-Two conflicts occurred simultaneously during the Revolutionary War: the military conflict with Britain and the political struggle within America -Military conflict was relatively modest -Americans wondered if they should demand independence from Britain and how to structure the new nation they had created – first one answered at British surrender at Yorktown in 1781 -Thomas Paine reflected the opinion of many people The States United – Defining American War Aims -Second Continental Congress met after Lexington and Concord – all colonies except Georgia – all agreed on war, but some disagreed on the purpose -Some favored complete independence from Britain, such as the Adams cousins -Another side favored modest reforms in the relationship that would allow reconciliation with Britain – led by people such as John Dickinson of Pennsylvania -Most tried to find middle ground between two ideas; adopted two different declarations: the first being the “Olive Branch Petition”, which was a last, conciliatory appeal to the king; the second was “Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms” – said that the Americans could either have “unconditional submission to the tyranny of irritated ministers or resistance by force.” -the “Prohibitory Act” blockaded American ports to all overseas trade -Thomas Paine had great success as a revolutionary propagandist in Common Sense, an impassioned pamphlet that fired up many Americans – changed outlook on the war The Decision for Independence -Continental congress moved slowly toward final break with England; it declared American ports open to the ships of all nations except Britain; it recommended to the colonies that they establish new governments independent of the British Empire -Drafted a formal declaration of independence on July 2, 1776-wrote mostly by Virginia delegate Thomas Jefferson with help from Benjamin Franklin and John Adams – had two parts; John Locke’s contract theory and crimes of the king –“all men are created equal” Responses to Independence -Loyalists were still held loyalty to the king-were called Tories by supporters of war -Colonies began to call themselves states after the Declaration of Independence – each was considered a separate and sovereign entity -In 1777, Articles of Confederation were adopted-weak policies Mobilizing for War -The Continental Congress began to print paper currency because there was a shortage of money for the war – resulted in inflation; prices rose and value of paper money fell -The American government had to borrow heavily from other nations to finance war -Congress created a Continental Army; chose George Washington as commander in chief -George Washington kept faithfully at his task, despite many difficulties -He received help from foreign military experts such as Marquis de Lafayette and Baron von Steuben - Washington provided stability for the army to rally around The War for Independence -American advantages: fighting on own ground, while English were far from own land; they were more deeply committed to the conflict than British; they had more aid from foreign countries -The war proceeded in three different phases The First Phase: New England -After Lexington and Concord, American forces attacked General Thomas Gage’s army in Boston – suffered large casualties in the Battle of Bunker Hill (on Breed’s Hill) and were ultimately driven from there, however British had heavier losses than them -British realized Massachusetts was a bad place to fight so left there and went to Halifax, Nova Scotia with hundreds of Loyalist refugees – colonists had temporarily got them out -The Americans invaded Canada to try to remove British threat and persuade the Canadians to their cause – led by Benedict Arnold and Richard Montgomery, who died – British victory The Second Phase: The Mid-Atlantic Region -British troops led by General Howe – captures New York -On Christmas night in 1776, Washington crossed the icy Delaware River and surprised and scattered the Hessians, and occupied the town but unable to hold -the British strategy was to cut the U.S. in two – Howe would move north from New York City up the Hudson, while another force would go south from Canada to meet him -This other force was led by John Burgoyne – planned a two-pronged attack -Howe decided to abandon the plan and launched an assault on the rebel capital Philadelphia-hoped to discourage Patriots and rally the Loyalists-had little resistance -Washington brought his troops into Valley Forge-Congress reassembled in Pennsylvania -On October 17, 1777, Burgoyne surrendered to Horatio Gates at Saratoga-major turning point of the war-led directly to an alliance between the United States and France -Britain’s inability to win the war during this time was largely due to their own mistakes – a lot due to William Howe, who abandoned his own strategy-leaving Burgoyne alone The Iroquois and the British -There were many divisions forming in the Iroquois confederacy; only three of the six nations supported the British Securing Aid from Abroad -“Militia diplomats” were people who went to the capitals of Europe to negotiate commercial treaties with the governments there – had to make crucial decisions on their own -Most promising ally to the U.S. was France; King Louis XVI and his foreign minister, the Count de Vergennes, were eager to see Britain lose part of its empire -French began to send the U.S. supplies and eventually recognized them as a foreign nation after the American success at the Battle of Saratoga -France’s intervention made the war an international conflict – aid was invaluable The Final Phase: The South -British strategy was to enlist loyalists in the United States to undermine the colonies -This strategy failed miserably – British underestimated number of patriots – context under which the important military encounters of the last years of the war occurred -British had some successes but were constantly harassed by Patriot guerrillas such as Thomas Sumter, Andrew Pickens and Francis Marion -Lord Cornwallis, the British commander in the South, crushed a Patriot force under Horatio Gates; Gates was replaced by Nathanael Greene – very good general -Clinton, British commander, ordered Lord Cornwallis to take up a position on the peninsula between the York and James Rivers and wait for ships to carry his troops to New York or Charleston -George Washington with Count Jean Baptiste de Rochambeau, commander of the French force in America, set out to trap Cornwallis at Yorktown – caught Cornwallis between land and sea – surrendered on October 17, 1781 – fighting now over Winning the Peace -the Americans and Britain reached a final agreement, the Treaty of Paris on September 3, 1783 – favorable to the U.S. – recognition of independence and territory War and Society -Historians have debated about whether the American Revolution was a social and political revolution Loyalists and Minorities -Many loyalists fled the country – harassed by Patriots-some moved to England -the Anglicans suffered because many members were loyalists – Catholicism benefited The War and Slavery -For most African Americans, the Revolution increased their exposure to concept of liberty – some engaged in open resistance to white control -Many whites thought that enslaving Africans, whom they considered inferior, would ensure liberty for white people – feared impact of blacks living alongside whites Native Americans and the Revolution -Most Indians tried to stay out of the war – Revolution generally weakened their position -Patriot victory increased demand for western lands and white attitudes toward the tribes took a turn for the worst – resented assistance to British and wanted to conquer them -Revolution increased deep division among the tribes Women’s Rights and Women’s Roles -Some women fought alongside men in the war – most soldiers didn’t want them there -Molly Pitcher carried water to soldiers on the battlefield; Judith Sargent Murray wrote that women deserved an education -Many, such as Ben Franklin and Benjamin Rush supported education for women -Married women had virtually no rights -Revolution ultimately strengthened the patriarchal structure of American society The War Economy -When English imports to America were cut off, there were desperate efforts throughout te states to stimulate domestic manufacturing of certain necessities Ex. Clothes The Creation of State Governments -The Americans agreed that their new governments should be republican, which to them meant a political system in which all power came from the people, rather than an authority -In reality, the U.S., had always been unequal to certain minorities such as blacks The First State Constitutions -Americans believed that the constitutions should be written down and that the power of the executive should be limited Revising State Governments -the Constitution of Massachusetts, ratified in 1780, strengthened the executive – governor one of the strongest in any state Toleration and Slavery -the new states moved toward the direction of complete religious freedom -In 1786, Thomas Jefferson wrote the Statute of Religious Liberty, completely separating church and state -In places where slavery was weak, such as New England, it was abolished; however, survived in all the border and southern states The Search for a National Government -many Americans thought that a central government should be relatively weak The Confederation -The Articles of Confederation provided for a national government, which was the Continental Congress; gave it power to conduct wars and foreign relations and to appropriate, borrow, and issue money – did not have the power to tax -The Confederation lacked adequate powers to deal with interstate issues or to enforce its will on the states Diplomatic Failures -British forces continued to occupy a string of posts along the Great Lakes even though the treaty made them evacuate American territory -Diplomats agreed to a treaty with Spain where Spain accepted the American interpretation of the Florida boundary – in return Americans accepted limits on the right of U.S. vessels to navigate the Mississippi for twenty years; Southern states blocked ratification, weakening the government’s standing in world diplomacy The Confederation and the Northwest -The ordinance of 1784 divided the western territory into ten self-governing parts, each of which could petition Congress for statehood when population equaled smallest state -the Ordinance of 1785 was a system for surveying and selling western lands -This established a pattern of dividing up land for human use – most common was the grid – the division of land into carefully measured and evenly divided squares -the “North Ordinance” was where the ten districts established in 1784 were abandoned and a single Northwest Territory was established Indians and the Western Lands -Indian tensions rose because many lands were sold that were Indian territory -Violence reached a high when a group of tribes led by Miami warrior Little Turtle defeated the U.S. forces in two major battles-the second where 630 whites died in fighting at the Wabash River – Indians refused to negotiate because of the Miami’s insistence that no treaty was possible unless it was forbade settlement west of Ohio R. -General Anthony Wayne defeated the Indians in the Battle of Fallen Timbers -the Miami signed treaty of Greenville, ceding new lands to the U.S. Debts, Taxes, and Daniel Shays -The postwar depression caused an inadequate money supply-congress no power to tax -A large group of people sought ways to increase the powers of the central government and to meet its financial obligations – included Robert Morris, the head of the Confederation’s treasury, Alex Hamilton, and James Madison of Virginia – called for a “continental impost – a 5% duty on imported goods to be levied by Congress and used to fund the debt -Many Americans feared that the plan would give too much financial power to Morris and his allies in Philadelphia -Impost was not approved by Congress -The states also had war debts and generally relied on increased taxation to pay them – poor farmers considered such policies unfair -Many mobs of distressed farmers rioted periodically in New England -In the Connecticut Valley of Massachusetts, many rallied behind Daniel Shays, who issued a set of demands that included paper money, tax relief, halt on debts, the relocation of the state capital from Boston to the interior, and the abolition of imprisonment for debt -His rebellion was eventually suppressed–highlighted need for a new national constitution