticatedcontrolsystemsincorporateoutdoortemperaturesensorsaswellasindoorsensorsfor
bettercontrolandoperatingefciency.Forheatpumpsystemsequippedwithauxiliaryelectricresistance
heat,anoutsidetemperaturesensorisusedtolockouttheresistanceheatwhentheoutdoortemperatureis
aboveaspecicsetting.Thispreventstheresistanceheatfromunnecessarilycomingontoquicklyrecover
fromanighttimesetback.Outdoortemperaturesensorsarealsousedtoadjustthewatertemperaturein
hydronicsystemstothelowesttemperaturenecessarytomeetthehomesheatingload.Forthecontrolof
humidiersincoldclimates,HoneywellComfortCenterswinterhumiditycontrolsensesoutdoortempera
tureandresetstheindoorhumiditysettingaccordinglytopreventcondensationonwindows.TheHoneywell
systemcanbecustomizedfortheinsulatingvalueofthehomeswindows.Aprilairealsohasahumidistatthat
controlsaccordingtooutdoortemperaturebutdoesnothavethewindowcustomizationcapability.
ADVANTAGES:Reducedoperatingcostsfortheheatpumpauxiliaryheatlockoutcontrol.
DISADVANTAGES:Higherinitialcost.

FIGURE3

44

VENTILATIONCONTROLLER

MOTORIZEDOUTSIDEAIRDAMPER

4.INSTALLVENTILATIONSYSTEMCONTROLS.
Thereisavarietyofmethodsforcontrollingmechanicalventilationsystems.Onthesimple,lowcostend
ofthespectrumarethemanualcontrols.Theseincludeasimpleon/offswitch.Additionalfeaturesmight
beatimerthatshutsthefanoffautomaticallyafteracertainperiodoftimeoraspeedcontrolthatallows
theusertoselecttheventilationairow.Themanualcontrolsrelyupontheuserrecognizingwhenventi
lationisneededandtakingtheappropriatecontrolaction.Theaveragehumannoseismoresensitiveto
airpollutantsthanmostsophisticatedelectronicsensors.Anothersetofcontroloptionsthataremore
sophisticatedandmoreexpensiveareautomatic.Theseincludetimeclocksprogrammedbytheuser.TrolA-TempsTimedMake-UpAirControl(TMAC)orTimedVentilationControl(TVC)aresimpletimersthat
controlamotorizeddamperthatallowsoutsideairintothecentralHVACsystem(Fig.3).Theunitwill
turnontheHVACblowerifitisnotalreadyrunning.Automaticcontrolsalsoincludeavarietyofdemandcontrolledventilation(DCV)strategies.TheDCVmethodsrelyuponasensorinthespaceorreturnduct
todetectwhenadditionalventilationairisneeded.Thesensingparametercanbemotion,humidity,car-

bondioxide,oramixtureofgaseouspollutantssuchastobaccosmoke,cookingodors,andVOCs.For
themostpart,themanualcontrolstendtobemostappropriateforlocalexhaustfansandthemoresophis
ticatedautomaticcontrolsareappropriateforwhole-houseventilationsystems.
ADVANTAGES:Manualcontrolsarerelativelyinexpensiveandreliable.Automaticcontrolsdonotrelyupon
theuser.
DISADVANTAGES: Manual controls rely upon the user for proper control. Automatic controls are more
expensiveandcanfalloutofcalibrationresultingineitherinsufcientorexcessiveventilationairquantities.
5.INSTALLAFORCED-AIRZONINGSYSTEM.
Forced-airzoningsystemsutilizethermostatsinconjunctionwithmotorizeddampersinindividualsupply
ductstodifferentcontrolzones(Fig.4).Byvaryingtheairowinresponsetothezonethermostat,asin
gleairconditioningand/orheatingsystemcanbeusedtomeetthevaryingneedsofmultiplezones.These
systemsaremosteasilyinstalledinanewinstallation,butcanberetrottedintoanexistingsystem.Care
mustbetakentoeitherbypassextraairoroversizetheductworktoassurethatcentralsystemairow
doesnotdropbelowthedesignminimumwhenonlyoneortwozonesarecallingforairandallother
zones are closed. There are several manufacturers of this type of system including Research Products
Corporation,Carrier,Honeywell/Trol-A-TempandDurazone.
ADVANTAGES:Achievestheenergysavingandimprovedcomfortbenetsofzoningwithacentralforcedairsystem.
DISADVANTAGES:Highinitialcost.Systemsneedtobecarefullydesignedtoassurethatminimumairow
requirementsaremetunderalloperatingconditions.

FIGURE4

FORCED-AIRZONINGSYSTEM

FURTHER READING
Comfort,AirQuality,andEfciencybyDesign,ManualRS,AirConditioningContractorsAssociation,1997.
UnderstandingVentilation,JohnBower,TheHealthyHouseInstitute,1995.
45

PRODUCT INFORMATION
BroanMfg.Co.,Inc.,P.O.Box140,Hartford,WI53027;800-548-0790;www.broan.com.
CarrierNorthAmericanOperations,P.O.Box4808,CarrierParkway,Syracuse,NY13221;315-432-6000;
www.carrier.com.
HomeAutomation,Inc.,2709RidgelakeDrive,Metairie,LA70002;800-229-7256.
Honeywell,Inc.,1985DouglasDr.North,GoldenValley,MN55422;800-328-5111;www.honeywell.com.
Lightstat,Inc.,22W.WestHillRoad,Winsted,CT06098;800-292-2444;www.lightstat.com.
Robertshaw,Uni-LineNorthAmerica,DivisionofSiebeClimateControl,P.O.Box2000,Corona,CA91719;
909-734-2600;www.robertshaw.com.
Tamarack Technologies, Inc., 11 Pattersons Brook Rd., West Wareham, MA 02576; 800-222-5932;
www.tamtech.com.
Trol-A-Temp, Division of Trolex Corp., 57 Bushes Lane, Elmwood Park, NJ 07407; 800-828-8367;
www.trolatemp.com.

46

FIREPLACES&
CHIMNEYS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
In recent years replaces have captured a renewed interest as a supplemental heating source for the
home.Inarehabilitationproject,rehabilitatinganexistingreplaceorinstallinganewreplacemaybe
underconsideration.Therehabilitationofanexistingreplacecannotonlyaddtotheappearanceofthe
room,butalsoprovideforsafeandefcientspaceheating.Theinstallationofanew,efcientreplaceto
supplementanexistingsystem,whichmaybeinefcientand/orundersized,maybeanattractivealterna
tivetoreplacingtheexistingsystem.
Traditional wood-burning replace designs are not efcient, can produce emissions that are
harmful to the environment, and, if poorly designed or maintained, can be dangerous. In fact, some
WesternmunicipalitiesintheU.S.havepassedordinancesprohibitingtheinstallationofaconventional
replaceforenvironmentalreasons.EPA-approved,factory-builtwoodandgasreplaces,woodstoves,or
gas-redlogsareacceptablealternativeswhichshouldbeconsideredduringarehabilitationproject.
If constructing or signicantly reconstructing a replace or installing a stove, building codes
should be carefully reviewed for minimum requirements for materials, heights, and clearances. Local
coderequirementsapplyeveniftheexistingchimneyisused.Ifanoldunusedreplaceisfoundencased
inplasterduringthecourseofarehabilitationproject,itcanbereconstructedbyacompetentmasonwho
knowsandfollowsrecommendeddesignpractices.Manyearlyreplacesandchimneyssmokedtoomuch
duetoawsintheirdesign.Thispoorperformancemaybethereasonthatthereplacehadbeenaban
doned.Ifanold,closed-offchimneyistoberehabilitated,makesurethatitstillrunsthroughtheroofto
anappropriateheightandthatopeningsforotherstovepipeshavenotbeencutintoit.Oldchimneyswere
oftenusedtoservemultiplestoveswithasingleue.

FIGURE1

CONVENTIONALWOOD-BURNINGFIREPLACE

47

Conventionalreplaces(Fig.1)provideheatprimarilybyradiation.Thus,theamountofbrick
masonry,surfaceareaexposedtothere,itsdistancefromthereandthesizeoftheredeterminethe
amountofheatprovided.Rumford-stylereplacesfeatureangledsidewalls,ashallowdepth,andahigh
opening.Thesereplacestendtobemoreefcientthanconventionaldesignsbecausetheyradiatemore
heatanddrawlessroomairupthechimney.Air-circulatingreplaces(Fig.2)captureheatfromtheback
ofthereboxbycirculatingroomairthroughbrickbafesorsteelplates.Thiswarmedaircanthenbe
circulatedbyafantospacestoprovideheatbyconvection.
Theprimaryfunctionofachimneyueistoexhaustcombustionwastes-carbondioxide,nitro
gen,sulfurdioxide,watervapor,andcarbonmonoxide.Asecondfunctionistocreateadraftthatpulls
theairoverthere.Forawood-burningre,thedraftmustbestrong.Toaccomplishthis,thereplace
hasaslopedbackandasteppedthroatcontrolledbyadamper.Eachcombustionheatsource(e.g.,fur
nace and replace) needs its own ue, but a single chimney can contain several ues from multiple
replacesand/orafurnace.(Fig.3)Twocombustionappliancessuchasawaterheaterandafurnacecan
shareaue.Inthisinstance,problemscanariseifoneofthoseappliancesisreplacedwithadirect-vent
unit because the ue is too large for the remaining appliance. Condensation of combustion gases can
occurinthechimney,resultingincorrosion.Thiscanalsooccurwiththeinstallationofahigherefciency
chimney-ventedcombustionappliance,particularlyinacoldclimate.
Beyondreplacingthebrickandmortarofanolddisintegratingchimney,clearingseveralinches
ofdebrisfromabovethedamper,andclearingotherblockagesinthechimneyue,severaladditionalsteps
maybenecessarytoassurethatanoldreplaceandchimneyareinsafeworkingcondition.Alternativesor
enhancementstothereplacesuchasstovesandinsertscanalsoimprovetheefciencyofthesystem.

FIGURE2,3

AIR-CIRCULATINGFIREPLACE

MULTI-FLUECHIMNEY

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

1.REBUILDORREPOINTTHECHIMNEY.
Themortarbetweenthebricksofanoldchimneyislikelytobeinneedofrenewal.Itwasnotintended
tolastaslongasthebricks.Thereplacementprocessisknownasrepointingortucking.Whateverkind
48

ofmortarwasusedinitiallyshouldbeusedforrepointingsoastohavethesameexpansionandcom

pressioncharacteristicsundervaryingweatherconditions.Insomeinstances,theconditionofthechim

neymayhavedeterioratedtoapointbeyondrepairbyrepointingandrelining.Whenthemortarcrumbles

easilyand/orbricksareloose,removalandreplacementshouldbeconsidered.Itmaybepossibletoreuse

theoriginalbricks.Creosoteisacarcinogensoarespiratorshouldbewornwhenrehabilitatinganold

chimneyandtheworkareashouldbeenclosedinplasticsheetingtoprotecttherestofthehouse.

ADVANTAGES:Improvedsafetyandintegrityofthechimney.

DISADVANTAGES:Canbeexpensivebecauseitisatimeconsumingprocessthatrequirestheexpertiseof

amason.

2.INSTALLACHIMNEYCAP.

Rainmixingwithsootandreplacegasesproducesadestructiveacid.Thus,allchimneysshouldhavea

raincaptopreventthisdeterioration(Fig.4).Raincapscanalsominimizedowndrafts.

ADVANTAGES:Fairlyinexpensive.Extendsthelifeofthechimney.

DISADVANTAGES:Difculttoinstallonhighchimneys.

FIGURE4

CHIMNEYCAP

3.RELINETHECHIMNEY.

Liners,whicharenowrequiredbycode,preventtheheatfromachimneyrefromcausingahousere.

Olderchimneysmaybeunlined(pre-1910),linedwithmortarthathasdeteriorated,orhaveoldtilelin

ersthatarecracked.Theyalsooftenservedmorethanonereplaceandhadmorethanoneueinthem

withawallofbrickasadivider.Thisbrickdividerislikelytobeinverypoorconditionandtumbling

bricksfromthisdividercanblocktheue.

Thesolutiontoalloftheseproblemsistorelinethechimney.Therearedifferentmethodsfor
reliningachimney.
Installametalpipeavailablein3ft.sectionsfromlocalheatingsuppliers.Stainlesssteelshouldbeused
iftheuewillbeusedforfurnacegases,whichareverycorrosive.Sealaroundthepipeatthebottomand
top of the chimney with lightweight mortar. Flexible pipe is also available for non-straight chimneys.
Cautionisadvisedifthechimneyhasaweakdraft.Reducingthecross-sectionareaoftheuewithametal
pipewillonlyworsenthesituation.
Installatilelining.Thisisrequiredbycodeinsomeareasifthechimneyistobeusedwithwoodres.
Althoughmoreexpensive,atilelinerismoreresistanttocorrosionandthehightemperaturesofachimney
reduetocreosotebuildup.
49

 Useapatentedprocess,whichisonlyavailablethroughfranchiseddealers,tolinethechimneywitha

cementiousmix.Avinylorrubberhosecanbeinsertedandinated(Fig.5).Lightweightconcreteisthen

pouredaroundthehose,whichisdeatedandremovedaftertheconcretesets.

ADVANTAGES:Improvedsafetyandintegrityofthechimney.

DISADVANTAGES:Canreducethesizeoftheueandthusthedrafttoaninsufcientlevel.

FIGURE5

50

CHIMNEYRELINING

4.INSTALLANEXTERIORAIRSUPPLYFORCOMBUSTIONANDDRAFTAIR.
Conventionalreplacesdrawroomairthathasbeenheatedbythehomesprimaryheatingsystemand
exhaustitoutthechimney.Thisairisreplacedbyinltrationofcoldoutsideairthroughcracksandopen
ingsinthebuildingenvelope.Intightlyconstructedhomesorhomesthatarealreadyexhaustingairwith
fans and dryers, the replace may be starved for air and dumping smoke into the room because of
insufcientdraft.Asolutiontotheseproblemsistoprovideameansforusingoutsideairforcombustion.
Therearethreebasiccomponentstoanexteriorsupplyairsystemforareplace:intake,pas
sageway,andinlet(Fig.1).Theintakeistypicallylocatedonanoutsidewallorthebackofthereplace,
butcanbeinacrawlspace,attic,orotherunheatedspace.Manycodeswillnotallowlocationofaninlet
withinagaragebecauseofthepotentialpresenceoffuelfumes.Apassagewayorductconnectstheintake
totheinlet.Itisusuallyinsulatedtoreduceheatloss.Theinletintroducestheoutsideairtotherebox.
Adamperisnecessarytocontrolthevolumeanddirectionofairow.
Glassdoorsaretypicallyinstalledtopreventindoorairfromenteringthereboxandgoingup
thechimney.Unfortunately,thetemperedglassthatissooftenusedisnotagoodtransmitterofinfrared
radiationsotheradiantheatfromthereitselfissignicantlyreduced.

ADVANTAGES:Minimizestheexltrationofheatedconditioned-spaceair.
DISADVANTAGES:Maybedifculttoinstallinanexistingreplace.
5.INSTALLANENVIRONMENTALLYFRIENDLYGRATE.

ThespeciallydesignedEcoFireSuper-Grate,marketedbyAndironTechnologies,canbeinstalledtoreduce

the harmful emissions of a conventional replace. This stainless steel grate replaces the wrought-iron

gratethatholdswoodlogs.Itisattachedtoafanwhichblowsairthroughholesinthetubesofthegrate.

Thisairresultsinanextremelyhotrewhichhasloweremissionlevels.Theheat-reectingshieldwhich

isattachedimprovesheatingefciencybyincreasingtheradiantheatoutput.

ADVANTAGES:Easilyretrottoexistingreplaces.

DISADVANTAGES:Relativelyexpensiveandstillsubjecttowood-burningbans.

6.INSTALLAGASLOGSETORFIREPLACE.

A gas log set is primarily a decorative appliance. It includes a grate holding ceramic logs, simulated

embers, a gas burner, and a variable ame controller. These sets can be installed in most existing

replaces.Therearetwoprincipaltypes:ventedandunvented.Ventedtypesrequireachimneyuefor

exhaustingthegases.Theyareonly20%to30%efcientandmostcodesrequirethattheuebewelded

open,whichresultsinaneasyexltrationpathforheatedroomair.Unventedtypesoperateliketheburner

onagasstoveandthecombustionproductsareemittedintotheroom.Theyaremoreefcientbecause

noheatislostuptheueandmostareequippedwithoxygendepletionsensors,buttheyarebannedin

somestates,includingMassachusettsandCalifornia.

Gasreplacesincorporateagaslogsetintoacompletereboxunitwithaglassdoor(Fig.6).
Somehavebuilt-indampers,smokeshelves,andheatcirculatingfeaturesthatgivethemthecapabilityto
providebothradiantandconvectiveheat.Unitscanhavepush-buttonignition,remotecontrol,variable
heatcontrols,andthermostats.Gasreplacesaremoreefcientthangaslogswithefcienciesof60%to
80%.Manydrawcombustionairinfromtheoutsideandaredirectvented,eliminatingtheneedfora
chimney(Fig.7).Someoftheseunitsarewallfurnacerated.
Therearealsoelectricreplaceswhichprovidetheambienceofareand,ifdesired,asmall
amountofresistanceheat.Theseunitshavenoventingrequirements.
ADVANTAGES: Noashesoryingsparksthatoccurwithwood-burningreplaces.Notaffectedbywood
burningbansimposedinsomeareaswhenairqualitystandardsarenotmet.Direct-ventedgasorelectric
modelseliminatetheneedforachimney.
DISADVANTAGES: Costforequipmentandrunningthegaslinecanbehigh.Cannotuseexistingmasonry
chimneywithagasreplace.

FIGURE6

GASFIREPLACE

51

FIGURE7

DIRECT-VENTGASFIREPLACE

7.INSTALLAWOODSTOVE,FIREPLACEINSERT,ORADVANCEDFIREPLACE.
Therearewood-burningequipmentalternativesthatofferanimprovementoveraconventionalwood-burn
ingreplacethatmayonlybe10%efcient.Theseincludewoodstoves,replaceinserts,andadvanced
replacecores.Theperformanceofwood-burningsystemsvariesdramaticallywiththetypeofequipment,
thetypeofwoodbeingburned,thewoodsmoisturecontent,andthewayitismaintainedandoperated.
Woodstoveswithoutaircontrols,suchasFranklinstoves,haveefcienciesof20%to30%.Stoves
withcontrolledairinletsintoprimaryandsecondarycombustionareascanhaveefcienciesashighas55%.
Advanceddesignscanhaveefcienciesashighas75%.Themoreefcientsystemsrequiremuchlessexcess
airforcombustionandproducelowerlevelsofincompletecombustionproductswhichproducecreosote.
Wood-burningreplaceinsertsaredesignedtotintoexistingreplacestoimprovetheirheat
ingperformance.Somestovessitonanexistingreplacehearthandventupthechimney.
InresponsetosomeWestern-stateordinancesbanningtheinstallationofatraditionalreplace,
manufacturersrespondedwithreplacesthatmeettheEnvironmentalProtectionAgencys(EPA)standards
forwoodstoves.Theseunitsareasefcientastheadvancedwoodstoves.Theyareair-tightwithgasketed
doorsandapyro-ceramicglasswindowthatallowstheinfraredheatfromtheameintotheroom.The
advancedreplacehasaninsulatedcasingtoreduceheatlossthroughtheoutsidewallofthehouse.Asquir
rel-cagefanisusedtodrawroomairinandaroundthecasingtopickupadditionalconvectiveheatandsupplyittotheroom.Heatoutputiscontrolledbytheamountofoutsideairintakeforcombustion.Someeven
allowforshortductrunstodistributeheatvianaturalconvectiontoisolatedrooms.RSFEnergyproducesa
replacesystemthatcansupplyawhole-houseductsystemwithanin-lineblowerandthermostats(Fig.8).
TheRumford-stylereplacedesignedbyJimBuckleyisoneoftheonlymasonryreplacesthat
meetsmostairqualitystandards.Areplacekitisavailablefortheconstructionofamasonryreplace
baseduponthetraditionalRumforddesign.Thekitincludesaone-piececurvedclaythroat,aclayuetile
liner,asmokechamber,astainless-steeldamper,andoptionalglassdoors.
ADVANTAGES: Higherefciencythanaconventionalwood-burningreplace.
DISADVANTAGES: Can be subject to wood-burning bans when local air quality standards are not met.
Requiresmaintenancetopreventthedangerousbuildupofcreosote.

FURTHER READING
BacktotheFutureFireplace, ThisOldHouse,January/February1997,pp.74-79.
52

FIGURE8

DUCTEDFIREPLACE

BrickInstituteofAmerica(BIA)TechnicalNotesonBrickConstruction.Availableon-lineatwww.bia.org.:
TechnicalNote19ResidentialFireplaceDesign,January1993.
TechnicalNote19AResidentialFireplaces,DetailsandConstruction,May1980.
TechnicalNote19BResidentialChimneysDesignandConstruction,January1988.
RenovatingOldHouses,GeorgeNash,TheTauntonPress,1992.
SunsetFireplaces&WoodStoves,LanePublishingCo.,1989.
TheFireplaceBook,TheAberdeenGroup,1992.
TheOld-HouseJournalCompendium,ClemLabineandCarolynFlaherty,TheOverlookPress,1980.
TheStanleyCompleteStep-by-StepBookofHomeRepairandImprovement,JamesA.Hufnagel,New
York:Simon&Schuster,1993.

PRODUCT INFORMATION
AndironTechnolgies,Inc.,2995WoodsideRoad,Suite400,Woodside,CA;888-4-EcoFire;www.EcoFire.com.
BuckleyRumford,710FosterStreet,PortTownsend,WA;800-447-7788;www.rumford.com
Heat-N-GloFireplaceProducts,6665WestHwy13,Minneapolis,MN;888-743-2887;www.heatnglo.com
Heatilator,Inc.,1915WestSaundersStreet,Mt.Pleasant,IA;319-385-9211;www.heatilator.com
IndustrialChimneyCompany/RSFEnergy,801St.Nicholas,St.Jerome,Quebec,Canada;450-565-6336;
www.icc-rsf.com
MajesticProductsCompany,1000E.MarketStreet,Huntington,IN;800-525-1898;www.majesticprod
ucts.com
TemcoFireplaceProducts,301S.PerimeterParkDrive,Suite227,Nashville,TN;615-831-9393.

53

10 DOMESTICHOT
WA T E R H E A T I N G
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Dependingonwhetherthehomeisairconditionedornot,waterheatingisthesecondorthirdlargest
energyexpenseinthehome.Traditionally,waterheatingaccountsforapproximately14%oftheutilitybill.
Asspaceheatingandcoolingloadsdecreaseandsystemefcienciesincrease,waterheatingrepresentsa
greaterportionofthehomesenergybill.
Thepredominantdesignforwaterheatersisthestoragetype(Fig.1).Theseunitsholdheated
waterinathermostaticallycontrolledstoragetank.Tanksinresidentialapplicationsusuallyhavestorage
capacitiesrangingfrom30to80gallons.Thetankmayhaveacombustionburnerinthebottomwitha
uerunningupthroughthecenterofthetank,electricresistanceheatingelementsimmersedinthewater,
oraheatexchangercirculatinguidheatedbyanothersourcesuchasaboiler.
Whendecidingwhetherornotthedomesticwaterheatingsystemneedsrehabilitation,thefol
lowingquestionsshouldbeanswered:
Doesthepresentsystemhaveseveralyearsleftonitsexpectedlife?
Isthetimeittakestodeliverhotwatertofaucetsacceptable?
Istheresufcienthotwater?
In a rehabilitation situation, the answer to any of these questions could be no. Poor maintenance can
shortenthelifeofwaterheaters.Bathroomsaddedovertheyearsmayberemotefromthetanklocationor
theadditionofclothesanddishwashersmayhaveincreasedhotwaterdemandsbeyondtheoriginaldesign.

FIGURE1

STORAGE-TYPEWATERHEATERS

Thelifeofstorage-typewaterheatersistypically10to15yearsduetothecorrosionofthetank.
Maintenance,suchasreplacingtheanodeandcleaningsedimentfromthebottomofthetank,canextend
itslife,butthisisrarelydone.Thus,ifthestoragetankismorethan10yearsold,itshouldprobablybe
replaced.Themonthandyearthatthetankwasbuiltisusuallyencodedinitsserialnumber.
Demand,orinstantaneous-typewaterheaterscanbelocatedclosertothexturetominimizethe
waitingtimeforhotwater.Theseunitseliminatethetankanditsassociatedlossesalltogether.
Ifpurchasinganewwaterheater,selectingasystemofthepropersizeandrecoveryrateisimportantto
ensurethatallhotwaterdemandsaremet.Awaterheaterofinsufcientcapacitywillresultincoldshow
ers,butawaterheaterthatistoolargewastesenergy.ThewaterheatersizeisdeterminedbytheFirstHour
Rating(FHR),whichistheamountofhotwater(ingallons)thatcanbeproducedinonehour.TheFHR
isnotonlyafunctionoftanksize,butalsorecoveryrate,whichisameasureofhowquicklytheincom
ingcoldwatercanbeheated.Gaswaterheatershavehigherrecoveryratesthanelectricunits.Thus,for
thesameFHR,thegaswaterheaterrequiresasmallertankthananelectricwaterheater.
InadditiontotheFHR,storage-typewaterheatersaregivenanEnergyFactor(EF)rating.This
isaseasonalefciencyratingthattakesintoaccountthewaterheatersrecoveryefciency,standbylosses,
andenergyinput.Recoveryefciencyistheratiooftheamountofheatthatisabsorbedbythewaterto
theamountofheatinput.

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

1.IMPROVETHEEFFICIENCYOFTHEEXISTINGSTORAGE-TYPEWATERHEATER.
Inlieuofpurchasinganew,more-efcientwaterheater,thereareafewrelativelyeasyandinexpensive
waystoimprovetheefciencyoftheexistingsystem.Theseareessentiallythesamemethodsthatmanu
facturershaveusedtoimprovetheefciencyoftodaystankwaterheaters.
Insulatethetankandpipes.Olderstorage-typewaterheaterscanbenetfromthesimpleinstal
lationofaninsulatingjacketorblanket.Thisreducestheheatlossfromthetanktothesurroundingarea.
Becarefulnottocoverthermostats,drains,ues,orcombustionairinlets.Insulatingthepipesreduces
thelossesfromthehotwaterasitowsthroughthepipestothefaucet.Thesplitfoamrubbertypeofinsu
lationiseffectiveandeasytoinstall.
Installanti-convectionvalvesorloops.Thesedevicesareinstalledonthehotwaterinletandoutletpipestopreventtheconvectionofhotwaterupthepipesfromthetankwheninthestandbymode.
Therearenumeroustypes.Somearebasedonasimpleball-typecheckvalve.Aloopinthepipingserves
thesamepurpose(Fig.2).
ADVANTAGES: Inexpensiveandeasytodo.
DISADVANTAGES:Tankblanketsarenotaseffectiveasinternalinsulationbecausecertainareasmustbe
leftexposedforaccessandventingpurposes.Theusefullifeofthesemeasuresislimitedtotheremain
inglifeofthewaterheater.Theywillnotbenecessaryformostnewwaterheatersbecausehighlevelsof
internaltankinsulationandanti-convectiondevicesarestandardfeatures.

FIGURE2

ANTI-CONVECTIONLOOP

55

2.INSTALLANINDIRECTSTORAGEWATERHEATER.

Inanolderhomewithahydronicheatingsystemsuppliedbyaboiler,atanklesscoilmaybethemethod

forheatingdomestichotwater.Thisisacoillocatedwithintheboiler.Thereisnostorageofhotwater.

Thisapproachissuitableinthewinterwhentheboilerisoperatingforspaceheating,butisinefcientin

thesummerbecausetheboilermuststartandstopfrequentlyjusttoprovidedomestichotwater.Analter-

nativeistoinstallanindirectstoragewaterheater(Fig.3).Heatinguidfromtheboileriscirculated

throughacoilinsidethestoragetank.Theboilerisstillusedthroughouttheyearfordomestichotwater,

butitcomesonlessfrequentlyinthesummerbecauseitrespondstoadropinstoragetanktemperature

andnoteverydemandforhotwater.

ADVANTAGES:Improvessystemefciency.

DISADVANTAGES:Requiresadditionaloorspaceforthestoragetank.

FIGURE3

INDIRECTSTORAGEWATERHEATER

3.INSTALLANEWELECTRICRESISTANCESTORAGEWATERHEATER.

Althoughthisisusuallythemostexpensivemethodforheatingwater,itisthesecondmostcommontype

ofwaterheateraftergasstorageunits.Ifhotwaterrequirementsarerelativelylow,thismaybethemost

practicalchoice.Newelectricstoragewaterheatershavehigherlevelsofinsulationthantheoldversions.

Someareall-plastic,whichdonotneedanodesandcomewithlifetime,never-leakwarranties.Electric

storagewaterheaterscanbelocatedalmostanywherebecausetherearenocombustionairandventing

issues.Timeclockscanbeusedtopreventtheresistanceelementsfromoperatingduringpeakelectric

chargeperiodswheretime-of-useratesareineffect.

ADVANTAGES:Lowerinitialcostthangasstoragewaterheaters.Installationlocationexibility.

DISADVANTAGES:Highoperatingcosts.

4.INSTALLANEWGASSTORAGEWATERHEATER.

New gas storage water heaters have better tank insulation, improved bafe designs, lower pilot burner

inputs, and new combustion chamber congurations than older versions. Bafes regulate the ow of

combustionairupthroughtheueandnewdesignsincreasethetransferofheatfromtheuegasestothe

water,increasingsystemefciency.Theyalsoreduceconvectiveairmovementandheatlossuptheue

duringstandbyperiods.

Aswithgasfurnaces,thereareseveralventingoptions.Standardunitsareatmosphericvented
56

withtheverticaluethatisoftentiedintothesamechimneyueasthegasfurnace.Power-ventedunits
useafantoassisttheventingofthecombustiongases.Theseprovidemorelocationexibilitybecause
longerverticalorhorizontalventpipescanbeused.Theyalsocannotbackdraftwhiletheburnerisoper
ating.However,theystilluseindoorairforcombustionandnowrequireelectricitytooperate.Directventedunitsarealsoavailablethatdrawoutsideairinforcombustionandventdirectlyoutthewall.
A gas water heater that avoids the problems of venting entirely is the Seahorse by Gas-Fired
ProductsIncorporated.Thisunitisagas-redheatexchangerwithapumpthatisplacedinaninsulated
boxontheoutsidewallofthehomeandplumbedintoastoragetankinsidethehomewhichmaybethe
oldelectricwaterheater(Fig.4).GoingastepfurtheristheWeather-ProbyAmericanWaterHeater.This
isagaswaterheaterthatcanbeinstalledoutside,includingthe50-gallontank.Itsdistributioniscurrently
limitedtoSouthernstateswherefreezeprotectionisnotanissue.
ADVANTAGES: Lowoperatingcost.
DISADVANTAGES: Higherinitialcostthanelectricresistancestorage-typewaterheaters.Ventingrequire
mentsrestrictlocationexibility.Power-ventedunitsrequireelectricitytooperateandhavehadoccasional
problemswithnuisanceshutdownswhentheirpressuresafetyswitcheshavemistakenwindyconditions
forblockedvents.

FIGURE4

SEAHORSEOUTSIDEGAS-FIREDWATERHEATEXCHANGER

5. INSTALLADEMANDWATERHEATER.

Insituationswherespacefora20to50gallonstoragetankislimitedorthewaitforhotwatertoatap

remotefromthestoragetankisexcessive,theinstallationofademandwaterheatermaybeappropriate.

Alsocalledtankless,instantaneous,andpoint-of-use,demandwaterheatersheatthewaterasitiscalled

for.Thereisnostoragetank.Somepoint-of-useunitsmaynotbetrulyinstantaneousortanklessbecause

theyemployasmall2-to4-gallonstoragetank(Fig.5).

Electricdemandwaterheatersheatthewaterasitpassesoveraresistanceelement.Thepower
requirementslimittheseunitstowaterowratesforasinglesinkorlow-owshower.Oneofthelargest
electricdemandwaterheatersistheSeiscoRA-28.Ratedat28kW,itiscapableofsupplying2.5gallonsper
minuteata78 Ftemperaturerise.Electricdemandwaterheaterstypicallymodulatetheiroutputbyusing
multipleheatingelements.Lessexpensive,xedoutputunitsdonotallowformuchvariationinwaterow.
Gasdemandwaterheatersemployamodulatingburnertosupplyhotwaterataspecicpre-set
temperature.Theiroutputissufcienttosatisfythehotwaterdemandsofanentirehome.Theymustbe
mountedonanexternalwallforventingpurposes.
ADVANTAGES: Locationexibilityduetotheirsmallsize.Reducedstandbylosses.Longerlifebecausethe
57

tankcorrosionissueiseliminated.Whenlocatednearthepointofuse,theyarewaterconservingbecause

thereislesscoldwatertogodownthedrainpriortothearrivalofhotwater.

DISADVANTAGES: Whiletheycandeliverhotwaterforanindeniteperiodoftime,theowrate(gallons

per minute) may not be sufcient. Most units cannot serve multiple tap requirements simultaneously.

Initialcostsarehigherthanstorage-typeunits.Requirelargergaslinesorpowerrequirementsthanstorage-

typeunits.Servicesupportmaybelessthanforthemore-commonstorage-typeunits.

FIGURE5

58

POINT-OF-USEWATERHEATER

6.SUPPLEMENTTHEWATERHEATERWITHAPREHEATINGORHEATRECOVERY
SYSTEM.
Theheatingrequirementsofthewaterheatercansometimesbesupplementedbyrecoveringwasteheat
fromotherprocessesorcapturingsolarenergy.Oneofthesimplestapproachesisatemperingtank.This
isaseconduninsulatedtanklocatedinawarmorsunnyareaandconnectedinserieswiththeprimary
waterheatertank.Coldwaterrstentersthetemperingtankwhereitwarmsuptothesurroundingair
temperature.Solarwaterheating,bothpassiveandactivesystems,canbeusedtopreheatwateranddur
ingsometimesoftheyearcanmeetallofthewaterheatingneeds.
Hotwaterdesuperheaters,suchastheHotTapunitbyAddisonProducts,arehotrefrigerant-towaterheatexchangersontherefrigerantlineofanairconditionerorheatpump.Suchaunitisinstalledafter
thecompressor,butbeforethecondenser,toremovethesuperheatfromtherefrigerantvaporandtransfer
ittothedomestichotwater(Fig.6).Theamountofwaterheatingprovidedbythesesystemsisafunctionof
theairconditioningusagesincetheyonlyprovideheatwhentheairconditionerorheatpumpisoperating.
Another method of heat recovery is the GFX (gravity lm exchange). This is a heat exchanger
betweenthewaterwastepipeandtheDHWtankcoldwaterinlet(Fig.7).Itconsistsofasectionof3"or4"
copperdrainpipewithacoilof1/2"or3/4"tubingwrappedaroundit.Attimesofhighhotwaterusesuch
asshowering,thewatergoingdownthedrainisstillhot.Thisdevicerecoverssomeofthatheatandpreheats
thecoldwaterowingintothetank.Therearenocontrolsormovingparts.
ADVANTAGES: Relativelyinexpensiveandrequirelittleornomaintenance.Captureheatenergythatwould
otherwisebewasted.DesuperheaterscanimprovetheHVACsystemcoolingefciencyslightly.
DISADVANTAGES:Desuperheatersonlyprovideabenetwhentheheatpumporairconditionerisoper
atingandtheycandecreasetheheatingcapacityofaheatpumpsystem.GFXdevicesonlyrecoverheat
whenwaterisdrainingoutatthesametimethatmake-upwaterisowingintothetank(e.g.,wateris
owingdirectlyfromthespigotorshowerheaddownthedrain).Buildingcodesorbuildingofcialsin
someareasdonotallowGFXdevices.

FIGURE6

HOTWATERDESUPERHEATER

FIGURE7

GFXHEATRECOVERYSYSTEM

7.INSTALLAHEATPUMPWATERHEATER(HPWH).

Ifelectricityistheonlywaterheatingfuelalternativeandthedomestichotwaterrequirementsarerela

tivelyhigh(e.g.,fourormoreoccupants)aheatpumpwaterheatercanbeconsideredtoreduceoperat

ingcosts.Itcantypicallyprovidehotwateratone-halftoone-thirdtheenergyuseofanelectricresistance

waterheater.Ratherthanheatingthewaterdirectlybyelectricresistance,theseheatpumpsuseelectric

itytodriveavaporcompressioncyclethatmovesheatfromthesurroundingairtothetankwater.HPWHs

canbeintegralsystemswiththecompressor/evaporatorunitsittingontopofthestoragetankorassep

arateunitsrequiringapumpandowloop(Fig.8).Integralunitsavoidtheneedforapumpandcontrol

loopbuttheseparateunitdesigncanberetrottedtothehomesexistingtank.

59

FIGURE8

HEATPUMPWATERHEATER

HPWHsaremostappropriateinwarmclimatesbecausetheyaretypicallylocatedinbasementsand
garages,wherefreezedamageisnotaconcern.Theefciencyoftheheatpumpalsodropsatlowairtem
peratures.HPWHscoolanddehumidifytheairsurroundingtheevaporatorsectionlikeanairconditioner.
Thiscanbebenecialinaconditionedspaceinthesummer,butdetrimentalinthewinter.Theevaporator
sectioncannotbeinaconnedspacewherethesurroundingairisnotmixedwithwarmerair.
HPWHsdonothavethequickrecoveryofstandardwaterheaters.Alargertankcouldbeused
tomeetpeakdemands,butthemorecommonsolutionistoinstallanelectricresistanceheatingelement
inthetanktohandlethepeakdemandperiods.ThisdefeatssomeoftheefciencybenetsoftheHPWH.
Incoolerclimatesorwhereaventilationsystemisemployed,anexhaustairheatpumpwater
heater (EAHPWH) may be appropriate. This system, manufactured by DEC/Therma-Stor, captures heat
fromtheairbeforeitisexhausted.
ADVANTAGES: Loweroperatingcostthananelectricresistancesystem.
DISADVANTAGES:Higherinitialcost.TherearecurrentlyonlyafewU.S.manufacturersandthereislittle
marketinfrastructureinplace.Findingqualied,experiencedinstallationandservicetechniciansmaybe
difcult.Theirinstallationrequiresexpertiseinwaterheaterserviceaswellasrefrigeranthandlingregu
lations.HPWHsneedtobelocatedwherethecompressornoisewillnotbeaproblem.Theyrequirereg
ularmaintenancesimilartothatforanairconditioner.

FURTHER READING
ResidentialHeatPumpWaterHeaters,FederalTechnologyAlert,www.pnl.gov/fta/3_res.htm.
Water Heaters and Energy Conservation Choices, Choices!, Home Energy Magazine Online,
May/June1996,www.homeenergy.org/eehem/96/9605waterheat.html.

PRODUCT INFORMATION
AddisonProductsCompany,P.O.Box607776,Orlando,FL;407-292-4400.
AmericanWaterHeater,500PrincetonRoad,P.O.Box4056,JohnsonCity,TN;800-999-9515.
DEC/Therma-Stor,P.O.Box8050,Madison,WI53708;800-533-7533.
Gas-FiredProductsIncorporated,Charlotte,NC;www.thermastor.com.
WaterFilmEnergy,Inc.,P.O.Box48,Oakdale,NY11769;516-758-6271;www.oikos.com/gfx.

60

11 PLUMBINGDESIGN
&ENGINEERING
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Properlysizedandperformingplumbingsystemsarevitalforthecomfort,convenience,health,andsafety
ofhomeoccupants.Rehabilitationreasonscanrangefromobviousfailuresofasystemsuchasleaks,
corrosion,andstoppage;tonot-so-obviousfailuressuchasleaksofdangerousgasfromsewersorcom
bustionappliances.Plumbingsystemscanincludewatersupplyanddistribution;drain,waste,andvent
systems;fuelsupplyandstorage;applianceventingandexhausting;reprotectionsystems;andgraywater
systems.Plumbingxturesthemselvesarecoveredinanothervolume,asaresepticsystems.
Thereareafewmajorfactorsthatdrivethedecisiontorehabplumbingsystems:howwellthe
systemmeetstheneedsofoccupants,howthesystemperformsandcomplieswithcoderequirements,
howpossiblerehabilitationmightsaveresources,andthecostandfeasibilitytorehab.Thescopeofrehab
workcanvaryfromsimplerepair,toremovalandreplacementofsystems,toaddingnewones.Firepro
tectionsystemsandfuelsystemsareexamplesofaddedsystems.
Materials,designs,andcodeshavechangedandevolvedovertheyears.Code-complyingorigi
nalinstallationsmaynowbebelowstandardordangerous.Forexample,anoldplumbingxturesuchas
abathtubcouldbelledwithcontaminatedwaterthatcoulddrainbackintopotablewatersupplybecause
thellspoutisbelowanoverowdrain.Oldertoiletsusedmuchmorewater,andoldershowerheads
used more water and energy than those that now comply with the Energy Policy Act and the National
PlumbingStandardsof1992.Whilextureconcernsarenotaddressedhere,theydrivedecisionsto
changesystemsandcomponents.Existingventsmightnotworkwithanew,moreefcientappliancethat
producescoolerandhighmoistureventproducts.Materialspreviouslyapprovedmaybehazardousto
occupanthealthorpronetofailure,suchasleadinwatersystems,whichisawellpublicizedhazard.
Certainconnectorsandpipeinpolybutylenewatersystemsareknowntofail.Asbestosinsulationinmany
oldplumbinginstallationsisahazard.Recommendationsregardingtheremovalanddisposalofasbestos
areavailablefromtheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)AsbestosInformationHotline:800-438-2474.
Designs and installations previously deemed state-of-the-art may not work well, and in some
instancescouldbedangerous.Olddrain,waste,andventsystemsareexamples.Withoutproperventing,
sewergasescancreateunhealthyconditions.Newmaterialsanddesignscanalleviateaws.Therearepos
itivesystemdevelopmentsaswell.Researchand,subsequently,codeshavepermittedwaterpipesupply
sizestobedownsizedforbranches.Thehousespresentsystem,ifingoodcondition,maybeabletoaccom
modatemorextures.Therearemanynewmaterialsandupgradestooldmaterialsandmethods.Thereis
aplethoraofconnectors,valves,reducers,andadaptorstoallowchangefromonematerialtoanother.
As design, research, and new materials have evolved, so have codes. One national code, the
InternationalResidentialCodeforone-andtwo-familydwellings,wasrstpromulgatedindraftformand
issuedin1998.ItisbeingupdatedforanApril2000release.Thiscodecoversmostresidentialplumbing
systems.TheInternationalAssociationofPlumbingandMechanicalOfcials(IAPMO),neverthelessstill
publishesitsDwellingRequirementsoftheUniformPlumbingCode.
Thisguidewillreviewattributesofmanysystemsandmaterials,alongwithadvantagesanddis
advantages. These attributes are not necessarily comprehensive and readers are advised to undertake
researchofindividualsystems,products,installationrecommendations,warranties,andcodeacceptance
fortheirownlocale.Thisguidecannotforeseethescopeofaprojectorpredictcosts,butsystemscom
ponentsareevaluatedasmoreorlesscostlythanothers.
61

FURTHER READING
PlumbingaHouse,PeterHemp,Newtown,CT:TheTauntonPress,1994.
RenovatingOldHouses,GeorgeNash,Newtown,CT:TheTauntonPress,1996.
TheOldHouseJournalGuidetoRestoration,PatriciaPoore,NewYork:E.P.DuttonBooks,1992.
InternationalResidentialCode (Draft),InternationalCodeCouncil,FallsChurch,VA22041,1998.
TheConsumersGuidetoHomeImprovement,Renovation&Repairs,TheEnterpriseFoundation,New
York:JohnWileyandSons,1995.
1996ASHRAEHandbook-HVACSystemsandEquipment,ASHRAE,Atlanta,GA,1996.

62

12 WA T E R S U P P LY &
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Therearemanycausesforrehabilitationmaladiesthataffectwatersupplyanddistributionsystems.Leaks,
poorwaterquality,poorsupplyofhotorcoldwater,insufcientpressure,noise,vibration,andpresence
ofhazardousmaterialscanallbedrivingforces.
Waterdistributionintodayshomesoriginatesfromaone-pipedeliverysystemwithpipesand
ttingsoflead.AncientRomanshadleadwaterpipes,andinfactthetermplumbingisderivedfromthe
Latinplumbum,meaninglead.AncientEgyptianartifactsshowuseofcopperwaterpiping.Avarietyof
pipesandttingscouldbepresentinanyrehabproject,includingbrass,copper,iron,andsteel.Water
pipingmaterialsandttingshavechangedinpopularityandcodeacceptance.Manytypesareapproved
for use, and can be used in combination if electrogalvanic and grounding continuity are properly
addressed.Galvanizedironandgalvanizedsteelpiping(withsomeyellowandredbrassandcopper)was
quitepopularpriortoWorldWarII,butwerereplacedbycoppertubingpost-warandbyplasticsfrom
the1970s.Iron/steelpipessufferedcorrosionandscalebuild-upincertainwatertypes,especiallyinhot
water lines. Copper tubing was approved by ASTM B88 in 1932 and is the same material used today.
Copperhashadsomeproblemswithaggressive,corrosivewater.
Thereisavarietyofplasticmaterialsapprovedforuse.Someplasticexiblewaterpipingmateri
alshavehadproblemswithsplittingandttingfailure.Onematerialusedinthe1970sand80s,polybuty
lenettings,failedinmanyhomeswithdisastrousresults.Anewhybridpipingmaterial,KITECbyIPEX,is
a composite pipe made of aluminum laminated between interior and exterior plastic layers. It claims
nationalcodeapproval,easyworkability,sounddampening,andiscorrosion-proofwithgoodowrates.
Water conservation has become mandated in recent years. Toilets, faucets, and showerheads
mustnowoftenmeetlowerwaterusestandards.Consumersaremorecognizantofexcesswateruseand
energycostforheatingwaterwhichiswasted.Energyrecoverydevicesareavailableandgrowinginpop
ularity.Insulation,bettersystemdesign,andsolarheatingoptionscanalsobeexplored.
Waterqualityandotherhealthconcernsarenationalandlocalissues.Filteringwatersystemsare
becomingmorepopular,installedbelowthekitchensink/counter.Galvanizedironpipinghascorrosion
problemsthatareoftenexacerbatedbyadversewaterconditionsandheat.Leadwaterservicesforhouses
werequitecommon,andleadinwatercontinuestobeaproblem.Leadsolderforcopperjoininghasbeen
banned. Jacksonville, Florida has aggressive, corrosive water and has banned the use of copper in
domestic water systems. Asbestos was a popular insulation material for piping and must be carefully
removedorencapsulated.

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

Thewatersystemshouldbethoroughlyinspectedandtested.Dependingonthereasonforrehabilitation,
thewaterdistributionsystemcanberepaired,modied,orreplaced.Somereasonsincludepresenceof
63

leadpiping,failedpolybutylenejointsorpipes,lowwaterpressure,corrodedorbrokenpipesinunderslaborconcealedlocations,orcondensationoncoldwaterpipingduetodeterioratedormissinginsula
tion.Codesmayrequirerenovationstoanyplumbingsystemtoconformtocurrentcodewithoutrequir
ingtheentiresystemtocomply.Failedsystemscanberippedoutandreplacedentirelyorinpartwiththe
sameordifferingmaterials.Manyadaptersandcouplingsareavailableforthesepurposes.Notethatwater
distributionsystemshavehistoricallybeenusedforgroundingelectricalsystems.Pleasekeepthisinmind
duringrehabworkandrestoreorprovideforthisimportantsafetyrequirement.
Designrequirementsforwaterdistributionsystemsarewatervolume,waterpressure,number
ofxtureunits,thetotalwaterdemand,theheightofxturesabovethewatersupply(statichead),fric
tionallossduetodistanceandpipingmaterial,andthedevelopedlengthofthepipeandttings.Code
requirementsmayvaryfromonemunicipalitytoanother,butwatersupplyxturelimitsandminimum
branchsizesaremostlythesame.Thesearesomecoderequirementstosatisfypropersystemperfor
mance:minimum(15psi)atthehighestplumbingxture,andmaximum(80psi)systempressuresare
requiredforthewatersource.Tanksandpumpsincreasepressureandpressureregulatorsandreliefor
vacuumvalvesdecreasepressure.Pipingdesignforsingle-familyhousesisusuallydonebyaplumberwith
approvalbytheplumbinginspector.Professionalengineerstypicallyareneverinvolvedwithsingle-family
plumbingsystems.AgoodguidetodesignisbyplumberPeterHempinPlumbingaHouse.
1.IMPROVEWATERDISTRIBUTION.
Waterdistributionsystemsandhousesizeshavechangedovertheyearsfromsmallhomeswithlimited
systemstolargeoneswithelaboratesystems.Longdelaysforhotwateratremotexturescreatedashift
from single-pipe systems and introduced recirculating hot water systems. These loop systems can be
expensiveanduselargeamountsofenergyinwaterheatingandpumpingifnotproperlydesigned.The
drainingofcoldwaterawaitinghotwaterinthesingle-pipesystemisresourcedepletingandtimecon
suming.NIBCOhasaJustRightmodiedloopproductthatusesnaturalconvectiontocirculatehot
water.Acheckvalveandpassiverecirculatinglineformingtheforgottensystemcanbeeasilyinstalled
forasimilarpassiverecirculationsystem.Theelectrictracerwiresystemhasasinglepipehotwaterselfregulatingsupplysystemthatsolvesmanyloopproblems.MetLundDMandSystemissuitableforreha
bilitationandadaptationtoexistingplumbing.Aremotesinkhasapumpandcontrolsysteminstalledon
thextureanglestops.Apush-buttoncallsforhotwaterandthepumprecirculatesthewater,whichsaves
energyandwater(Fig.1).

FIGURE1

64

METLUNDDMANDRECIRCULATIONSYSTEM

Manifolddistributionsystemsarenowrecognizedbymajorcodes.Theintroductionofexible
plastic tubing like PEX-cross-linked polyethylene allows easy distribution of small-diameter, joint-free
branchestoindividualxtures.Alargersupplylineisconnectedtothemanifold.Thesystemsclaimfaster
hotwaterdelivery,balancedow,easilyaccessiblecontrolvalves,andnowaterhammer.Thisisanappro
priatesolutionthatcanbeinstalledaroundanexistingfailedsystem,withphasedreplacementofxtures
andbranches.Aclassicdistributionconcerniswaterleaksandresultantdamage.Aqua-Stopoffersawater
leakdetectionsystem(Fig.2).Sensorsareplacedontheoornearpotentialleaksources,suchastoilets,
tubs,dishwashers,waterheaters.Thesensorswillshutthemainsupplyvalveifaleakoccursandsound
analarm.Systemsensorscanbehard-wiredorremote.
ADVANTAGES:Improvesresponsivenessofwaterdistributionthroughoutthehome.
DISADVANTAGES:Somesystemscanbecostly.Consultlocalcodesastowhethersuchsystemsarepermitted.

FIGURE2,3

AQUA-STOPINSTALLATION

INTEGRALSOLDERINGFITTING

2.INSTALLNEWCOPPERPIPING.

Copperisaverypopularmaterialusedsincethe1930s.Jointsolderspreviouslycontainedsomeper

centageoflead.Federallawchangedtoprohibitleadsolderinpotablewatersystems.Jointsaremadeby

soldering,brazing,andtwo-componentadhesives.Solderingcanbedonebyelectricresistancetoolsand

bytorches.Teescannowbemechanicallypulledfromcontinuoustubingwithnewtools.Anewcopper

ttinghasrecentlybeenintroducedfromEurope:patentedin1934,theintegralsolderingttinghas

beenastandardinEngland(Fig.3).IMIYorkshirenowimportsAmerican-sizedintegralsolderingttings,

whichensuretheproperamountofsolderisprovided.Thesolderisinthemiddleofthetting,which

providesabetterjointandsaveslabor.Coppertubingisinsertedintoeachendofatting,appliedheat

meltsthesolderring,andthetwotubesarefusedtogether.

ADVANTAGES:Nearlyeverycodeapproves;longtrackrecord;relativelyeasyinstallation;limited50-year

warranty;corrosionresistantwithsomewatertypes;lesssupportneededthanplasticpipe;reresistant;

comesincoilsandtubes.

65

DISADVANTAGES:Highercost;someaggressivewaterattackscopper;amenormallypresentinjoining;
systemnoise;conductsheatandneedsinsulation;condensationconcerns;tubingcankink.
3.INSTALLCHLORINATEDPOLYVINYLCHLORIDE(CPVC)PIPING.
Used since the 1950s, CPVC is approved by most codes for both hot and cold water distribution. BF
Goodrich,inventorofCPVC,reformulateditin1992tobemoreworkableincoldweatheranearlier
drawback.CPVCispopularinnewconstructionapplicationsaboveandbelowslabs.
ADVANTAGES: Lower cost; easy installation and joining; no corrosion concerns; no water hammer;
reducedconductancelosses,whichsavesenergyandreducescondensation;comesincoilsandtubes.
DISADVANTAGES: More support needed than copper or steel; 24-hour joint cure time recommended;
needs expansion capacity for piping by all codes; relatively recent product (rst used in 1959).
Installationduringextremelyhottemperaturescanresultinlaterjointfailure.
4.INSTALLCROSS-LINKEDPOLYETHYLENE(PEX)PIPING.
Cross-linkedpolyethylene(PEX)exiblethinwalltubinghaditsbeginningsinEuropeinthe1970sand
hasbeeninusetheU.S.sincethe1980sforradiantheatingsystemsandhotandcoldwaterdistribution
systems.Mostcodesapproveitsuse,andsomeallow3/8branches.LongPEXcoilsareusedinthenew
manifoldwaterdistributionsystems,andeliminateexpensivejoints.
ADVANTAGES:Lowcost;relativelyeasyinstallation.Highlyexible;greaterwaterow;jointsandrepairs
canbemadewet;tubinghasmemory,returnstooldshape;kinkscanberemovedbyheat;eliminates
waterhammer;improvedfreeze-resistancewithbetterinsulationthanmetallicpiping;easyrepair.Seems
lessvulnerabletonailpunctures.
DISADVANTAGES:Notallcodesapprove;shouldnotbeexposedtosunlight;needsroomforexpansion;
moresupportrequiredthancopperorsteel.

FURTHER READING
1996ASHRAEHandbook-HVACSystemsandEquipment,ASHRAE,Atlanta,GA,1996.
PlumbingaHouse,PeterHemp,Newtown,CT:TheTauntonPress,1994.
RenovatingOldHouses,GeorgeNash,Newtown,CT:TheTauntonPress,1996.
TheOldHouseJournalGuidetoRestoration,PatriciaPoore,NewYork:E.P.DuttonBooks,1992.
JournalofLightConstruction,March1997.
TheForgottenHotWaterRecirculatingSystem,PMEngineer,May1998.

PRODUCT INFORMATION
BFGoodrich,FlowGuardGold(CPVC),Cleveland,OH44141;800-864-4851;www.owguardgold.com.
CopperDevelopmentAssociation,NewYork,NY;800-CDA-DATA;www.copper.org.
YorkshireFittings,USA,Brentwood,TN37027;615-309-8669.
IPEX,Inc.(KITEC),Englewood,CO80112;800-473-9808;www.ipexinc.com.
Metlund,CostaMesa,CA;800-METLUND;www.metlund.com
NIBCOJustRight,Elkhart,IN46516;800-234-0227;www.nibco.com.
SPARCOAnti-ScaldValve,Warwick,RI02886;401-738-4290;www.sparco-inc.com.
USBrass,BrassPEX,Dallas,TX;800-872-7277;www.usbrass@zurn.com.
66

1 3 D R A I N , WA S T E , &
VENTSYSTEMS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Thereareanumberofindicationsoftheneedtorehabilitatethedrain,waste,andventsystems:leaks;
clogged,slow,ornon-workingdrains;orodors.Thenatureoftheseproblemscanbecomplex,sothor
ough investigation is advised. Leaks and slow drainage may reveal corrosion in waste pipes. Previous
rehabsmighthaveintroduceddissimilarmaterialsthatcorrodethroughelectrogalvanicaction,e.g.,brass
andironttingsjoined.Drainsneedtobeslopedtoremovewastewaterandsolids.Buildingorpipeset
tlementcanchangepipeslopeandthesystemmaynotworkproperlyormayfailentirely.Odorscanbea
warningofseriousproblems.Atoxic,explosiveblendofgasescouldbepresent,causedbysomethingas
simpleasadrytraporasseriousasanon-existentventsystem.Ventsprotectagainstbackpressureand
siphoningandprovidesystemaircirculation. Cross connections are also a concern. Waste system
designhasevolvedovertime,andolderapprovedmethodsdidnotrecognizethatsiphoningcouldoccur
betweenpotableandcontaminatedwater.Oldertubinstallationsareanexamplewithsupplybeinglocated
belowoverowdrains(Fig.1).Localcodesshouldbecheckedbeforeproceedingwithrehabilitation.
Drainagesystemsarebasicallygravitydesignedwithventingintroducedtoassurethesystemperformsproperly.Systemcapacitiesarenowbetterunderstood,andcodesallowsmallerpipes.Theolder,
existing system to be rehabed may potentially allow for greater expansion. The National Plumbing
Standardswasadoptedin1992tomandatewater-savingtoilets,showerheads,andfaucets.Newmateri
als,methods,anddevicesarenowusedalongwitholdstandards.Castironpipinginabellandspigot
congurationwasacommonmaterial,andhasbeenreplacedsincethe1970sbyplastics.Nowhubless
castironisregainingsomeupscalemarketshareduetoitssound-dampeningproperties.
Depending on the reason for rehabilitation, systems can be repaired, modied, or replaced.
Properanalysisoftheexistingsystemanditsconditioniscrucial.Variousnon-destructivediagnostictools

FIGURE1

POTABLEWATERCONTAMINATION

67

andservicesareavailableifopeningupwallsorceilingsoraccessunderslabsforinspectionisnotan
option.SmallpipeTVinspectionandelectronicleakdetectionsystemsareexamples.
Drainage system materials used in residential construction include cast iron, galvanized and
non-galvanizedsteel,galvanizedwroughtiron,lead,copper,brass,vitriedclaypipe,andplasticsacry
lonitrilebutadienestyrene(ABS-DWV)andpolyvinylchloride(PVC-DWV).Rehabprojectsonhousesbuilt
after1970mightinvolveplasticDWVpipeandttings.Adapterttingsallowuseofavarietyofmaterials
ifdesired.Castironisabettersoundinsulatorbutmorecostly,soblendedsystemsarepopular.Castiron
isusedinsound-sensitiveareasandplasticinnon-sensitiveareas.Existingmaterialscanbecombined
withneworothermaterials,providedelectrogalvanicorcodeconcernsareaddressed.
Therearemanynewcode-approveddrainagesystemsanddesignsthatcanbeconsidered.Ifthe
systemistobemodiedorreplaced,anewdesigncouldbeinorder.Newdesignsmightbeadaptedto
solveproblemswiththeexistingsystem.Drainagesystemsarecalculatedtohandleacertainload,and
xturesareassignedvaluesknownasxtureunits.Theseunitsareaddedtodeterminepipesizes.Code
tablesstatemaximumunitcapacityandlengthsfordrainsandvents,andminimumpipesizes.Localcodes
shouldbeconsulted.
Ventstrategieshaveevolvedfromconventionaltocommonvent,wetventing,wastestackventing,
andcircuitventing.Variousstrategiesevolvedtominimizepiperunsandroofpenetrations.Acommon
ventconnectstwoxtures.Thewetventpipedoublesasawastepipeandisincreasedinsize.Wetvents
maybehorizontal(Fig.2),vertical(Fig.3),orcombined(Fig.4).Wastestackventingrequiresallxture
drainstoconnectseparatelytoit(Fig.5).Sizerequirementsapplytothesealternatemethods.Circuitvent
ingcanconnectamaximumofeightxturestoahorizontaldrain(Fig.6).Slopeandsizerequirements
applyhereaswell.Incoldregions,ventspenetratingroofsmayexperiencefrostorsnowclosure;apipe
atleast3indiameterisrequiredforthelastportionofthevent.

FIGURE2

TYPICALHORIZONTALWETVENTING

68

FIGURE3

VERTICALWETVENTING

FIGURE4

COMBINATIONVERTICALANDHORIZONTALWETVENTING

FIGURE5

TYPICALSINGLE-STACKSYSTEMFORATWO-STORYDWELLING

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

1.INSTALLCASTIRONDRAIN,WASTE,ANDVENT(DWV)PIPING.
Castironwasoriginallyusedinbellandspigotcongurationswithleadandoakumjointsandupgraded
toTylerorrubbercompressionjoints.Hublesspipeandttingsjoinedwithelastomericandstainlesssteel
couplingsaremostpopularcurrently.Castironcanrustandiscoatedwithanasphalticcompound.It
almostdisappearedasaresidentialwastepipematerialinthe1970s,butisstillused.
69

FIGURE6

CIRCUITVENTWITHADDITIONALNON-CIRCUITVENTEDFIXTURES

ADVANTAGES:Allcodesaccept.Fireproof,goodsoundinsulator;stronger,requireslesssupport;longlast

ing;canbeburiedinatrench;needsnoprotectionfromnailpunctures;3pipetsinstandard2x4wall

withoutfurring;needsnoexpansionallowance;hublessiseasytodisassemble.

DISADVANTAGES:Highcostandweight;requiresmorelabortoinstall;noteasytocut.

2.INSTALLCOPPERDWVPIPING.

CopperDWVisfoundinmanyoldersystems.Itisalsomorecostlythancastiron.Thetorchneededfor

joiningcoppercreatesapotentialrehazard,butnewjoiningtechniquesareavailable.Forexample,an

electricresistancejointtoolcanbeused;Copperbond,isaUL-approvedtwo-componentadhesivethat

replacessolderingorbrazing.

ADVANTAGES:Acceptedbyallcodes;thinwall,lightweight,easytocutandassemble;3pipe/ttingstin

2x4wall;reproof;lesslaborthancastiron.

DISADVANTAGES:Costsmorethancastiron;transmitsnoisebutnotasmuchasplasticdoes;requiresnail

protectionplates;openametypicallyrequiredforjoints.

3. INSTALL ACRYLONITRILE BUTADIENE STYRENE (ABS-DWV) AND POLYVINYL

CHLORIDE(PVC-DWV)PIPING.
PlasticsABS-DWVandPVC-DWV-arethepredominantmaterialsnowusedinrehabandnewresiden

tialconstruction.Invariousregionsofthecountry,plumbingprofessionalsseemtohavepreferencesfor

onematerialovertheother-typicallythematerialsdonotshareagivenmarketequally.Reducedcostand

laborarereasonsforpopularity.Mostcodesacceptthesematerials.NewYorkStatecodewillnotallow

plasticinundergroundresidentialuse.

ADVANTAGES:Lowcost;lesslaborintensive;easytocutandassemble;lightweight.

DISADVANTAGES: Fumes present with solvents and primers; material transmits noise; expands slightly;

needsmoresupport;careneededwithundergroundinstallation;protectionneededfornailpunctures;

ABSburnsonitsown,whilePVCburnsonlywithamepresent;ABSdeterioratesinsunlight.

70

4.INSTALLPUMPSANDEJECTORSTODISCHARGEWASTE.

Sloworstoppedwastedrainsmayindicatethatthedrainageconnectionsdonotmeetgravityrequirements

inrehabsituations.Addingapumpmightsolvemarginalornon-performinglines.Also,newplumbing

xtures might be located so that gravity will not expel waste (ie: basement xtures). Sewage ejectors,

pumps,orgrinderpumpsmayberequiredtoliftdischarge.Speciccoderequirementsexistonpipesiz

ing, venting, electrical connections, and audiovisual alarms. These devices should only be used when

absolutelynecessarybecauseofcost,accessrequirements,pumpfailure,andpowerfailures.Theunits

mustbewellsealedanddesignedforremovalandreplacement.Checkwithlocalauthorityonplacement;

exteriorlocationsaretypicallymostdesirable.

ADVANTAGES:Allowsplumbingxturesbelowgravityconnectionpoints.

DISADVANTAGES:Costly;powerfailuresstopsystem;needsamonitoringsystemandalarm;easyaccess

requiredforunitreplacement.

5.INSTALLGRAYWATERANDHEATRECOVERYDEVICES.

Rehabilitation requires consideration for resource savings alternatives. Low-ow xtures and shower

headstosavewaterandenergyarenowmandatedbytheEnergyPolicyAct.Graywatercollectionsystems

areasustainablechoiceforanyrehabprojectbecausetheyrecyclewaterfrombathtubs,showers,lavo

ratories,andclotheswashingmachines.TheUniformPlumbingCodeallowsgraywatertobecollected

andusedforirrigation.Asaconservationmethodorinareaswithrestrictedwateruse,graywatersystems

maybeappropriate.However,cross-contaminationisaconcernwithgraywater.Checkyourlocalcode

fordesignrequirementsandapproval.Heatrecoverydevicesforwastehotwaterarenew,energy-saving

options.OnewastewaterheatrecoverydeviceistheGFX.Shower,laundry,bath,dishwasher,andsink

wastehotwaterowsthroughacopperDWVsectionwrappedwithacopperwaterpipefeedingthewater

heater(Fig.7).Thedeviceisinstalledverticallyinthemaindrainandworksbestinbasementapplica

tions,butnon-basementapplicationsareavailable.Mostcodesapproveitsuse.

ADVANTAGES:Savesresources;graywaterallowslandscapegardensinaridlocations;GFXsavesenergy.

DISADVANTAGES:Costly;cross-contaminationconcerns;needsstoragecontainers;GFXneedsbasement

locationforbestresults;maybedifculttoobtain.

FIGURE7

GFXWASTEWATERHEATRECOVERYSYSTEM

6.INSTALLANAIRADMITTANCEVALVE.

Anairadmittancevalueisarelativelynewdeviceapprovedbysomecodesthatcanaidplumbingrehab.

Someplumbingxturesaredifculttoventduetolocationkitchenislandsinksaretheclassicexample.

Anairadmittancevalveplacedabovethetrapeliminatesallotherventpiping(insomecircumstances;

generally,atleastoneventinthesystemisrequiredtoterminateabovetheroofline).StudorInc.invented

thetechnologyandsuchventsarepopularinEurope.Airadmittancevalvesallowairtoenterbutprevent

gasesfromescaping(Fig.8).Valvesmustbeaccessibleandinstalledabovethextureserved(Fig.9).

ADVANTAGES:Allowsventingindifcultlocations;savesventingpipeandmaterials.

DISADVANTAGES:Lesscostly,spring-activateddeviceswereusedinmanufacturedhomesandspringcor

rosioncausedahighfailurerate.DiaphragmdesignsofStudorandothersdonothavethecorrosionprob

71

lem.Notallcodesallowairadmittancevalves.

FIGURE8

MAXI-VENT

FIGURE9

AIRADMITTANCEVALVEBEHINDSINK

FURTHER READING
DirectoryofWaterConservingPlumbingProducts,Walnut,CA:IAPMO,updatedmonthly;909-595-8449.
1997DwellingRequirementsoftheUniformPlumbingCode,Walnut,CA:IAPMO;909-595-8449.
InternationalResidentialCode (Draft),InternationalCodeCouncil,FallsChurch,VA,1998.
TheOldHouseJournalGuidetoRestoration,PatriciaPoore,NewYork:E.P.DuttonBooks,1992.
PlumbingaHouse,PeterHemp,Newtown,CT:TheTauntonPress,1994.
TheConsumersGuidetoHomeImprovement,Renovation&Repairs,TheEnterpriseFoundation,New
York:JohnWileyandSons,1995.

PRODUCT INFORMATION
CastIronSoilPipeInstitute,Chattanooga,TN37421;423-892-0137;www.cispi.org.
CharlottePipe&Foundry(castiron),Charlotte,NC28235;800-438-6091;www.charlottepipe.com.
Studor,Inc.AirAdmittanceValves,Dunedin,FL34698;800-447-4721,www.studor.com.
WaterFilmEnergy,Inc.,P.O.Box48,Oakdale,NY11769;516-758-6271;www.oikos.com/gfx.

72

14 F U E L S U P P LY
SYSTEMS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Therearethreepredominantresidentialfuelsystemsnaturalgas,propane,andfueloil.Rehabilitation
mightbenecessaryintheeventofleaks,odors,corrosion,systemdamage,orappliancechange.Gas
manufacturedfromcoalorderivednaturallyfromundergroundsourceshasbeenusedinhousessince
the mid-1880s. Lighting and cooking were rst uses of gas with space and water heating added later.
Propane(liquiedpetroleumgas)becamearesidentialfuelsourceinthe1920sandhasapproximately
5millionresidentialcustomerscurrently.Oilbecameasourceinthesameperiodbutthe22,000houses
builtinLevittown,NewYorkstartingin1947gaveoilabigboost.Therewere16millionresidentialcus
tomerspre-oilembargo(1973),12millionthereafter.
Aswithanyplumbingsystem,theexistingconditionandcodecomplianceshouldbedetermined.
Naturalgassystemdesignsdependuponutilitysupplypressure,heatingvalueofthegas,applianceneeds,
anddistancesfromsupplytoappliances.Negotiatingahigherservicepressurefromtheutilityallowsfora
smallerinternaldistributionsystem.Thegasloadcenterconceptisarelativelynewfuelsysteminnovation.
Theconceptissimilartoelectricaldistributionwithacentralpanelandbranchcircuits.Gaslinescometo
amanifoldatapanelandvalvedbranchrunsconnecttogasappliances.Flexiblegastubingwithfewerjoints
allows the concept to work easily. In some homes in Japan portable cooking appliances and ventless
portablespaceheatersarepluggedintoquick-connectgasoutlets.Thetrendislikelytogrowhereaswell.
MBSturgismakesquick-connectgasoutletsforbarbequesandotherappliances.Anothertrendconcerns
seismicsafety;LosAngelesnowrequiresseismicactivity-triggeredshutoffvalvesforgassystemsinnew
homes.Flexiblegastubing,nowavailable,maybeasafealternativebecauseitislesslikelytoshearorrup
turebetweenjoints.
Propaneandoilsystemsusuallyhaveafueldeliverysourcethatprovidesserviceaswell.System
designsareperlocalandnationalcodes.Thesetwofuelsrequireastoragetankinadditiontothedeliv
erysource.Thepropanetankisownedbytheserviceproviderandmustbeoutsidetheresidence.Tanks
canbebelowgrade,buttypicallyareabove.Tenfeetfromthehouseexteriorisatypicaldistancefortank
location,buttheycanbecloser.Undergroundconnectionsaretypical,withpolybutylenefrequentlyused
asanewundergroundmaterialforpiping.
Oilstoragetankscanbeindoorsoroutdoors.Existingundergroundtanksshouldbesurveyedfor
corrosionamajorproblem,withpotentialenvironmentalimpactsduetoleaks.Indoortanksrequire
ventingandablockedventlinecausesllingproblems.Oilsystemsmayhaveasinglesupplypipeoraloop.
Carbonmonoxide(CO)fromfuelcombustionisasafetyconcernandcertainmanufacturersand
associations recommend installing sensors near potential CO sources. Some rst-generation carbon
monoxidedetectorsweretoosensitiveandalarmedatnon-dangerouslevels.Newdetectorsareavailable
nowwithappropriatealarmthresholds.

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

Thefollowingarethemostcommonfuelsupplysystempipingandttings.Consultyourlocalcodeagency,
utility,orsupplierforothermaterialsandmethods.
73

1.INSTALLSTEELPIPEANDFITTINGS.
Thisisthetraditionalmaterialforresidentialfuelsystems,alongwithcastironpipe.Themajorityofsys
temsusethreadedjointsbutweldedjointsarealsocommoninolderhomes(whichmaymakesystems
rehabmorecomplicated).Itisthemostpopularnaturalgaspipingmaterialinnewconstruction.Therigid
natureofsteelpipemightmakerehabprojectsdifcult.Flexibletubing,ifallowedbyyourlocalcode,usu
allyiseasierforinstallationinrehabwork.
ADVANTAGES:Allcodesapprove;lowmaterialcost;requiresfewersupports;nailproof.
DISADVANTAGES:Labor-intensive;sophisticatedtoolsrequired;rigid;difculttomodify;heavy;cancor
rode; pipe should not be used for support when exposed (clothes racks, etc.) because of pipe damage/breakage.
2.INSTALLCOPPERPIPEANDFITTINGS.
Thisisthetraditionalmaterialusedtodayinresidentialpropaneandfueloilinstallations.Itisallowedby
someutilitiesandcodesfornaturalgasfuelsupplyandispaintedyellowtodistinguishitfromwater
piping.Sulphurfoundinsomegascorrodescopperandinternaltinningisrequiredinthetubing.See
Section12forconnectiontechniques.
ADVANTAGES:Approvedbymostcodes;exible;faster;easiertoinstall;allowslongruns;fewerttings;
lightweight;corrosion-resistant;easytomodify;easyformanifoldsystems;easyappliancehookup.
DISADVANTAGES:Notallowedbysomeutilitiesfornaturalgas;canbeeasilyconfusedwithwaterpiping;
somegasiscorrosivetocopper;needsnailplatestopreventpuncture;needsmorepipesupportsthan
steel.
3.INSTALLCORRUGATEDSTAINLESS-STEELTUBING(CSST).
DevelopedinitiallyinJapan,CSSTwasrstmanufacturedintheU.S.in1988.Itisnowapprovedbymost
majorcodes.CSSTisusedinresidentialandcommercialworkwithnaturalgasandpropane.Itisgain
ingmarketacceptance,withveU.S.manufacturersnowproducingCSST.Featuresmechanicalcouplings
thatvarypermanufacturer.Plumbersrequiretrainingbeforeinstallations.Widelyusedinmanifolddis
tributionsystems.
ADVANTAGES:Widecodeapproval;exible;lightweight;fasterandeasiertoinstall;longrunswithfewer
ttings;easytomodify;one-personinstallation;corrosionproof;easyforusewithmanifoldsystems;eas
ierappliancehookup.
DISADVANTAGES:Newmaterial;stillnotapprovedbysomecodes;highermaterialcost;requiresspecial
izedtoolsforassembly;needsnailplatestostoppunctures;needsmoresupportthansteel.

FURTHER READING
1996ASHRAEHandbook-HVACSystemsandEquipment,ASHRAE,Atlanta,GA,1996.
DomesticOilBurners,CharlesA.Burkhardt,NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1961.
National Fuel Gas Code (NFPA 54), International Approval Services, Cleveland, OH 44131, 1996,
www.gasweb.org/gasweb.

PRODUCT INFORMATION
Coppertube,CopperDevelopmentAssociation,NewYork,NY;800-CDA-DATA;www.copper.org.
GasTite,TiteFlexCorporation(CSST),P.O.Box90054,Springeld,MA01139;800-662-0208;www.tite.ex.
P.G.P.,ParkerHanninCorp.,ParaexDivision,Ravenna,OH44266;800-4-PARFLEX,www.parker.com/fcg.
TracPipe,OmegaFlex,Exton,PA19341,800-671-8622,www.omegaex.com.
WARDFLEXWardManufacturing,Blossburg,PA16912;800-248-1027;www.wardmfg.com.
74

15 A P P L I A N C E V E N T S
&EXHAUSTS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Combustionappliancesrequireventingandcertainappliancesrequireexhausting.Rehabworkonventsand
exhaustsmaybeneededbecauseoffailureofequipment,venting,orstructure.Ventingfailuresmaybedeadly
orcausehealthproblems,andaredifculttoascertain.Carbonmonoxidedeathsareofteninthenewsand
detectorsarebecomingmorecommon.Ventingfailureindicatorsmightincludecorrosion,smoke(withoil
equipment),soot,backdrafting,applianceoperationfailure,excessmoisture,orvisualdamage.
Combustionappliancescanbefueledbynaturalgas,propane(liquiedpetroleumgas),oroil.
Traditionally,appliancesweredesignedwithadrafthoodordivertertoventcombustiongases.Ventswere
sizedbasedontablesindicatingmaximumcapacitiesforcertainventarea,height,lateral(horizontalrun),
andmaterial.Traditionalventingmaterialsaremasonry(linedandunlined),cementasbestospipe,and
single-andmulti-walledmetalpipe.
The 1987 U.S. National Appliance Energy Conservation Act (NAECA) increased minimum
efciencyrequirementsforresidentialgasandoil-redappliances,becauseventswillnotperformprop
erlyiftheyaretoolargeortoosmall.Theannualfuelutilizationefciency(AFUE)becameatleast78%
forgasappliancesand80%foroil.NewappliancesmeetingtheseandhigherAFUEratingsproducefewer
andcoolercombustionproducts.Condensationandcorrosioncanbeaproblembecausemoisturecan
deterioratechimneysthroughfreeze/thawactionandcorrodemetalvents.Newhigh-efciency,self-con
densingappliancesproducesuchcool,moistexhaustthattheyuseventingmaterialssimilartodrainsys
temmaterialsandneedtobeslopedtodrainthemoisture.
In response to higher efciency appliances, the National Fuel Gas Code (NFPA 54) in 1992
changedventingdesignrequirementswithconcernforminimumandmaximumuecapacities.Certain
fan-assistedcombustionsystemapplianceswereincludedtoovercomeventingproblems.Oilappliance
ventingdesignstandardshaveneverbeenpublishedbutareexpectedinNFPAStandard31.
Somenon-combustionappliancesrequireexhausts.Codesrequireclothesdryerexhausts,and
gasrangesshouldbeexhausted(butarenotrequiredtobe).Dryerfailureindicatorsmaybeexcessmois
ture,clothesnotdrying,highenergybills,smoke,orodors.Lintandgreasebuildupcancreaterehaz
ards,whileblockedsystemsorcombustionby-productscancreatehealthhazards.
Thephysicalconditionoftheexistingventingandexhaustsystemshouldbechecked,especially
toinsurethepassagewayisproperlylined,clear,andfreeofobstructions.Ifthevent/chimneywasprevi
ouslyusedforsolidorliquidfuel,itshouldbecleaned.Thefailureindicatorsmentionedaboveneedto
bereviewedandsystemoperationveried.Agesofcombustionappliancesshouldbematchedtothevent
system to determine if a new efcient appliance has been installed without an appropriate ue
modication.Asmentionedabove,improperventinganduedamagemayresult.Existingoilappliances
mighthavehadtheirolderburnersreplacedwiththemoreefcientretention-headoilburner.Thiscould
requireauemodicationbecausenewlevelsofwaterandacidconcentrationcouldbepresent.Typically
corrosion-resistantmaterialsand/orheatlossreductionareintroducedtoensureproperdraftandreduce
condensation.Somecodesrequiretheexistingchimneyorventbebroughtintocodeconformanceifa
newapplianceisconnected.
Aproperlydesignedventcontrolsdraftandremovesuegases.Selectionofareplacementvent
orcheckingcomplianceshouldconsiderfactorssuchasappliancedraft,conguration,size,heat,and
75

condition; construction of surroundings; building height; material selection; and code requirements.
Chartsincodesshowselection,clearancefromcombustiblematerial,andventterminationrequirements.
Gasappliancesareclassiedinfourcategoriesthatallowdifferentlistedventproducts.CategoryIhasnonpositiveventstaticpressurewithventgastemperaturethatavoidsexcessivecondensationproductioninthe
vent.ATypeBventislistedandlabeledforthiscategory.Othercategoriesrequirespecialvents.Additional
requirementsexistformultipleappliancevents.Direct-ventedapplianceshavethrough-wall designs. To
ensureintakeairandcombustiongasoutletsareinproperlocations,oneguideisshown(Fig.1).

FIGURE1

THROUGH-WALLVENTLOCATIONS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

76

1.INSTALLANEWEXHAUSTFORACLOTHESDRYER.
Installinganewclothesdryerormodifyinganexistingdryerinstallationmaybepartoftherehabproject.
Theseappliances,whethergasorelectric,requireexhaustingtothehomesexterior.Lintbuildupmaylead
toreorhealthproblems,makingexhaustingimperative.TheInternationalResidentialCodeforOneand
TwoFamilyDwellings(IRC)hasspecicrequirementsforexhaustsregardingductsize,length,andcon
structionstandards.Amaximumlengthof25'hasbeenestablishedbaseduponacompilationofappli
ancemanufacturersrecommendations.Bendsreducethelengthallowedbutthereareexteriormounted
poweredexhaustsavailable.Thelocalcodeshouldbecheckedforapprovals.Mostdryersexhaustapprox
imately150to200cfmofair.TheIRCrequiresmakeupairprovisionsifdryersexhaustmorethan200
cfm. With bath exhaust fans commonly exhausting 50 cfm of air, and range hoods 150 cfm, adding a
clothesdryerexhaustmaycauseanassortmentofproblems,suchasbackdraftingofcombustionappli
ancesorreplaces.Bathandkitchenexhaustsmightnotexhaustduringdryeroperation.
ADVANTAGES:Canensureresafetywithdryeruse;improvesindoorairquality;reduceslintandmoisture
insidethehome.

DISADVANTAGES:Mayinducebackdraftingofcombustionappliancesandreplaces;mayinhibitfunction
ofotherexhaustsinthehome.
2.INSTALLANEWEXHAUSTFORARANGE.
Rangeexhauststypicallyarenotcoderequired,relyingonwindowsforexhaustornon-ventingltersfor
cleaningair.Rangeexhaustsarerecommendedforindoorairqualityandsafetyissues,particularlyforgas
ranges,asemissionsofcarbonmonoxide,nitrousoxide,andothersarepresent.Fouledburnerscanpro
ducedangerouslevelsofbenzene,indicatedbyayellowame.Moistureisaproductofgascombustionas
well,withagallonofmoisturereleasedper100,000Btu/hrinput(1/8gallonperhourperaverageburner).
Kitchenexhaustscanberecirculatingorcirculating.Recirculatingexhausthoodsdonotexhaustandmove
approximately40cfmofairthroughalterthenbacktothekitchen.Filtersareeithercharcoaloractivated
carboncoatedber,andrequiremaintenance.Circulatingexhaustsvaryfrom150cfmaveragetwo-speed
hoodstodowndraftexhaustsof500cfmormore.Manufacturersprovidesimilarductopeningssoequip
mentcanbereplaced(typically31/4"x10"or7"round).Ductlengthiscriticalandmanufacturersrecom
mendationshouldbefollowed.Smoothmetalductmaterialispreferredoverexiblemetal.Anequivalent
lengthadjustmentmustbemadeforex.
ADVANTAGES:Betterindoorairquality;mitigatesrehazard.
DISTADVANTAGES:Recirculatinghoodsdonotaddresscombustionproductsandarenotrecommended.

FURTHER READING
1996ASHRAEHandbook-HVACSystemsandEquipment,ASHRAE,Atlanta,GA,1996.
DomesticOilBurners,CharlesA.Burkhardt,NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1961.
ESourceTechnologyAtlasSeries:ResidentialAppliances,ESource,Inc.,Boulder,CO,80302,303-4408500,1996,www.esource.com.
NationalFuelGasCode(NFPA54),InternationalApprovalServices,ClevelandOH44131,1996.

77

16 F I R E P R O T E C T I O N
SYSTEMS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

78

AccordingtotheNationalFireProtectionAssociation(NFPA),therewere406,500residentialresand
3,360deathsintheU.S.in1997.Domesticresarelowprobabilitybuthighconsequenceevents.Experts
indicatethatmostresoccurinkitchens,family/livingrooms,andbedrooms,withhighestlossoflifein
bedroomsandfamily/livingrooms.Firesreportedlyburnhotterandfasterthan25yearsagobecauseof
newermaterialsinhomefurnishings.
ThisOldHouse magazinerecommendsaddingsprinklerheadsduringrehabtowatersystemsa
someprotectionisbetterthannonephilosophy.However,reprotectionengineerssayanaddedsystem
maynotperformadequatelybecausetherearenohydrauliccalculationstoverifythatthesystemwillwork.
Novalvesoralarmsareavailabletotellwhenthesprinklersmightaccidentlyfail.Aloopisneededwithsprin
klerheadssothatstandingwaterinthepipeswillnotbeaconcernpotablewaterthatdoesnotcirculate
canbecomecontaminated.TheDirectorofOperationLifeSafetyoftheInternationalAssociationofFireChiefs
suggestsaddingresprinklerstovariousareasrehabed,essentiallyaddingasystemonaninstallmentplan
basis.Otherprofessionalstakeanallornothingapproachtosprinklersystems.Addinganautomaticre
sprinklersystemcanaddtolifesafetyandpropertyprotection.Automaticresprinklersystemsarerequired
insomerehabconstructionincertainjurisdictions.Thelocalcodeshouldbeconsulted.
NFPASection13Dgovernsresidentialsprinklersystemsforone-andtwo-familyconstruction.
ResidentialsystemsarerelativelynewwithNFPA13D,adoptedin1980.Complexautomaticreprotection
systemsarecommonlyinstalledincommercial,institutional,andhigh-riseconstruction.Residentialsys
temsaredesignedtobelesscomplex.Lifesafetyisthetoppriorityinresidentialapplications,compared
tosavingpropertyincommercialsystems.Still,requirementsaredeemedtooextremeandcostlybymany.
Opponentsfeelmoreeffectivesolutionscouldbeenacted.NFPA13Drequiressprinklersinmostrooms
withowstoallowoccupants10minutesescapetime.Themultipurposesystemcombiningplumbingand
resprinklersarenewlyapprovedbyNFPAandcouldbeconsidered.Insurancecompaniesmayprovide
a5%to20%yearlyinsurancerebatetohomeownerswithsprinklersystems.Canadianinsurersmayprovidea35%to40%rebate.
Automaticresprinklersystemsaredesignedtoprovideminimumwaterowfromheadsfora
speciedescapetime.NFPA13Drequiresatleastoneautomaticwatersupply.Forhomesnotonapublic
watersystem,acapturedwatersupplylargeenoughfora10-minuteowfromtwoheadsisrequired.
Pools,tanks(elevatedorwithelectricpumps),ortankspressurizedwithnitrogenpropellantmaybeused.
Residentialsprinklersareseparatewetsystems,comparedtowetordrystandpipesystemsfound
incommercialconstruction.Systemsupplycongurationsandconnectionsvaryintypeandcomplexityand
areusuallydeterminedbylocalcode.NFPA13Drequiressprinklersinmostrooms,exceptbaths,closets,
attics,andgarages.Headsinnon-habitablespacesprovideasystemwithbettercoverage,butthisismore
difcultandcostly,particularlyinrehabwork.Wetsystemsalsoneedprotectionforfreezingtemperatures.
Aresprinklerprofessional,familiarwiththelocalcoderequirements,shoulddesignthesystem.
Piping materials include welded and seamless steel, wrought steel, copper, and chlorinated
polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) and polybutylene (PB). All are common materials used in residential con
struction. Copper can be used in any area, but CPVC must be used in concealed areas or adjacent to
smoothceilings.CPVCresprinklerpipeisadifferentproductthanwatersupplypipewithdifferentcode
approvals,andthetwocannotbecombinedinmostcases.Bothcanbeusedwiththesamettingsbut

havevaryingwallthicknesses.Forexample,BFGoodrichBlazeMasterCPVChaspipewallthicknessofSDR
13.5IPSvs.FlowGuardGoldwithSDR11CTS.
PEXcross-linkedpolyethylene,multipurposetubingsystemforsprinklershasbeensubmittedfor
UL approval, (approval appears likely), which would lower the 175 psi pressure requirement to 130.
Smallerpiperuns,1/2"vs.3/4"or1"wouldbefeaturedwithmultipleserviceconnectionstoeachsprin
klerhead.Thematerialwouldbeaverycost-effectiveandeasyproducttoinstallinrehabs.Checkwith
yourlocalcodeofcial.
Sprinklerheadsvaryindesignandtype.Theycanbeceilingorsidewallmounted,concealedor
exposed, and in metallic or prepainted nishes. Quick-response residential sprinkler heads contain a
fusiblelink,pelletorfrangibleglassbulb.Allmustbenationallylistedandapproved.Therearemany
headsavailablewithwidelyrangingperformanceratings(kfactor).Coveragefrom144sfto400sfper
headispossibledependingonavailableowratesandsystempressure.ThereisaConsumerProducts
SafetyCommissionnationalactionledalongwithvarioussuitsagainstCentralsOmegasprinklerheads.
Theheadswhentestedfailedtoworkatthedesignatedpressure,butmostworkedathigherpressures.If
therehabprojectincludestheseheadstheInternationalAssociationofFireChiefsrecommendsyouhave
Omegaheadsremovedandreplaced.
Othersystemelementsincludeariserandcomponentsthatcontrolandmonitorfortheowof
water to the system. The riser components may vary depending on design and code requirements.
Typically,theyconsistofacheckvalvethatletswaterowinonlyonedirection,apressuregauge,apres
surereliefcircuitanddrain,aowswitch,andatestvalve.Theriserisconnectedtothesupply.Ifthe
watersupplyisnotpublic,atank,pond,orsourceotherthanawellwillbeneeded.Self-containedsys
temsareavailablewithelectricpumpsorpneumaticpressuresystems.
Ifrunningdistributionpipingwithinnishedwallsisnotpossible,DecoShieldmakesaULlisted
cover and support system. The product was designed for surface mounting retrot systems in existing
buildingsandwouldbeappropriateformostrehabs(Fig.1).

FIGURE1

DECOSHIELDSYSTEM

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

1.INSTALLASTAND-ALONERESIDENTIALSPRINKLERSYSTEM.
Thestand-alonesystemisseparatefromahouseswaterdistributionsystemandisthemostcommon.A
maincontrolvalvefromthewatersourcetothedomesticandresystems,pressuregauges,checkvalves,
waterowdetectors,anddrainandtestconnectionsaretypical.
ADVANTAGES:Systemwaterowactivatesanalarm;allcodesapprove;canbeconnectedtorestation;
morecontrolofsystem(ushingandmaintenance).
DISADVANTAGES:Canbedeactivatedbyaccident;requiresmorematerialsandlabor;moredifcultforrehab.
79

2.INSTALLAMULTIPURPOSERESIDENTIALSPRINKLERSYSTEM.
NFPAissuedaTechnicalInterimAmendmentonOctober28,1998approvingmultipurposeorcombined
systemsforSection13D.Thismeanstheresprinkleranddomesticwaterdistributionsystemcanbecom
bined. Most plumbing codes prohibit such systems, but Highland Springs, California and Dupont,
Washingtonaretwoofmanylocalesthatallowthem.
ADVANTAGES:Lowercostthanstand-alonesystems;cannotbedeactivatedaccidentally;reducedmaterials
andlabor;easiertoinstall.
DISADVANTAGES:Doesnotincludeanalarm;someplumbingcodesdonotallow;contaminatedwateris
possiblewithoutloopsinthesystem;futureadditionstothehouseswatersystem(i.e.,watersoftenersand
backowprevention)couldhurtcalculatedeffectiveness.
3.INSTALLACOPPERPIPEDSYSTEM.
Copperhasbeeninuseforsprinklerssincethe1930sandremainsthemostpopularpipingmaterialfor
stand-aloneandmultipurposesystems.Approvalofalternativematerialsthatcostlessandareeasierto
installmightchangetheuseofcopperpiping.TheintegralsolderingttingdescribedinSection12can
speedconstruction.
ADVANTAGES: Code-approved in any installation; commonly used in other plumbing systems; relatively
easyinstallation;fabricatedbysolderingorbrazingusingconventionalequipmentorelectricresistance
tools;compactwithinthinwalls;teescanbepulledmechanically.
DISADVANTAGES:Costly;morerigidthanplastic;brazingorsolderingarepotentiallydangerous;pipemay
besubjecttocondensation;susceptibletotheft.
4.INSTALLACPVC-PIPEDSYSTEM.
CPVCwaterpipinghasbeenusedinsingle-familyhousingsince1959.Areformulationinthe1990ssolved
coldweatherworkabilityproblems.CPVCforresprinklersisadifferentproductandwasintroducedin
1986. Code requires CPVC to be installed behind a thermal barrier in most cases, except with quick
responsesprinklersinspecialcases.
ADVANTAGES:Lowcost;somewhatexible;moreeasilyinstalledwithcutandglue/weldttings;better
insulationpropertiesthancopper.
DISADVANTAGES:Uselimitedtospecicareas;moresupportrequired;transitionsneededtoothernonPVCsections;charsduringre.

FURTHER READING
AutomaticSprinklerSystemsHandbook,Quincy,MA:NationalFireProtectionAssociation,1997.
TheEconomicsofFastResponseResidentialSprinklerSystems,FireJournal,May1985.
NationalFireProtectionAssociation,Section13D,InstallationandSprinklerSystemsinOne-andTwoFamilyDwellingsandManufacturedHomes,Quincy,MA,1996.
SprinklerCodesAChanging, JournalofLightConstruction,Dec.1989.
Sprinkle,SprinkleLittleStar,ThisOldHouse,Jan.1998.

PRODUCT INFORMATION
BFGoodrichBlazeMaster,Cleveland,OH44141;800-331-1144;www.bfgoodrich.com.
CreativeSystems,Inc.,DecoShield,Jamesville,WI53545;608-757-0717.
ReliableAutomaticSprinklerCo.,Mt.Vernon,NY10552;800-431-1588;www.reliablesprinkler.com.

80

APPENDIX
PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS AND RESEARCH CENTERS
AIRCONDITIONINGCONTRACTORSOF
AMERICA(ACCA)
1712NewHampshireAvenue,NW
Washington,DC20009
202-483-9370
www.acca.org

AMERICANSOCIETYOFSANITARY
ENGINEERING(ASSE)
28901ClemensRoad,Suite100
Westlake,OH44145
440-835-3040
www.asse-plumbing.org

AIRCONDITIONINGANDREFRIGERATION
INSTITUTE(ARI)
4301NorthFairfaxDrive,Suite425
Arlington,VA22203
www.ari.org

AMERICANSOCIETYFORTESTINGAND
MATERIALS(ASTM)
100BarrHarborDrive
WestConshohocken,PA19428
610-832-9500
www.astm.org

AMERICANCOUNCILFORANENERGYEFFICIENTECONOMY(ACEEE)
1001ConnecticutAve.NW,#535
Washington,DC20036
202-429-8873
www.aceee.org
AMERICANGASASSOCIATION
400N.CapitolStreet,N.W.
Washington,DC20001
202-824-7000
www.aga.org
AMERICANNATIONALSTANDARDSINSTITUTE
11West42ndStreet,13thFloor
NewYork,NY10036
212-642-4900
www.ansi.org
AMERICANSOCIETYOFHEATING,
REFRIGERATING,ANDAIR-CONDITIONING
ENGINEERS(ASHRAE)
1791TullieCircle,NE
Atlanta,GA30329
404-636-8400
www.ashrae.org
AMERICANSOCIETYOFPLUMBING
ENGINEERS(ASPE)
3617ThousandOaksBlvd.,#210
Westlake,CA91362-3649
805-495-7120
www.aspe.org

BUILDERSHARDWAREMANUFACTURERS
ASSOCIATION
355LexingtonAvenue,17thFloor
NewYork,NY10017
212-661-4261
www.buildershardware.com
BUILDINGOFFICIALS&CODE
ADMINISTRATORS(BOCA)International,Inc.
4051WestFlossmoorRoad
CountryClubHills,IL60478-5795
708-799-2300
www.bocai.org
CANADAMORTGAGEANDHOUSING
CORPORATION
HousingInformationCenter
700MontrealRoad
Ottawa,ON,CanadaKIAOP7
613-748-2367
www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca
CANADIANSTANDARDSASSOCIATION
178RexdaleBoulevard
Etobicoke(Toronto),ONM9W1R3
416-747-4000
www.csa.ca

81

CONSORTIUMFORENERGYEFFICIENCY

303CongressStreet,Suite600

Boston,MA02210

617-330-9755

CONSTRUCTIONSPECIFICATIONSINSTITUTE

99CanalCenterPlaza,Suite300

Alexandria,VA22314

703-931-4533

www.csinet.org

EDISONELECTRICINSTITUTE

701PennsylvaniaAve.NW

Washington,DC20004

202-508-5000

www.eei.org

ELECTRICPOWERRESEARCHINSTITUTE

3412HillviewAve.

PaloAlto,CA94303

800-313-3774

www.epri.com

EVAPORATIVECOOLINGINSTITUTE

P.O.Box3ECI

LasCruces,NM88003

505-646-3948

FLORIDASOLARENERGYCENTER(FSEC)

1679ClearlakeRoad

Cocoa,FL32922

407-638-1000

www.fsec.ucf.edu

GASRESEARCHINSTITUTE

8600BrynMawrAve.

Chicago,IL60631

312-399-8100

www.gri.org

82

GEOTHERMALHEATPUMPCONSORTIUM,INC.

701PennsylvaniaAve.,N.W.

Washington,D.C.20004-2696

202-508-5500

www.ghpc.org

GREENSEAL

140016thStreet,NWSuite300

Washington,DC20036-2215

202-588-8400

www.greenseal.org/

HEARTHPRODUCTSASSOCIATION

2848ArdenWay,Suite200

Sacramento,CA95825

916-974-1188

HOMEENERGYRATINGSYSTEMSCOUNCIL

1331HSt.,NW,Suite1000

Washington,DC20005

202-638-3700(phone)

202-393-5043(fax)

www.hers-council.org

HOMEVENTILATINGINSTITUTE

DivisionofAMCA

30WestUniversityDrive

ArlingtonHeights,IL60004

847-394-0150

INTERNATIONALASSOCIATIONOFPLUMBING

ANDMECHANICALOFFICIALS(IAPMO)

20001E.WalnutDriveSouth

Walnut,CA91789-2825

909-595-8449

www.iapmonet.ort

INTERNATIONALCODECOUNCIL

5203LeesburgPike,Suite708

FallsChurch,VA22041

703-931-4533

www.intlcode.org

INTERNATIONALGROUNDSOURCEHEAT

PUMPASSOCIATION

490CordellSouth

OklahomaStateUniversity

Stillwater,OK74078

800-626-4747

INTERNATIONALREMODELING

CONTRACTORSASSOCIATION

1RegencyDrive

Bloomeld,CT06002

800-937-4722

INTERNATIONALSTANDARDSORGANIZATION

1,ruedeVarembe

Casepostale56

CH-1211Geneve20,Switzerland

41-22-749-01-11

http://iso.ch./welcome.html

LAWRENCEBERKELEYNATIONAL

LABORATORY

BuildingTechnologiesProgram

EnergyandEnvironmentDivision

LawrenceBerkeleyLaboratory,Berkeley,CA

94721

510-486-6844

eandelbl.gov/BTP/BTP.html

MECHANICALCONTRACTORSASSOCIATIONOF

AMERICA(MCAA)

1385PiccardDrive

Rockville,MD20850-4329

301-869-5800

www.mcaa.org

NAHBREMODLERSCOUNCIL

120115thStreet,NW

Washington,DC20005

202-822-0212

www.nahb.com/remodelc.html

NATIONALASSOCIATIONOFARCHITECTURAL

METALMANUFACTURERS

8S.MichiganAve.,Suite1000

Chicago,IL60603-3305

312-456-5590

NATIONALASSOCIATIONOFPLUMBING,

HEATINGANDCOOLINGCONTRACTORS

180S.WashingtonSt.

P.O.Box6808

FallsChurch,VA22040

703-237-8100

www.naphcc.org

NATIONALASSOCIATIONOFTHE

REMODELINGINDUSTRY

4900SeminaryRoad,Suite320

Arlington,VA22311

703-575-1100

www.nari.org

NATIONALFIREPROTECTIONASSOCIATION

1BatterymarchPark

Quincy,MA02269-9101

800-344-3555

NATIONALPROPANEGASASSOCIATION

1600EisenhowerLane,Suite100

Lisle,IL60532

708-515-0600

www.propanegas.com

NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY

1617ColeBoulevard

Golden,CO80401

303-275-3000

www.nrel.gov

NATIONALTECHNICALINFORMATIONSERVICE

USDepartmentofCommerce

www.fedworld.gov/ntis/ntishome.html

OAKRIDGENATIONALLABORATORY

BuildingEnvelopeSystemsandMaterials

P.O.Box2008

OakRidge,TN37831-6070

423-574-4345

www.cad.ornl.gov/kch/demo.html

83

PLASTICSPIPEINSTITUTE

1801KSt.,Suite600

Washington,DC20006-1301

202-974-5318

www.plasticpipe.org

PLUMBINGMANUFACTURERSINSTITUTE

(PMI)

800RooseveltRoad

BuildingC,Suite20

GlenEllyn,IL60137

630-858-9172

www.pmihome.org

RADIANTPANELASSOCIATION

P.O.Box327

Hyrum,UT84319

801-245-0128

SHEETMETALANDAIRCONDITIONING

CONTRACTORSNATIONALASSOCIATION

(SMACNA)

4201LafayetteCenterDrive

Chantilly,VA22021

703-803-2980

SOUTHFACEENERGYINSTITUTE

241PineStreet

Atlanta,GA30308

404-872-3549

http://southface.org

SUSTAINABLEBUILDINGSINDUSTRYCOUNCIL

1331HStreet,NW,Suite1000

Washington,DC20005

202-628-7400

www.sbicouncil.org

UNDERWRITERSLABORATORIES,INC.

333PngstenRoad

Northbrook,IL60062-2096

847-272-8800

www.ul.com

84

U.S.DEPARTMENTOFENERGY

BuildingSystemsandMaterialsDivision

EE-421

1000IndependenceAvenue,SW

Washington,DC20585

2025869214

www.doe.gov

U.S.DEPARTMENTOFENERGYS

ENERGYEFFICIENCYANDRENEWABLE

ENERGYNETWORK

www.eren.doe.gov

U.S.DEPARTMENTOFENERGYSENERGY

EFFICIENCYANDRENEWABLEENERGY

CLEARINGHOUSE

P.O.Box3048

Merrield,VA22116

800-363-3732

www.eren.doe.gov/erec/

U.S.DEPARTMENTOFHOUSING

ANDURBANDEVELOPMENT

HUDUser

P.O.Box6091

Rockville,MD20849

www.huduser.org

800-245-2691

U.S.GOVERNMENTFEDERALINFORMATION

NETWORK

www.fedworld.gov/

THEREHABGUIDE
VOLUMEONE: FOUNDATIONS
VOLUMETWO: EXTERIORWALLS
VOLUMETHREE: ROOFS
VOLUMEFOUR: WINDOWSANDDOORS
VOLUMEFIVE: PARTITIONS,CEILINGS,FLOORSANDSTAIRS
VOLUMESIX: KITCHENS&BATHS
VOLUMESEVEN: ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONICS
VOLUMEEIGHT: HVAC/PLUMBING
VOLUMENINE: SITEWORK

U.S.DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment
Washington,DC20410-6000
OfcialBusiness
PenaltyforPrivateUse,$300

August1999
HUD-DU100C000005956