Hobson's Trigonometry 4th - Ed B W

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A TEEATISE ON
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All rights reserved
A TEEATISE ON
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
BY
E.
W. HOBSON,
Sc.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S.,
sadleirian professor of pure mathematics, and

fellow of Christ's college, Cambridge
FOURTH EDITION
Cambridge
at the University Press
1918
First Edition
1891
Second Edition 1897
Third Edition (revised and enlarged) 1911
Fourth Edition 1918
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

HAVE
taken the opportunity afforded by the need for a new

edition to subject the whole work to a careful revision, and to
introduce a considerable
amount
of
new
matter.
In Chapter
have inserted a theory of the lengths of circular arcs, and of

the areas of circular sectors, based upon arithmetic definitions
Much
of their measures.
of that part of the
work which deals
with Analytical Trigonometry has been re-written. Proofs of the

transcendency of the numbers e and ir have been introduced into
Chapter xv.
impossibility
to
many
It
of
is
"
squaring the
readers to
interesting
result
hoped that the proof there given of the
whom
of
circle
"
detailed
will
prove
of interest
discussion of this
very
modern Analysis has hitherto not been
accessible.
readilv
w
E.
W. HOBSON.
Christ's College, Cambridge,

October, 1911.
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

In
this edition a few errors in the text
have been corrected.

E.

December, 1917.
W. HOBSON.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
TN
the present treatise, I have given an account, from the
-^
modern point of view, of the theory of the
and
also
circular functions,
of such applications of these functions as have been
usually included in works on Plane Trigonometry.
It is
hoped
that the work will assist in informing and training students of
Mathematics who are intending to proceed considerably further in

the study of Analysis, and that, in view of the fulness with which
the more elementary parts of the subject have been treated, the
book
will also
to be
more
The
be found useful by those whose range of reading
is
limited.
definitions given in
were employed by
Chapter in, of the circular functions,

in his suggestive work on Double
De Morgan
Algebra and Trigonometry, and appear to me to be those from

which the fundamental properties of the functions may be most
easily
deduced in such a way that the proofs may be quite
general, in that they apply to angles of all magnitudes.
It will
be seen that this method of treatment exhibits the formulae

the sine and cosine of the
sum
for
of two angles, in the simplest
merely as the expression of the fact that the projection of

the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle on any straight line in
light,
its
plane
the same
is
equal to the
sum
of the projections of the sides on
line.
The theorems given
in Chapter vii have usually been deferred
until a later stage, but as they are merely algebraical consequences

of the addition theorems, there
should be postponed
seemed
to be
no reason why they
PREFACE
Vll
of an
proof of the expansions of the sine and cosine
in powers of the circular measure has been given in
strict
angle
Chapter
VIII
this is a case in which, in
many
of the text books
in use, the passage from a finite series to an infinite one
is
made
without any adequate investigation of the value of the remainder

after a finite number of terms, simplicity being thus attained at
the expense of rigour.
It
may
perhaps be thought that, at this
might have proceeded to obtain the infinite product

formulae for the sine and cosine, and thus have rounded off the
stage, I
theory of the
functions
of
arrangement, however, and
a real angle;
for
convenience of
in order that the geometrical appli-
might not be too long deferred, the investigation of these

formulae has been postponed until Chapter xvn.
As an account of the theory of logarithms of numbers is given
in all works on Algebra, it seemed unnecessary to repeat it here;
cations
have consequently assumed that the student possesses a knowledge of the nature and properties of logarithms, sufficient for
I
practical application to the solution of triangles
by means of
logarithmic tables.
In Chapter xn, I have deliberately omitted to give any

account of the so-called Modern Geometry of the triangle, as it
would have been impossible to find space for anything like a
complete account of the numerous properties which have been
moreover many of the theorems would be
recently discovered
;
more appropriate
to
a treatise on Geometry than to one on
Trigonometry.
The second
commence
part
of the
book, which
may be supposed
at Chapter XIII, contains an exposition of the
principles of the theory of complex quantities
to
first
hitherto, the very
elements of this theory have not been easily accessible to the

English student, except recently in
Prof.
Chrystal's
excellent
on Algebra. The subject of Analytical Trigonometry

has been too frequently presented to the student in the state in
treatise
which
it
was
left
by Euler, before the researches of Cauchy, Abel,
PREFACE
Vlll
Gauss, and others, had placed the use of imaginary quantities
and especially the theory of
infinite series
and products, where
complex quantities are involved, on a firm scientific basis.

In the Chapter on the exponential theorem and logarithms,
real or
I have ventured to introduce the term "generalized logarithm"

for the
doubly
infinite
of values of the logarithm of a
series
quantity.
owe a deep debt of gratitude to Mr W. B. Allcock, Fellow

of Emmanuel College, and to Mr J. Greaves, Fellow of Christ's
I
College, for their great kindness in reading all the proofs; their
many
suggestions and corrections have been an invaluable aid to
me.
have also to express
my
thanks to
Mr H.
G. Dawson,
Fellow of Christ's College, who has undertaken the laborious

task of verifying the examples.
My acknowledgments are due

and C. Black, who have most kindly placed at my
disposal the article "Trigonometry" which I wrote for the
to Messrs A.
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
During the preparation of the work, I have consulted a large

number of memoirs and treatises, especially German and French
In cases where an investigation which appeared to be
I have indicated the source.
private property has been given,
ones.
need hardly say that I shall be very grateful for any

corrections or suggestions which I may receive from teachers
I
or students
who use the work.
E.
March, 1891.
HOBSON.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.
THE MEASUREMENT OF ANGULAR MAGNITUDE.

PAGES
ARTS.
Introduction
1.
3.
4.
The generation of an angle of any magnitude

The numerical measurement of angles
The circular measurement of angles
The length of a circular arc
The area of a sector of a circle
11.
12.
Examples on Chapter
CHAPTER
THE MEASUREMENT OF
13
16.
The measurement
17.
Projections
....
....
....
...
.
10.
10
10
11
II.
LINES.
PROJECTIONS.
1213
1314
of lines
.
CHAPTER
3
3 4
4 6
7 10
1
III.
THE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS.

18
22
26
21.
24
Definitions of the circular functions
Relations between the circular functions

of values of the circular functions
25.
Range
30.
Properties of the circular functions

Periodicity of the circular functions
31.
Changes
32.
Graphical representation of the circular functions

Angles with one circular function the same
29.
33.
34
'.iH.
....
the sign and magnitude of the

functions
in
15
19
18
20
21
24
inverse circular functions
Examples on Chapter III
24
circular
2426
Determination of the circular functions of certain angles
The
20
28
29
29 32
32 33
33
26
28
3.">
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
IV.
THE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF TWO OR MORE ANGLES.

PAGES
AKTS.
The addition and subtraction formulae
3943.
for the sine
and
cosine
4445.
Formulae
or two cosines
Addition and subtraction formulae
for the addition or subtraction of

.
46.
36
41
41
44
two sines
for the tangent
and
45
47
47 48
44
50.
cotangent
Various formulae
Addition formulae for three angles
Addition formulae for any number of angles
Expression for a product of sines or of cosines as the
51.
Formulae
52.
Expressions for the powers of a sine or cosine as sines

or cosines of multiple angles
Relations between inverse functions
53
53.
54.
Geometrical proofs of formulae
55
....
47.
48.
49.
sum
45
of sines or cosines
for the circular functions of multiple angles
48
49
50
52
53
52
....
.....
54
55
54
Examples on Chapter IV
57
62
58
CHAPTER
V.
THE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF SUBMULTIPLE ANGLES.

55
65
63.
Dimidiary formulae
64.
The
66
....
V
....
.
circular functions of one-third of a given angle

Determination of the circular functions of certain angles
.
Examples on Chapter
CHAPTER
69
72
72 75
75 77
63
70
VI.
7ARI0US THEOREMS.
67.
Introduction
68.
Identities
69.
The
70.
Eliminations
71.
Relations between roots of equations
72.
Maxima and minima.
73.
Porismatic systems of equations
74
77.
78
and transformations
....
solution of equations
The summation
Inequalities
of series
Examples on Chapter VI
7882
8283
8485
8587
8789
8990
9094
94103
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
XI
VII.
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS OF MULTIPLE ANGLES.

ABTS.
79.
80
78
83.
86
PAGES
Series in descending powers of the sine or cosine

Series in ascending powers of the sine or cosine
,
84.
The
85.
Symmetrical functions of the roots of equations
91.
circular functions of submultiple angles
106
109
109 110
110 114
104
106
Factorization
114
Examples on Chapter VII
120
CHAPTER
120
123
VIII.
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS AND THE

CIRCULAR MEASURE OF AN ANGLE.
9295.
96.
97
98.
99.
100.
Theorems
....
Eider's product
The limits of certain expressions
Series for the sine and cosine of an angle in powers
of its circular measure
The
relation
between trigonometrical
braical identities
and
...
124127
127129
130
131
131
134
alge-
Examples on Chapter VIII
135
135138
CHAPTER IX
TRIGONOMETRICAL TABLES.
101.
102
105.
Introduction
....
Calculation of tables of natural circular functions
106.
The
107.
Tables of tangents and secants
108.
Calculation by series
109.
Logarithmic tables
111.
112 114.
115 117.
110
verification of numerical values
Description and use of trigonometrical tables
The
principle of proportional parts
Adaptation of formulae to logarithmic calculation
139
139143
143
143
144145
145
145147
147152
152154
sn
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
X.
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE.

PAGES
ARTS.
118124.
Theorems
155159
125.
The
126.
128.
Variations in the sides and angles of a triangle .

Relations between the sides and angles of polygons
129.
The area
127
area of a triangle
159
of a polygon
Examples on Chapter
161
162
162 163
164 166
160
161
CHAPTER XL
THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES.
130.
133.
134 140.
141 144.
145 149.
131
Introduction
The
The
The
167
167169
169175
176178
178182
182189
solution of right-angled triangles

solution of oblique-angled triangles
solution of polygons
Heights and distances
Examples on Chapter XI
CHAPTER
XII.
PROPERTIES OF TBIANGLES AND QUADRILATERALS.
.....
.....
150.
Introduction
151.
The circumscribed circle of a triangle

The inscribed and escribed circles of a
The medians
The bisectors of the angles
The pedal triangle
The distances between special points
152
154.
155.
156.
157.
158.
159.
160
163.
164
167.
168.
169.
Expressions for the area of a triangle

Various properties of triangles
Properties of quadrilaterals
Properties of regular polygons
.....
Examples
Examples on Chapter XII
190
trian le
190191
191195
195196
196197
197198
198201
201
201203
203208
208209
209213
213223
X1U
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
XIII.
COMPLEX NUMBERS.
PAGES
ARTS.
170.
174.
175 177.
171
178.
179.
180
186
185.
187.
224
Introduction
The geometrical representation of a complex number

The addition of complex numbers
The multiplication of complex numbers
Division of one complex number by another
The powers of complex numbers
.
De
Moivre's theorem
188.
Factorization
189.
Properties of the circle
190
224227
227229
229231
231232
232236
237239
239240
241
....
241242
243245
Examples
Examples on Chapter XIII
CHAPTER XIV
THE THEORY OF INFINITE
191.
192196.
197.
198.
199
201.
202.
203
208.
209.
Introduction
SERIES.
...,-
The convergence
The convergence
of complex series
Continuous functions
Uniform convergence
The geometrical
series
....
....
Series of ascending integral powers

Convergence of the product of two series
....
....
213
The convergence of double series

The Binomial theorem
The circular functions of multiple
220
Expansion of the circular measure of an an; le in

powers of its sine
Expression of powers of sines and cosines in sines
210.
212.
217.
218 219.
'211
222.
and cosines of multiple angles
246
246251
251252
of real series
angles
253
253257
257258
258265
265
266268
268272
272279
279280
280283
CONTENTS
XIV
CHAPTER
XV.
THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION.
LOGARITHMS.
ARTS.
PAGES
The exponential
223227.
228.
229
230W.
231
232.
233
237.
series
Expansions of the circular functions
The exponential
Periodicity of the exponential

tions
Natural logarithms
The
244.
245.
248.
249 250.
254.
255.
256
257.
291
....
The logarithmic
Gregory's series
3).
series
Trigonometrical identities
The summation
300301
302304
304305
305310
310311
311312
312315
315321
.....
The quadrature of the circle

The approximate quadrature
of series
Examples on Chapter
of the circle
XV
CHAPTER
291296
296297
297300
300
Generalized logarithms
251.
2S8 290
circular func-
general exponential function

Logarithms to any base
246
W25K
and
Analytical definition of the circular functions
240
252
288
values of the circular functions
238239.
251
284287
XVI.
THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS.

322
258.
Introduction
259.
Relations between the hyperbolic functions

The addition formulae
260261.
262.
263
265.
266.
267
270.
271.
272
274.
275
276.
....
Formulae
for multiples
and submultiples
322323
323324
324
Series for hyperbolic functions .

Periodicity of the hyperbolic functions
324325
Area of a sector of a rectangular hyperbola
326331
.....
......
Expressions for the circular functions of
The
326
com
plex arguments
inverse circular functions of complex argu
ments
277.
The
The
278.
Table of the Gudermannian function
inverse hyperbolic functions

solution of cubic equations
Examples on Chapter
XVI
331
331333
333334
335336
336
337
XV
CONTEXTS
CHAPTER
XVII.
INFINITE PRODUCTS.
PAGES
ART3.
279281.
282
292.
The convergence
of infinite products
.
.
Expressions for the sine and cosine as infinite pro.
343354
ducts
292 W.
293
295.
296
299.
300.
301.
......
Representation of the exponential function

infinite
product
by an
........
Series for the tangent, cotangent, secant,
secant
342
338
and
co-
355
355 359
354:
Expansion of the tangent, cotangent, secant, and

cosecant in powers of the argument
Series for the logarithmic sine and cosine
Examples
Examples on Chapter XVII
367369
369373
CHAPTER
360
365
364
367
XVIII.
CONTINUED FRACTIONS.
302
303.
Proof of the irrationality of
-k
......
.....
304.
Transformation of the quotient of two hypergeo

metric series
305.
Euler's transformation
Examples on Chapter XVIII

Miscellaneous Examples
374375
375
376
376377
378383
CHAPTER
I.
THE MEASUREMENT OF ANGULAR MAGNITUDE.

1.
is
The
primary object of the science of Plane Trigonometry
to develope a
method of solving plane
triangles.
plane
and three angles, and supposing the

triangle
magnitudes of any three of these six parts to be given, one at
least of the three given parts being a side, it is possible, under
certain limitations, to determine the magnitudes of the remaining
has three sides
We
shall find
three parts; this is called solving the triangle.
that in order to attain this primary object of the science, it will be
necessary to introduce certain functions of an angular magnitude
;
and Plane Trigonometry, in the extended sense,
will
be under-
stood to include the investigation of all the properties of these

so-called circular functions and their application in analytical and
geometrical investigations not connected with the solution of
triangles.
The generation of an angle of any magnitude.

2.
The angles considered
in Euclidean
Geometry are
all less
than two right angles, but for the purposes of Trigonometry it is

necessary to extend the conception of angular magnitude so as to
include angles of all magnitudes, positive and negative.
Let OA
be a fixed straight line, and let a straight line OP, initially coincident with OA, turn round the point
in the counter-clockwise
as
it
then
it
the
direction,
turns,
generates
angle AOP; when OP
reaches the position OA', it has generated an angle equal to two
right angles,
h. t.
and we may suppose
it to
go on turning in the same

1
THE MEASUREMENT OF ANGULAR MAGNITUDE
direction until
it is
again coincident with OA it has then turned

we may then suppose OP to go on
;
through four right angles
turning in the same direction, and in fact, to make any number

of complete turns round
each time it makes a complete
:
revolution
position
it
OP.
describes four right angles, and if

it
will
it stop in any
have generated an angle which may be of
any absolute magnitude, according to the position of P. We

shall make the convention that an angle so described is positive,
and that the angle described when OP turns in the opposite or
clockwise direction
perfectly
arbitrary,
clockwise
direction
is
This convention
negative.
we might,
for
if
we
is
of course
pleased, have taken the
the positive one.
In
accordance with
our convention then, whenever OP makes a complete counterclockwise revolution, it has turned through four right angles
reckoned positive, and whenever it makes a complete clockwise

revolution, it has turned through four right angles taken negatively.
As an illustration of the generation of angles of any magnitude, we may

consider the angle generated by the large hand of a clock.
Each hour, this
hand turns through four right angles, and preserves no record of the number
it has made
this, however, is done by the small hand, which only
turns through one-twelfth of four right angles in the hour, and thus enables
us to measure the angle turned through by the large hand in any time less
of turns
than twelve hours. In order that the angles generated by the large hand
may be positive, and that the initial position may agree with that in our
we must suppose the hands to revolve in the opposite direction to that

which they actually revolve in a clock, and to coincide at three o'clock
figure,
in
instead of at twelve o'clock.
3.
Supposing OP in the figure to be the final position of
the turning line, the angle it has described in turning from the
position OA to the position OP may be any one of an infinite
of positive and negative angles, according to the number

and direction of the complete revolutions the turning line has
number
made, and any two of these angles

multiple of four right angles.
differ
We
by a
positive or negative
call all these angles
shall
bounded by the two lines OA, OP coterminal angles, and denote

them by {OA, OP); the arithmetically smallest of the angles
(OA, OP) is the Euclidean angle AOP, and all the others are
got by adding positive or negative multiples of four right angles
to the algebraical value of this.
The numerical measurement of angles.
Having now explained what
is meant by an
angle of any
the
next
to
be made, as
step
magnitude,
is
to
fix
of
a
measurement
the
angles,
upon
system for
regards
In order to do this, we must
their numerical measurement.
4.
positive or negative
decide upon a unit angle, which may be any arbitrarily chosen

angle of fixed magnitude then all other angles will be measured
;
numerically by the ratios they bear to this unit angle. The

natural unit to take would be the right angle, but as the angles
of ordinary size would then be denoted by fractions less than
unity,
it is
more convenient
to take a smaller angle as the unit.
the degree, which is one ninetieth

In
order
to avoid having to use fractions
a
of
angle.
part
right
of a degree, the degree is subdivided into sixty parts called
The one
in ordinary use
is
minutes, and the minute into sixty parts called seconds.

.smaller than a second are denoted as decimals of a
the third, which would be the sixtieth
being used.
An
angle of
d degrees
is
part
of a
denoted by
Angles
second,
second, not
d,
an angle
minutes by m, and an angle of n seconds by n", thus

an angle d m n" means an angle containing d degrees + m
of
+n
seconds, and
is
equal to
y()
71
?/&
(Jj
minutes
^-^ + ^^-^
bf a right angle.
measurement of angles is called

For example, the angle 23 14' 56""4
sexagesimal system.
14
23
56'4
f a ri S ht an S le
denotes
+
+
90760 90 60760
90
This system of numerical
the
'
12
It has been proposed to use the decimal system of measurement of angles.

In this system the right angle is divided into a hundred grades, the grade
into a hundred minutes, and the minute into a hundred seconds an angle of
;
minutes and n seconds is then written g% m ?j". For example,

the angle 13s 97 4""2 is equal to 13-97042 of a right angle. This system has
however never come into use, principally because it would be inconvenient in
grades,
turning time into grades of longitude, unless the day were divided differently
The day might, if the system of grades were adopted,
it is at present.
than
be divided into forty hours instead of twenty-four, and the hour into one
hundred minutes, thus involving an alteration in the chronometers one
of our present hours of time corresponds to a difference of 50/3 grades of
longitude, which being fractional is inconvenient.
It is an interesting fact that the division of four right angles into 360
parts was used by the Babylonians there has been a good deal of speculation
;
as to the reason for their choice of this
number
of subdivisions.
The circular measurement of
angles.
Although, for all purely practical purposes, the sexagesimal

system of numerical measurement of angles is universally used,
for theoretical purposes it is more convenient to take a different
5.
unit angle.
In any
circle of centre 0,
suppose
AB
to be an arc
is
equal to the radius of the circle we shall shew
is of constant magnitude independent of
that the angle
this angle is called the Radian or
the particular circle used
whose length
AOB
unit of circular measure, and the magnitude of any other angle

is expressed by the ratio which it bears to this unit angle, this
ratio being called the circular
measure of
the angle.

In order to shew that the Radian
6.
assume the following two theorems
is
a fixed angle, we shall
In the same circle, the lengths of different arcs are to one

(a)
another in the same ratio as the angles which those arcs subtend
at the centre of the circle.
The length
(b)
of the whole circumference of a circle bears
which
to the diameter a ratio
The theorem
we
(a)
is
From
(a)
it
the same for
theorem
(6) at the
AB
arc
Since the arc
AB
is,
quently the angle
circles.
VI. Prop. 33, and

end of the present
follows that
Z.A OB
circumference of the circle
of these ratios
all
contained in Euclid, Book
shall give a proof of the
Chapter.
is
'
4 right angles
equal to the radius of the circle, the first

according to (b), the same in all circles, conseis
AOB
is
of constant magnitude independent of
the particular circle used.

It will
7.
be shewn hereafter that the ratio of the circum-
ference of a circle to its diameter

is,
we
is
an
are unable to give any integers
irrational
number; that
and n such that m/n is
We shall, in a later Chapter, give an

exactly equal to the ratio.
account of the various methods which have been
employed to
calculate approximately the value of this ratio, which
is
usually
denoted by nr. At present it is sufficient to say that ir can

only
be obtained in the form of an infinite
non-recurring decimal, and
that its value to the first twenty places of decimals is
3-14159265358979323846.
For many purposes
3-14159.
The
mate values of
22
ratios
be sufficient to use the approximate value

= 3-i42857, 355 = 3-1415929... may be used as approxiit will
n, since they agree with the correct value of
to
two and
six
places of decimals respectively.
We
in
8.
have shewn that the radian is to four right angles
the ratio of the radius to the circumference of a circle the
;
radian
is
therefore
--
7T
right
angle
is
90,
3141 5027, we obtain
x a right angle; remembering then that
and
the approximate value of it,

approximate value of the radian
using
for the
in degrees, 57"2957796, or reducing the decimal of a degree to
minutes and seconds, 57 17'44"*81.

The value
of the radian has been calculated by Glaisher to 41 places of

The value of 1/n- has been obtained to 140 places of
decimals of a second 1
decimals 2
The circular measure of a right angle is \tt, and that of

9.
two right angles is it and we can now find the circular measure
of an angle given in degrees, or vice versa if d be the number of
degrees in an angle of which the circular measure is 6, we have
;
180
each of these ratios expresses the ratio of the given
for
lrrlo t.n t.wn riorlit n.ncrlps

angle to two right angles
thus
d
y-^
180
"I
minutes, and seconds, as d
is
(d
The
circular
that of 1"
is
number
6; if an angle
is
n", its circular
is
of degrees in
an
given in degrees,
measure
is
+ m/60 + n/3600) w/180.
measure of
-01745329..., of
1 is
circular
measure of the angle
centre of a circle by
the arc
'
AU
this ratio
the
1'
is
and
-0002908882...,
-000004848137
The
10.
the circular measure of
Of)
an angle of d degrees, and

angle whose circular measure
is
is
to
equal
n
AP,
arc
AP
arc
AB
j-^.
or
is
A0P,
equal to
Z.A0P
~
<LA0B
.
subtended at the
-.
radius
of.
-.-
for
circle
The arc AP may be greater than the whole circumference and

may be measured either positively, or negatively, according to the
is measured from the starting point A, so
that the circular measure of an angle of any magnitude is the
measure of the arc which subtends the angle, divided by the
direction in which it
radius of the
is
rd,
circle.
where 6
is
The length
of an arc of a circle of radius r
the circular measure
subtends at the centre of the
circle.
of the
angle the arc
The whole circumference
of the circle is therefore 27rr.

1
On
the calculation of the value of the theoretical unit angle to a great

Quarterly Journal, Vol. iv.
of places.
2
See Grunert's Archiv, Vol.
i.,
1841.
number

The
length of
a circular
arc.
It has been assumed above that the length of a circular

a definite conception, and that it is capable of numerical
measurement; this matter will be now investigated. The primary
notion of length is that of a linear interval, or finite portion of a
11.
arc
is
and the notion of the length of an arc of a curve, for

example of a circular arc, must be regarded as derivative. That
a given finite portion of a straight line has a length which can be
straight line
or irrational number, dependent

represented by a definite rational
upon an assumed unit of length, will be here taken for granted.
In order to define the length of a circular arc
AB, we proceed
as
H-l
follows:
arc
AB
Let a number of points of division A A 2 ...

be assigned, and consider the unclosed polygon
x
AAÂ
the
sum
...
of the lengths of the sides
...
A n>^B,
A^ of the
A n ^B\
AA
+ A A,+
this polygon has a definite numerical value
polygon AA-! A,!
...
+A n _,B
Next
where n'>n, be inscribed
let a
of
new
in the arc
A B,
the greatest side of this polygon being less than the greatest
side of
A 2 ...B; let the sum of the sides of this new unclosed
l
be 2
Proceeding further by successive subdivision of
AA
polygon
of inscribed unclosed polygons

denoted
of which the lengths are
by the numbers pu pit ...p n
In case the
continued
of a sequence which may be
indefinitely.
of the
mode
the
of
number p n has a definite limit I, independent
the arc
AB, we obtain a sequence
successive sub-divisions of the arc
mode being
that
AB,
subject
only to the condition that the greatest side of the unclosed polygon
corresponding to p n becomes indefinitely small as n is indefinitely
increased, then the arc
AB
said to have the length
is
to shew that a circular arc has a length,
that this limit
and
exists,
from the definition that,
this
ABC
if
it is
In order
I.
necessary to shew
we proceed to do. It is clear

be an arc, then if AB, BC have
ABC
is
definite lengths, so also has AC; and that the length of
It will therefore be
the sum of the lengths of the arcs AB, BC.
shew that an
sufficient to
which
arc
than a semicircle has a
is less
we
consider a particular
place
length.
that
the
corners
of each polygon are
such
of
sequence
polygons
In
definite
the
first
the subsequent polygons of the sequence.

...
n ... the lengths of these unclosed
2
ly
Denoting by
that
can
shewn
be
polygons, it
of
also corners
all
P P
<
-i
<
>
<
-l
seen that
A r A r+1
is less than the

by elementary geometry,
which
unclosed
sum of the sides of an
joins A r A r+1
polygon
Again all the numbers P 1} P2 ... Pn ... are less than a fixed
number. For let TA, TB be the tangents at A, B the ends of
the arc, and draw A^, A 2 oc2> ... Anâ,^ parallel to BT, and also
draw A ^ A 2 ft.2 .. Anîfin-! parallel to AT. We have then
it is
for,
AA <Aa + A
l
a1
<AoL +
l
A A, + A A +
hence
A A, < c^cco + /3,/3 &c;

+ A n _,B < AT + BT,
Tfi 1
...
and
2,
Pn < AT + BT.
therefore
In accordance with a fundamental principle in the theory of

limits, since the sequence Pu P2 ... Pn ... of numbers is such that
each one is less than the next one, and such that all of them are
>
less
than a fixed number, the sequence has a limit I, which is such

be an arbitrarily chosen positive number, as small as we
that, if
please, from
differ
from
To shew
and after some value n of

by less than e.
x
that
if
p lf p 2
...
pn
...
n, all
the numbers
are the lengths of
any
Pn
se-
quence of unclosed polygons whatever joining A, B, not subject

to the condition that the corners of each polygon are also corners
of all the subsequent ones, but subject
only to the condition that
the greatest side of the nth polygon decreases as n increases, and
has zero for
its limit,
we compare such a sequence with the
special
sequence considered above, and which has been shewn to have a

definite number I as the limit of the lengths of the polygons
of the sequence whose lengths
A 2 ... A r
Consider a polygon
are
2 ..., so far advanced that its length is greater 'than
lt
AA
P P
e.
^B
integer ri can be determined, such that, if n = ri, the

polygon Aafiy, ...k, ...B of which the length is pn has its greatest
A, ... r _ x B and also less than
side less than the least side of
X
l
An
AA
Some
e/2?\
A Au A A
1
of the points
....
Let
a, /3,
@,
a,
7 be
are then in each of the arcs
7, ...
AA
in
then
+ a/3 + 7 + yA > AA
Using this and the similar inequalities -4jS + Se+ ... + kA > A A
we have by addition, and remembering that yA A^, ... are all
less than e/2r, pn + e > AA + A A,+ ... + A r ^B > - e, thereNext consider a polygon
fore p n > 2e, provided n = ri.
AAiAA ... B, of the sequence whose lengths are P ,P2 ,...,
Act
'
advanced that the greatest side is less than the least side
of A'xfiy ... kB, and also less than e/2s, where 5 is the number of
so far
sides in this latter polygon
It has
I
as before
we
see that
pn <e + AAi+ A{A: + ...<l + e.

now been shewn that, if = ri, pn lies between
11
2e, and
therefore differs from
by
less
than
2e.
+e
and
Since
e is
and to each value of it there corresponds an

has been shewn that p n has the same limit I, when
arbitrarily chosen,
integer
ri, it
indefinitely increased, as for the special sequence of polygons
is
first
considered.
now been shewn that the length of a circular arc is

measured by a definite number, a unit of length being assumed.
The circumference C of the whole circle is itself given as the
It has
limit of the perimeters of a sequence of inscribed closed polygons,

such that the greatest of the sides becomes indefinitely small as
the sequence proceeds.

That the lengths of different arcs of the same circle are to one
another as the angles subtended by those arcs at the centre of the
may now be established as in Euclid, Book VI. Prop. 33.

To prove that the circumferences of circles vary as their
circle
diameters, let us consider two circles of which the diameters are

If two similar polygons be inscribed in the circles, it
d'.
d and
follows from the properties of similar rectilineal figures that the

perimeters of these polygons are to one another in the ratio of d
to
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
10
The circumferences G and
d'.
C of
the circles
may
be taken
'
be the limits of the perimeters p n p n of two sequences of

polygons such that the polygon corresponding to p n is for each
to
value of n similar to the polygon corresponding to p n'. Since

d', it follows that the ratio of the limit of p n to that
Pn Pn
=d
'
'
of the limit of
pn
equal to the ratio of d
is
d';
and therefore
C:C' = d:d'
The area of a sector of a
The area
12.
OAB
of the sector
circle.
of a circle, with centre 0,
AB
is defined to be the limit of the sum of

bounded by the arc
the
the areas of the triangles
lt 0A A 2 ... 0A n _ x B, when
0AA
AA A
number
of sides of the polygon

nitely and the greatest of its sides
explained in
definite
11.
...
is
increased indefi-
diminished indefinitely, as
It must be proved that this limit exists as a
is
number
Let q1} q 2 ,...qn be the lengths of the perpendiculars from

AA J} A 1 A 2} ... A n_x B\ then the sum of the areas of
on the sides
the triangles
lies
and
AA + q2 AÂ 2 + ... + qn .A n_1 B), and this

and
\ q"p n where q' and q" are the greatest
pn
the numbers q 1} q2 ,...q n and p n is the sum of the
is
between ^ q
least of
\{q
The limit of p n exists as the length of the

sides of the polygon.
also
numbers q, q" have one and the same
the
two
arc
;
AB
they differ from this radius by

Therefore the
less than half the greatest side of the polygon.
area of the sector is a definite number, equal to half the product
limit, the radius of the circle, since
of the radius r of the circle, and the length rO of the arc AB;
is the circular measure of the
where
angle AOB. Thus area
A0B = \r-6.
arc
is
is
The whole
a sector of which the bounding

hence the area of the whole circle
circle is
the whole circumference
irr\
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER L
i
What must be the unit of measurement, that the numerical measure
an angle may be equal to the difference between its numerical measures as
expressed in degrees and in circular measure ?
of
2.
If the measures of the angles of a triangle referred to
as units be in the proportion of ^,1,3, find the angles.
1, 100',
10000"
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
3.
(1)
11
Find the number of degrees in an angle of a regular polygon of n sides

it is convex, (2) when its periphery surrounds the inscribed circle m
when
times.
x
of the angles of a triangle are 52 53' 51", 4le 22 50" respectively

find the third angle.
4.
Two
of
5.
Find, to five decimal places, the arc which subtends an angle
the centre of a circle whose radius is 4000 miles.
6.
An
angle
is
1 at
such that the difference of the reciprocals of the number
of grades and degrees in

find the angle.
it is
its circular
equal to
measure divided by
2tt
The angles of a plane quadrilateral are in a.p. and the difference of

7.
the greatest and least is a right angle find the number of degrees in each
angle and also the circular measure.
;
In each of two triangles the angles are in g.p. the least angle of one
is three times the least angle in the other, and the sum of the
find the circular measure of the angles.
greatest angles is 240
8.
of
them
If an arc of 10 feet on a circle of eight feet diameter subtend at the

9.
centre an angle 143 14' 22", find the value of n to four decimal places.
Find two regular figures such that the number of degrees in an

of
the one is to the number of degrees in an angle of the other as the
angle
number of sides in the first is to the number of sides in the second.
10.
11.
ABC is a triangle such that, if each of its angles in succession be
taken as the unit of measurement, and the measures formed of the sums of
the other two, these measures are in a.p. Shew that the angles of the
Also shew that only one of these angles can be greater
triangle are in h.p.
than of a right angle.

12.
Shew that there are eleven and only eleven pairs of regular polygons
which are such that the number of degrees in an angle of one of them is
equal to the number of grades in an angle of the other, and that there are
only four pairs in which these angles are expressed by integers.
of the sun is half a degree.

planet
a straight line at a distance from its centre equal
Prove that the angle subtended at the earth, by
to three-fifths of its radius.
the part of the planet's path projected on the sun, is 7J-/450.
13.
is
The apparent angular diameter
seen to cross
its disc in
CHAPTEE
THE MEASUREMENT OF
13.
If
it is
II.
PROJECTIONS.
LINES.
required to measure a given length along a given
straight line, supposed indefinitely prolonged in both directions,

starting from any assumed point, the question arises, in which
In order to avoid
is the given length to be measured off.
ambiguity, Ave agree that to lengths measured along the straight
line in one direction a positive number shall be assigned, and
direction
consequently in the other direction a negative number; it is

necessary then in such a straight line to assign the positive
Suppose, in the figure, we agree that lines measured
direction.
EC
A
from
right shall be considered to have a positive measure
left to
the length
AB
negatively, or
14.
If
is
then measured positively, and the length
BA
AB= BA.
be any third point anywhere on the straight line, we

= AG+GB, for example if, as in the figure, G lies
have AB
beyond B, the
shall
line CB is negative, and therefore its numerical

The sum of the measures
length is subtracted from that of AC.
of the lengths of any number of such straight lines generated
by a point which starts at A and finishes its motion at B is
accordingly equal to that of

15.
line
OP
When,
as in Art.
turning from an
2,
AB.
an angle
initial
is
generated by a straight
position
OA, we
shall
suppose
THE MEASUREMENT OF LINES.
PROJECTIONS
that, whilst turning, the positive direction in the line

unaltered, thus the angle which has been generated in
of
OP
OP
13
remains
any position
the angle between the two positive directions of the
is
bounding
It
lines.
follows,
that
if
AB, CD
are
the positive
AB
AB
DC
and
lines, the angle between
and CD,
differs by two right angles from the angle between
must turn through an
for a line revolving from the position
with
180
to
coincide
DC,
greater or less than the
angle, in order
directions in
two straight
AB
CD.
If we consider all the coterminal angles bounded by AB and
CD, and by AB and DC, respectively, we shall have (AB, CD)
= (AB, DC) + 180, the angles being all measured in degrees.
angle
it
16.
suppose
must turn through
When
in order to coincide with
a straight line moves parallel to itself, we shall

direction to be unaltered, so that if AB, CD
its positive
are non-intersecting straight lines, the angle between them is equal

and a straight line drawn through
to the angle between
AB
CD. For ordinary geometrical purposes, the angle

parallel
between AB and CD is the smallest angle between AB and this
to
of sign.
parallel, irrespective
Projections.
from the extremities P, Q of any straight line PQ

be drawn to any straight line AB, the
perpendiculars PM,
MN, with its proper sign, is called the projection of the
17.
If
QN
portion
on the straight line AB. It should be noticed

not necessarily be in the same plane. The
PQ
is
of
QP NM, and has therefore the opposite sign to
projection
straight line
and
that
that of
PQ.
PQ
AB need
THE MEASUREMENT OF
14
and Q be joined
If the points
the
sum
of
the
projections of
PpqrQ,
to the projection of
is
PQ
on AB.
Mm + mn + ns + sN, which
MN.
We
PROJECTIONS
LINES.
by any broken line, such as

Pp,pq, qr, rQ on AB is equal
For the sum of the projections
is, according to Art. 14, equal to

obtain thus the fundamental property of projections.
The sum of the projections on any fixed straight line, of the parts
of any broken line joining two points P and Q, depends only upon
the positions of P and Q, being independent of the manner in which
and Q are
joined.
particular case of this proposition
is
the following
The sum of the projections on any straight line, of the sides,

taken in order, of any closed polygon, is zero. If, in the above figure,
the points P and Q coincide, the broken line joining them becomes
a closed polygon, and since the projection of PQ is zero, the sum of
the projections of the sides, taken in order, of the polygon, is also
The polygon is not necessarily plane, and may have any
zero.
number
of re-entrant angles.
CHAPTER
III.
THE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS.

Definitions of the circular functions.
18.
Having now
explained the manner in which angular and
magnitudes are measured, we are in a position to define the

Circular Functions or Trigonometrical Ratios.
Suppose an angle
AOP of any magnitude A, to be generated as in Art. 2, by the
linear
revolution of
OP
from the
initial position
OA, remembering the

Let B'OB be drawn
convention made as to the sign of angles.

we suppose the positive directions in
perpendicular to A'OA
We
to B respectively.
to A and
to be from
A'OA and
;
BOB
THE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
16
also
remember the convention made
in Art. 15, as to the

positive
direction of the revolving line.
OF
The ratio of
OP,
is
the projection of
on the initial line, to the length
called the cosine of the angle A, and is denoted
by cos A.
OF
The ratio of the projection of
makes an angle
+ 90
the sine of the angle A,
and
is
OP
the projection of
tangent of the angle A,
The
ratio of
A, and
OP,
which
called
on OB, to its projection on OA,

is denoted by tan A.
called the cotangent of the angle A,
the angle
OP,
is
and
The ratio of the projection of OP on OA,

is
OB
denoted by sin A.
The ratio of
is called the
on the straight line
luith the initial line, to the length
to its projection
and
is
to its projection
on OB,
denoted by cot A.
on OA,
is called the
secant of
denoted by sec A.
is
The ratio of OP, to its projection on OB,

and is denoted by cosec A.
is called the
cosecant of
the angle A,
Thus we have
A=
.
cos
cotA, =
OM
Qp
>
OM
m
ON
tan
sm4=^,
S
.OP
ecA=
A= OP
.
cosec
ON
4=^,
When
each of the lengths in the ratios is taken with its proper

are
sign, the sign of OP is always positive, but those of OM,
each positive or negative according to the magnitude of the angle
ON
A.
It should
sign as
.
ON,
.
sinAs=
In the
A0P>,,
be observed that
MP
is
equal
to,
and of the same
so that
MP
OP>
figure, the
t&nA=
angle
A0P A0P
3
MP
OM'
cotA==
OM
IJP'
OP
^=J/p.
cosec
has four different magnitudes
corresponding to the four positions
AOP
P P
1}
1}
P* of P.
The projection of any positive or negative length A B, on a straight line

CD, is obtained by multiplying the length AB taken with its proper sign
by the cosine of the angle between the positive directions of the lines on
which AB and CD lie; the projection is thus given with its proper sign.
It
should be observed that since OP, in the figure, always retains the
it revolves from the position OA, when it coincides with OA'
positive sign as
it
has the opposite sign to that of OA'.

The
19.
six
ratios
defined
above
are
17
the
six
Circular
Functions, called also Trigonometrical Ratios or Trigonometrical

Functions. Each of them depends only upon the magnitude of the
angle A, and not upon the absolute length of OP. This follows
from the property of similar triangles, that the ratios of the sides
are the same in all similar triangles, so that when OP is taken of
a different length,
angle.
tude
we have the same
six ratios are
only
we may
ratios as before for the
same
then functions of the angular magnisuppose A to be measured either in the
These
sexagesimal system or in circular measure. For convenience, we

shall in general use large letters A, B, G,... for angles measured in
degrees, minutes and seconds, and small letters a, /3, 0, (/>,... for
angles measured in circular measure; so that, for example, sin J.
is the measure in
denotes the sine of the angle of which
degrees,
minutes and seconds, and sin a

a
is
the circular measure.
To
the sine of the angle of which

these six circular functions two
is
be added, which are sometimes used, the versine written

versing, and the coversine written coversinJ.; these are defined
= 1 cos A, coversin A = 1 sin A.
by the equations versin A
others
may
The
versine
and coversine are used very
little in
theoretical
investigations, but the versine occurs very frequently in the

formulae used in navigation.
20.
In the case of an acute angle, the definitions of the

may be put into the following form. Let
circular functions
be any point in either of the bounding lines of the given

angle
draw
perpendicular to the other bounding line, we have then
PN
H. T.
18
PAN,
the right-angled triangle

given one A.
Cos
is
of which the angle
sin
as
hypothenuse
A
.
as
as
the
AA
side opposite to
-r-.
cot
side adjacent to
as -^side opposite to
cosec
as
.
'
hypothenuse
ar
side adjacent to
side opposite to
hypothenuse
side adjacent to
sec
is
then defined as
side adjacent to
tan
PAN
A
A
'
hypothenuse
side opposite to
'
Until recently, the circular functions of an angle were denned, not as

but as lengths having reference to arcs of a circle of specified size. If
be an arc of a given circle, let
be drawn perpendicular to OA, and let
21.
ratios,
PA
PT
PA,
PN
PN
was defined to be the sine of the arc

be the tangent at P; the line
its versine.
ON to be its cosine, Fîts tangent, OT its secant, and
AN
In this system the magnitudes of the sine, cosine, tangent, &c. depended not
only upon the angle POA, but also upon the radius of the circle, which had
of the present mode of definition of
that they are independent of the radius of any
The sine
circle, and are therefore functions of an angular magnitude only.
of an arc was first used by the Arabian Mathematician Al-Battani (878 918)
The advantage
therefore to be specified.
the functions as ratios,
is
the Greek Mathematicians had used the chords PP' of the double
of the sine
PN of the arc PA.
arc, instead
19
Relations between the circular functions.

22.
we
Referring to the definitions of the circular functions,
see at once that there are the following relations between
them,
(1)
(2)
A sec A = 1,
sin A cosec A = \,
cos
(3)
(4)
A cot A = 1,
tan A = sin Afcos A
cot A = cos A /sin A)
tan
)
'
Expressed in words, the relations (1), (2), (3) assert the facts
that the secant, cosecant, and cotangent of an angle are the
reciprocals of the cosine, sine, and tangent of the angle re-
and relation (4) expresses the fact that the tangent of

an angle is the ratio of its sine to its cosine, or what, in virtue
of (3), comes to the same thing, that the cotangent of an angle is
spectively
the ratio of the cosine to the sine of the angle.

23.
Referring to the figure in Art. 18, the square on OP is
by the Pythagoraean theorem, equal to the sum of the squares ot
its projections OM and MP, so that since the ratios of these projections to OP are the cosine and sine respectively of the angle
2
A, we have (cos -<4) + (sin A)* 1 or, as it is usually written,
cos 2 J.
+ sin
A= 1.
and remember
If we divide both sides of this equation by cos 2

the relations (1) and (4), we have 1
tan 2 J.
sec 2 J.
we
divide both sides of the equation by sin 2 A, and

2
the relations (2) and (4), we have 1 + cot
cosec 2 J..
similarly if
remember
Thus the three
identities,
cos 2
A + sin A = 1
1 + tan A = secM
1 + cot A = cosec A
2
are different forms of the
same
relation
(5),
between the functions.
24.
The five independent relations just obtained between
the six circular functions enable us to express any five of these
The student should verify the
functions in terms of the sixth.
correctness of the following table, in which the

each column stands at the head of that column,
meaning of x in
and the value of
the expressions in each horizontal line, at the beginning.
22
20
sin
sin
A=
cos
tan
A=
cot
A=
sec
A=
cosec
A =x
21
Properties of the circular functions.

If the angles
26.
see that
OP
A OP, AOp
be
J.
and
respectively,
we
and Op have equal projections OM, upon OA, but
that their projections ON, On, on OB, are of equal magnitude but
opposite sign, therefore
cos
it
= cos -4, and sin( A) = sin^

(6);
tan ( A) = tan A, cot ( A) = cot A,
sec (A) sec A, cosec ( A)= cosec-4.
( A)
follows that
If a function of a variable has its
magnitude unaltered when
the sign of the variable is changed, that function is called an even

function, but if the function has the same numerical value as
before,
but with opposite
odd function
sign,
for instance x* is
odd function of
x,
but x%
+X
then that function
is
an even function of
x,
called
an
an
is
neither even nor odd, since its

the sign of x is changed.
see
is
numerical value changes when

We
then that the cosine and the secant of an angle are even functions,
and
tlie
and cosecant are odd functions.

an even function, but the coversine is neither even
sine, tangent, cotangent,
The versine
is
nor odd.
27.
The values of the circular functions of an angle depend
only upon the position of the bounding line OP, with reference
to the other bounding line OA, consequently all the coterminal
22
angles (OA, OP) have the same circular functions, or in other

all the angles n 360 + A, where n is any positive or
words,
negative integer, have their circular functions the same as those

If a be the circular measure of the angle which contains
of A.
degrees,
all
the angles
2mr
+ a,
in circular measure, have the
We have also,
same circular functions.
2mr a have the same circular functions,
and
The
since
sin (2n7r
a) = sin ( a) = sin a,
cos (2rnr
a) = cos ( a) = cos a.
properties
we have obtained
equations
sin (2n7r
cos
(2mr
-A
all
are both included
= + sin a)
a) = cos a J
the angles
in
the
a)
.(6).
a is bounded by OQ, then 0Q

makes the same angle with OA' as OP does with OA, and we see
that the projections of OP and OQ on OA are equal and of opposite
28.
sign,
If the angle 180
and the projections of
or
OP
tt
and OQ, on OB, are equal and of
the same sign, therefore sin {tt a) = sin a, and cos

These equations hold whatever a may be, so that
into
and
a,
{ir
and we have
sin {ir
a)
cos
a.)
{ir
a) = cos a.
we can change
= sin ( a) = sin a
= cos ( a) = cos a.

Thus we have the system
of equations
cos (tt
= + sin a)
a) = cos a
tan
sin {it
from these
Also
we
sin (2?i
a)
{it
7r
1 it
1 it
cos (2w 4- 1
a)
tan a
(8).
= sin (ir a) = + sin

a]
= cos (tt a) = cos a\
a)
= tan (7r + a) = + tan a)
a)
a)
(9).
In the figure of Art. 28, the angle OP makes with OB' is

therefore the cosine of the angle 90 + A or tt + a is the
29.
+A
obtain
tan (2n
90
23
OP
ratio of the projection of
OP
on OB' to
hence since the pro-
jection on OB' is equal with opposite sign to the projection on OB,

we have cos (\tt + a) = sin a changing ^ it + a into a, we have
;
cos a
sin (a
\tt),
hence in virtue of (6) we have
cos a
sin(^7r
a).
In these equations we can, if Ave please, change the sign of a,

may be either positive or negative we have then the
since a
equations
a) = cos a \
a) = + sin a I
tan {\ir a) = + cot a)
sin (^7r
cos (^7r
We
have
also,
from (6) and

sin
(m +
^TT
cos
tan
QO).
(9),
= (- l)w sin (tt

a) = (- l) m cos (^tt
a)
(m +
\tt
(m +
^tt
a)
a)
= (
a)
= + (-
a)
tan (^ 7r
a),
a),
a),
hence
sin
(m +
\tt
+ jw
tan (w + ^ 7r
cos (ra
The angle
the angle
We
7r
a
^tt
is
is
cos a
j
l)
m sin
oc>
+ cot a
(11).
called the supplement of the angle

complement of a.
the
sine of
supplementary angle,
equal, with opposite sign,
o,
and
to the cosine
an angle
the cosine
of
its
is
equal
and
to
of an angle
supplement
the
is
also that
an angle is equal to the cosine of its complement, and

an
of
angle is equal to the sine of its complement.
the sine of
cosine
called the
have shewn that
sine of the
l)
the
24
The formulae (6) to (11) enable us to find the circular functions

of an angle, when we know the values of the circular functions of
that angle between zero and ^tt, which differs from the given angle
by a multiple of %tt, or also when we know the
of the complement of this latter angle.
circular functions
Periodicity of the circular functions.
When a function f(x) of a variable has the property

f{x) =f(x + k) for every value of x, k being a constant, the function
30.
is called periodic; if moreover the quantity k is the least

constant for which the function has this property, then k is called
the period of the function.
f(x)
It follows at once that
iff(x)=f(x +
k),
then f{x) =f(x
+ n k),
any positive or negative integer; if then we know

the values of the function for all values of x lying between two
where n
is
values of x which differ by k, we know the values of the function

for all other values of x, the function having values which are a
mere repetition of
its
values in the interval for which they are
given.
The property
(6),
of sin
are periodic functions of

measured in degrees, sin
a,
a.
and cos
a,
shews that these functions
the period being
and cos
27r,
or if the angle
is
are periodic functions of A,

property (7) shews that ^these
The
period being 360.
functions are such that their values, for values of the angle
differing by half the complete period, are equal with opposite sign.
The property (8) shews that the tangent is periodic, the complete
the
Obviously
period being ir, half the period of the sine and cosine.
the period of the secant or of the cosecant is 27r, and that of the
cotangent
is it.
It will be hereafter seen that the circular functions
derive their importance in analysis principally from their possession

of this property of periodicity.
Changes in the sign and magnitude of the circular functions.

31.
We
shall
now
trace the changes in the
magnitude and
sign of the circular functions of an angle, as the angle increases

from zero to four right angles.
(1)
To
trace the changes in the value of the sine of
an angle,
25
we must observe the changes in magnitude and sign of the

projection ON, in the figure of Art. 18. When the angle A is zero,
OX is zero, and as A increases up to 90, ON is positive and
increases until when A is 90, ON is equal to OP, thus sin A is
to 1.
As A increases from 90 to
positive and increases from
and
is
ON
diminishes
until when A is 180 it is
180,
positive
again zero, therefore sin A is positive and decreases from 1 to 0.
As A increases from 180 to 270,
is negative and increases
= OP, hence sin .4 is
when
until
A
is
270,
numerically,
ON
ON
negative and changes from

360,
ON
is
is
360
1 to 0.
it is
to
1.
As
increases from 270 to
negative and diminishes numerically, until when A

is negative and changes from
again zero, thus sin
In the case of the cosine, we must observe the changes in

(2)
magnitude and sign of the projection OM. We find that as A
increases from 0 to 90, cos A is positive and diminishes from 1 to
0; as A increases from 90 to 180, cos A is negative and changes
as A increases from 180 to 270, cos A is negative

and changes from 1 to 0; and as A increases from 270 to 360
cos .A is positive and increases from
to 1.
from
to
(3)
To
trace the changes in the tangent of an angle, we must

to
when the angle is zero, this ratio
consider the ratio of

is
to 90;
is
ON
OM
positive and increasing as the angle increases from 0

when the angle is 90, the projection OM is zero, and ON
zero, and
is
unity, hence tan 90
oo
as
increases from 90 to 180, the
oo to
tangent is negative and changes from
from 180 to 270, tan A is positive, since
0.
As
increases
and OM are both

again becomes infinite when
ON
negative, and
= 270. As
it
increases until
it
increases from 270 to 360, the
negative and changes from
oo to 0. It will be
oo in passing through
tangent is
observed that
tan A changes from + oo to

the value 90,
and from oo to + oo in passing through 270; to explain this, it
is only necessary to remark that as a variable x changes sign
by
passing through the value zero, its reciprocal 1/x changes sign in
passing through the value oo
The changes in the values of the cosecant, secant, and
(4)
cotangent of A may be deduced from the above, if we remember
.
that they are the reciprocals of the sine, cosine, and tangent,
Their values for A=0, 90, 180, 270, 360 are
respectively.
26
given in the following table, which also includes the results

obtained above for the sine, cosine, and tangent.

being the origin for cosec x, and 0' for sec x
ordinates at 0, A, B are asymptotes of this curve.
and cosec x,
27
the
28
Draw graphs
Example.
(1
of the following functions
+ cos x.
ta?ix + secx.
sin 2 x- 2 cos x.
sin x
(3)
(5)
Angles
We
33.
ivith
shall
now
(2)
cos
{it
sin x)
(4)
sin
cos x)/cos (ir sin x).
(6)
si'
(Jn-
cos (n cos x).
+ Jtt cos x).
one circular function the same.

find expressions for all the
angles
which
have one of their circular functions the same.
(1)
If in the figure,
A OP
is
a given angle, and
PP
is
drawn
angles (OA, OP) and (OA, OP^) are the only

which
have
their
sine the same as that of AOP, for they
angles
are the only angles for which the projection of the radius on OB
is equal to ON; these angles are 2mr + a and 2mr + tt a, where a
is the circular measure of AOP, and n is any integer;
they are
both included in the expression mir + ( l) m a, where m is any
parallel to
OA, the
positive or negative integer ; this is therefore the expression for all

the angles whose sine is the same as that of a.
Next draw
PP
2 parallel to OB, then the angles (OA, OP)

the
are
2)
only angles which have the same cosine as
for
are
the
on
a,
only angles for which the projection of
they
OA is equal to 031; they are both included in the formula Innr a,
(2)
and (OA,
0P
OP
where
m is
any positive or negative integer.

(3)
If
PO
is
produced to
29
the angles (OA, OP), (OA,
0P
3)
are the only ones which have the same tangent as a these angles
are respectively 2nir + a and 2nv + tt + a, and are therefore both
;
the
included in
formula vnr
+ a,
where
in
any positive or
is
negative integer.
Since angles which have the same cosecant have also the
we see that mir + ( l) m a includes all the angles whose
cosecant is the same as that of a also Imir a includes all angles
(4)
same
sine,
whose secant is the same as that of a, and mir

angles whose cotangent is the same as that of
In every case zero
included as one value of
is
4-
a includes
all
or.
or n.
Determination of the circular functions of certain angles.

34.
The
values of the circular functions of a few important
angles can be obtained by simple geometrical means.

(1)
The angle 45
or \ir
is
an acute angle in a right-angled
isosceles triangle, the sine and cosine of this angle are therefore
obviously equal to one another ; and since the sum of their squares
is
is
unity, each of them

therefore unity.
(2)
Let
Each
is
equal to l/\/2
of the angles of an equilateral triangle is 60 or
ABC he
AD
such a triangle; draw
then the cosine of the angle

sine of the
the tangent of the angle
same angle
is
HD
is
-j-^
and
Vl \ = JV3.
it.
perpendicular to BC,
this is equal to \
The complement
the
of 60
:jo
is
= -A
cos 30
We
15 or ^7r.
= \ V3,
and tan 30
AE bisecting the
Draw
(3)
is
we have
30 or \tt, hence
have also tan 60
= \,
We
then the angle
DAE
and
sin 30
1/^3.
angle
DAB,
have by Euclid, Book
VI. Prop. III.
DE_DA
= W3,
~
therefore
and thence
From
this
DE
^^
DA.
we
or tan
AB
DE
DB
15
V3
is
+ V3'
equal to
obtain
sin 15
We
EB
= V6-V2
cos 15
"
V3
**"
'
\/ o
+ \/ a)
= V6 + V2
or 2
\/3.
'
can, from these values, obtain the sine, cosine,
and tangent of
75 or y^tt, the complementary angle. If we proceeded in the same

way, bisecting the angle DAE, we should obtain the tangent of
7 30' or y^tt,
and we might continue the process
so as to obtain
7T
the tangent of
integer,
all
but we
angles of the form 3.2*
shall
where p
hereafter obtain formulae by
is
a positive
which the
functions of these angles may be successively calculated, thus

obviating the necessity of continuing the geometrical process.
By a similar geometrical method we might obtain the circular
functions of the angles of the form
Let
is
ABC
ir/Vf.
be a triangle in which each of the base angles

(4)
double of the vertical angle A the base angles are each 72, or
;
THE CIRCULAR FACTIONS
31
If AB is divided at D so
vertical angle is 36, or \tt.
AB.BD = AD then it is shewn in Euclid, Book iv. Prop. x.
Draw A E perpendicular to BC. Denoting
that AD = DC = CB.
=
AB
AD
to
ratio
of
the
by #, we have 1 x x and solving this
and the
\tt,
that
we
quadratic,
root,
hence
find
= i(V5
cos 72
from this
Also
= ^(^5
1),
= sin
AC
cos 36 = \
-t-j,
therefore cos 36
Since 54
is
values of sin 54
=I
{\'b
AB
= cos 18 = VlO + 2
1),
DAC
is
an
^/5.
isosceles
triangle,
= VlO - 2 y/5.
we have therefore
hence sin 36
the complement of 36,
and cos
positive
BC =
= 1^^
1(^5-1);
since
1);
thus
18
Ave obtain sin 72
we must take the
the
54.
In the following table the values we have obtained are collected

for reference.
The
in the first column,

in the last column.
functions in the
and the functions
first line refer to
the angles
in the last line to the angles
32
Find
Example.
sin 120
+ 30,
sin
cosine of 120,
180
and of 576.
hence
= cos 30 = ^3,
Again - 576 = - (3
also cos - 576
and
the sine
120 = 90
We have
+ 36),
cos
120= -
sin
30= -%.
therefore
(-576) = sin ( + 180 -36) = sin
36,
= cos (180 - 36) = - cos 36.

The inverse circular functions.
35.
If
a function f(x) of
is
then x
x,
also
may
be regarded
as a function of y this function of y is called the inverse function

of f(x), and is usually denoted by f~l (y)
thus x =f~ 1 (y). If
;
f{x)
is
a periodic function, of period
k,
so that /(#)=/(#
+ mk),
where m is any positive or negative integer, the function /-1 (y)

will have an infinite number of values given by x + mk, where x is
_1
any one value of / (y) such a function of y is called multiple;
valued, since
variable y.
has not a single value for each
it
We
see therefore
function f (x) =y, there

tvhich lias
an
infinite
is
value
that, corresponding
to
of the
a periodic
a multiple-valued inverse function
f-1 (y)
number of values for any one value of y,

off (x).
these
values differing by multiples of the period
If there are two or more values of x, lying between

and
which f(x) has equal values, the multiplicity of values of
f" (y) is still further increased, since it will have each of the
values of x for which f(x) = y, and the infinite series of values
obtained by adding multiples of k to each of these. For example,
and
suppose that there are two values x1} x2 each lying between
-1
=
then
the
has
inverse
the
which
two
k, for
f(x) y,
function/ (y)
x
x
nk.
+ mk, 2 +
sets of values
36.
k, for
1
37.
In the case of the circular function sin x
= y,
the values
of the inverse function sin _1 y are nrr + ( l) n xl where x, is any

value of x for which sin x1 = y in this case the complete period
of sin x is 2ir, and there are two values of x, say x^ and tt x ly lying
,
between and 2ir, for which sin x = y thus the values of sin _1 2/ are
the two series of values n.2ir- s-x1 and n.2ir + ir xly both included
n
in mr+(l) x
;
In a similar manner, we see that the values of cos -1 y are

cluded in 2nrr x, where cos x = y.
The
periods
of the
functions tan x, cot x are
ir,
in-
only half
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
33
III
x and cos a?, and there is only one value of x between

which tan x or cot x has any given value thus tan -1 y
-1
has the values mr + x^ and cot ?/ the values mr + xly where xx is
and it, such that tan xx or cot x is equal
that value of x between
those of sin
and
for
7r
toy.
The numerically smallest quantity x which has the same
38.
y, is called the Principal Value

sign as y, and is such that sin x
of sin -1 ;?/; a similar definition applies to the principal values of
tan -1
;?/,
cot -1
cosec -1
;?/,
;?/.
The numerically smallest positive value of x which

that cos x = y is called the Principal Value of cos -1 y a
;
definition applies to sec-1
such
is
similar
?/.
-1
-1
-1
-1
principal values of sin ;?/, tan ?/, cot ;?/, cosec y
-1
lie between the values + \ir, and the principal values of cos
;?/,
sec -1 y lie between
and it. In some works, the principal values
Thus the
-1
-1
-1
by Sin y, Cos y, Tan y
of sin -1 y, cos -1 y, tan -1 y are denoted

the general values are then given by
sin -1 ?/=??7r+( l) n Sin -1 y,cos -1 y=2n7r+Cos-1 2/,tan -1 2/=W7r+Tan -1 y;
we
shall
however not use
this notation.
It
must be remembered
many equations connecting these inverse functions it is

necessary to suppose that the functions have their principal values,
that in
or at all
events that the
choice
of values
is
-1
-1
example, in such an equation as sin y + cos
values of the inverse functions is restricted.
It should
For
restricted.
y=\ir, the choice of
moreover be noticed that the functions cos -1 y,
sin -1
y
y lying between + 1 beyond
those limits of y, the functions have no meaning, so far as they
have been at present defined. The student should draw, as an
have only been defined
for values of
graphs of the various inverse circular functions.

In Continental works, the notation arc sin x, arc cos x, arc tan x
exercise,
is
used for sin -1
x, cos
-1
x,
tan -1
x.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
1.
Prove the identities

(i)
(ii)
2.
III.
The
n. t.
- cot 2 A) + cot A
- tan 2 A = 0,
tan
(sin
A + sec A + (cos A + cosec A 2 =
(1
(1
sine of an angle is
+ sec A
cosec
A )2
find the other circular functions.
34
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
85
III
18.
A pyramid has for base a square of side a; its vertex lies on a line
through the middle point of the base, perpendicular to it, and at a distance h
from it prove that the angle a between two lateral faces is given by
;
Two
19.
them
cuts
2
2
</2a + 4A
a 1 + 4.h*
= 2h
sin a
planes intersect at right angles in a line A B, and a third plane

AD, AC; if the angles DAB, CAB be denoted by a, /3
in lines
BA
respectively, prove that the angle
tan
makes with. the plane
tan a tan
1
CAD
is
/3
Vtan2 a+tan2 j8
OD
20.
Shew that, if
be the diagonal of a rectangular parallelepiped, the
cosines of the angles between
and the diagonals of the face of which
OA, OB are adjacent sides are respectively
OD
AB
OD
Two
21.
the
circles,
sum
0A*~0W
OD.AB
and
of
whose
radii is a, are placed in the
same
plane, with their centres at a distance 2a, and an endless string, quite
stretched, partly surrounds the circles, and crosses itself between them.
Shew
that the length of the string
22.
is
(îr
+ 2 s/3)a.
Prove that
cos tan -1 sin cot -1
Illustrate graphically the
23.
tions 3 sin
Shew
has
2/1
x + 4 cos x,
e x sin x,
and
change in sign and magnitude of the funcsin
- sin x
W2
for all values of x.
that the equation 2x = (2n + l) n versa:, where n
+3
real roots
is
and no more, roughly indicating their
a positive integer,
localities.
32
CHAPTEE
IV.
THE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF TWO OR MORE ANGLES.

The addition and subtraction formulae for
We
39.
of the
the sine
and
cosine.
now find expressions for the circular functions

of the difference of two angles, in terms of the
shall
sum and
circular functions of those angles.

of any
Suppose an angle
A OB
negative, to be generated
magnitude A, positive or
by a straight line revolving round
from the initial position OA, our usual convention being made as
of
to the sign of the angle, and suppose further that an angle
BOG
described by a line revolving from the initial

any magnitude
then
the
is equal to
+ B. In OC take
angle
position OB;
is
A00
a point P, and draw
PN perpendicular to
OB.
ON
According to the convention in Art.
15, the straight line

as
it
is
in
or
OB, or in
negative according
produced
positive
also
when
it
is
on
the
is positive
positive side of OB, revolving
OB
is
NP
The
counter-clockwise, and negative when on the other side.
lies makes
positive direction of the straight line on which
=
have
an angle ^1+90 with OA.
cos B, and
NP
ON OP
We
for ON and NP are the projections of OP on

and on the line which makes an angle A + 90 with OA.
In fig. (1), each of the angles A, B is positive and less than
90 in fig. (2), the angle A lies between 90 and 180, and the
angle B also lies between 90 and 180 in fig. (3), the angle A lies
9
between 180 and 270, and the angle B is negative and lies
In figs. (1) and (2),
between - 90 and - 180
is of positive
NP = OP sin B;
OB
NP
length, and
in fig. (3),
NP
is
of negative length, since, in the last
THE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF TWO OR MORE ANGLES
87
'G
38
case,
PN
the direction of a line
is
A + 90
making an angle
with
OA.
the fundamental theorem in projections, given in Art. 17,
the projection of OP on OA is equal to the sum of the projections
By
of
ON and NP on
OA,
or
OP cos (A+B) = ON cos A+NP cos (A + 90)

= OP cos A cos B + OP sin B cos (A + 90),
cos (J. +B) = cosA cosB sin A sin B
therefore
(1).
If,
ONP
instead of projecting the sides of the triangle

them on a line making an angle + 90 with
Ave project
on OA,
OA, we
have
OP sin (A+B)= ON sin A + NP sin (A + 90)

= OP sin AcosB+ OP sin (4 + 90) sin B,
sin (A + B) = sh\A cos.S + cos.4 sin B
therefore
(2).
The formulae
(1) and (2) have thus been proved for angles of

both
The student should
positive and negative.
magnitudes,
draw the figure, for various magnitudes of the angles A and B, in
order to convince himself of the generality of the proof.
all
If we change
we have
into
B,
in each of the formulae (1)
A B) = cos A cos ( B) sin A sin ( B)

sin {A B) = sin A cos ( B) cos A sin ( B),
cos (A B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
sin (A B) sin A cos B cos A sin B
cos
and
hence
and
and
(2),
These formulae (3) and
(4)
by describing the angle
so that the angle
POA
would of course be obtained
(3),
(4).
directly,
in the figure in the negative direction,

B.
would be equal to
The formulae (1), (2), and (3), (4), are called the addition
40.
and subtraction formulae respectively; either of the formulae (1)
and (2) may be at once deduced from the other; in (1) write
A + 90 for A, we have then
+ A + B) = cos (90 + A) cos B - sin (90 + A)

sin ( A + B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B
cos (90
or
sin
and changing the signs on both sides of this equation, we have the
formula (2) in the same way, by writing A + 90 for A in (2), we
should obtain (1). It appears then that all these four fundamental
;
formulae are really contained in any one of them.

41.
is
39
The proof of the addition and subtraction formulae, given by Cauchy,
as lollows: "With
as centre describe a circle, and let the radii OP,
make angles A, B, respectively, with OA join PQ, and draw PIT,

pendicular to OA, and QR parallel to 0A then we have
;
QN
OQ
per-
P<P=QR*+RP*
= (OJV- OMf + {PM-QNf

= 0A {(cos B- cos ^4) + (sin A - sin B) }
= 20 A (1 - cos A cos B - sin A sin B).
2
Let
PS
be drawn perpendicular to the diameter
QQ
then
PQ = QS Qg = 20A (OA - OS)

= 20A 2 {l-cos(A-B)},
2
cos (A
therefore
B)= cos A cos .5+ sin A
sin
The other formulae may then be deduced; (1) by changing B

- B, (4) by changing B into 90 + B.
(2) by changing B into 90
(3).
into
B,
two proofs which we have given of the

and
subtraction formulae, both of which are
fundamental addition
perfectly general, various other proofs have been given, some of
which are in the first instance only applicable to angles between
a limited range of values, and require extension in the cases of
We shall make
angles whose magnitudes are beyond that range.
this extension in the case in which the formulae have been first
proved for values of A and B between 0 and 90. Whatever
A and B are, it is always possible to find angles A' and i>", lying
42.
Besides
the
40
between 0 and 90, such that A = m 90 + A', B = n. 90 + B'

where m and n are positive or negative integers we have then
.
(A+B) = cos (m + n 90 + A' + B')
cos
and n are both even, we have

m+n
cos (A + B) = (- 1) 2 cos {A' + B')
m+n
= (- 1) 2 (cos A' cos B'
(1) if in
now
cos
A = (-
cos A', sin
1)
- sin 4' sin 5'),
A = (-
1)
sin 4',
with similar formulae for B,
hence
(2) if
cos
and
?i
(A
+ B) =
cos J. cos
are both odd,
B sin J.
sin
sin
A = (- 1)
m+1
cos(90
+ A') = (-l)~sinA',
sin (90
we have
m-l
cosA=(-l)
4')
= (-
1)
cos
^'
with similar formulae for B; hence as before we obtain,

by substituting the values of cos A', cos B', sin A', sin 5', the formula
for cos {A + B)
;
(3) if
i)i
cos
is
odd and
{A+B) =
?i
is
even,
m+n""
-1
"
(- l)
+ A' +
cos (90
B')
m+M+ l
= (-1)
sin (A'
+ JB')
m+M+l
= (-1)
m+
now
cosA=(
1)
(sin
A' cos 5'
sin A',
cosB = (
m-1
sin
+ cos A' sin 5'),
A = (-l)~2~cosA',
l)
cos B',
sin
B = (-l) 2
sin B';
J
hence, substituting as before, we have the formula for cos (A

The other formulae may be extended in the same manner.
The form
+ B).
which the addition formulae were known in the

Greek Trigonometry is Ptolemy's theorem given in Euclid, Bk. vi.
Prop, d; this theorem is, that if A BOD be a quadrilateral in43.
in
scribed
AB is
in
AB .CD + AD .BC = AC.BD. Any chord

half the angle which AB subtends at the centre
circle,
the sine of
of the circle, the diameter of the circle being taken as unity, and
1
See the Article " Ptolemy" in the Encijclopaedia Britannica, ninth Edition.
4-1
AB
this half angle is the angle subtended by the arc

at the cirshall shew that the formulae for sin (a + /3) and
cumference.
cos (a + (3) are contained in Ptolemy's theorem.
We
Let BD be a diameter of the circle, and ADB = a,

=
BDC p; then ABD = ir-a, DBC = w-, AC = sin (a + /3),
AB = sin a, CD = cos /3; thus the theorem is equivalent to the
_
_
formula
,
sin (a + p) sm a cos p + cos a sin p.
(1)
Let CD be a diameter of the circle, and BCD = a,ACD = p,

A B = sin (a /3), and the theorem is equivalent to
(2)
thus
sin (a
(3)
BD be a diameter
then ADC = %* + a-
Let
CBD = /3,
theorem
/3,
thus
circle,
ADB = a,
and
J. C = cos (a - ), and
(<*
the
/?) = cos a cos /3 + sin a sin /3.
Let CD be a diameter of the

then BCA = a + /3 - |tt, AB =
ADC = /3
theorem
the
of
equivalent to
is
cos
(4)
/3) + sin /3 cos a = cos /3 sin a.
BCD = a,
and
circle,
+ ),
cos (a
and the
equivalent to
is
cos (a + /3) +
Example.
Employ
sin a sin
stVi
(a -|-
Formulae for
cos a cos
ft
= sin a sin /3.
Ptolemy's theorem to prove the following theorems:
- y) + sin /3 sm (y - a) + si y sin
(/3
(a
- /3) = 0,
0) WW O + y = sm a sm y + si /3 stri (a + /3 + y)
)
the addition or subtraction
of two sines or two
cosines.
44.
We
formulae
obtain at once from the addition and subtraction

.
,
.
- B)
= _2 sm A
sm (A+B)
+ sin (A
sin (A + B) - sin (A - B) = 2 cos ^4
.
cos B,
sin 5,
cos ( J. + B) + cos (^. B)= 2 cos .4 cos B,

cos J. B) - cos (/I 4- B) = 2 sin J. sin B,
A + B = C, A B = D we obtain then, since A = (C + D),
(
\et
B=\{C -
D), the formulae

sin
C+
sin
D=
2 sin \ (C
+ D) cos (0 - D)
C- sin
/)
(5),
W-)
= 2cosHC+#)s in
cos C + cos 2) = 2 cos | (C + Z>) cos (C - D)
cosD-cosC = 2sin \{C + D) sin (C - Z))
sin
(6),
.
(7),
(8).
42

These important formulae
for the
are the expressions

or difference of the sines or of the cosines of two
sum
(5), (6), (7), (8)
angles as products of two circular functions

pressed in words as follows
they
may be
ex-
The sum of the sines of two angles is equal to twice the product
of
of half the sum and the cosine of half the difference of
the sine
the angles.
The difference of the sines of two angles is equal to twice the

product of the cosine of half the sum and the sine of half the
difference of the angles.
The sum of the cosines of two angles is equal to twice the
product of the cosine of half the sum and the cosine of half the
difference of the angles.
The difference of the cosines of two angles is equal to twice the

product of the sine of half the sum and the sine of half the reversed
difference
of the angles.
These formulae may be proved geometrically by the
45.
method of
projections.
A
Let
BOA = G, COA=D,
pendicular to
BC, then
is
and
let
OB=OC;
draw
ON
per-
the middle point of BG, also
NO A = | (G + D), NOB = NOG = \{G-D).

The sum
of the projections of OB, OC, on OA, is equal to the sum

of the projections of ON, NB, ON, NG, on OA, and, since the
and
are equal with opposite sign, this is
projections of
NB
NG
ON; therefore
C + OG cos D = 20N cos \ (G +
ON = OB cos (C - D),
equal to twice the projection of
OB cos
and since
D),
43
we have the formula

cosC + cosD = 2cos^(C + D)cos^(C-D)
(7).
instead of projecting on OA we project on a straight line
If
OA, we have
perpendicular to
OB sin C + OC sin D = 20N sin \ {C + D),

C + sin D = 2 sin \ (G + D) cos |((7 D)
hence
sin
(5).
Also the projection of 00 on OA is equal to the projection of

OB, together with twice the projection of BN, or
OC cos D = OB cos
hence
and
cos
if
we
+ 2BN sin \ (0 + D),
D- cos 0= 2 sin (C + D)sin% (C - D)
project on the
line perpendicular to
(8),
OA, we have
OC sin D = OB sin C -2BN cos (C + D)

einC -sinD = 2sin(C - D)cos(C+ D)
or
(6).
A curious method of multiplying numbers, by means of tables of sines,

was in use for about a century before the invention of logarithms. This
method depended on a use of the formula
A sin B = | {cos (A - B) - cos {A + B)}
whose
the angles A and B,
sines, omitting the decimal point, are equal to the
numbers to be multiplied, can be found from a table of sines, and then
cos (A +B), cos (A B) can be found from the same table half the difference
This method was called Trpoo-BcKpaiof these last gives the required product.
An account of this method will be found in a paper by Glaisher, in
peats.
sin
"
the Philosophical Magazine for 1878, entitled
On
Multiplication by a Table
of single Entry."
Examples.
Prove the identity
(1)
sin
A sin (B - C) sin (B + C - A) + sin B sin (C - A) sin (C + A - B)

+ sin C sin (A - B) sin (A + B - C) = 2 sin (B - C) sin (C - A) sin A - B)
(
The second and

sin
which
is
third terms on the left-hand side
may
be written
B {cos (B- 2/l)-cos (2C- B)} + sin C{cos (C- 2B)- cos (2A - C)},
equal to
2C- sin 2 (B - C)}

+ % {sin2(C- B) + s\n2B -sin2A -sin2(C- Ayh
- sin
2 (B - C)+ J {sin 2 (B - A) - sin 2 (C- A)},
or
2B
sin
2C) \
(sin
or
sin (B - C) { cos (B + C)- cos (5- ) + cos (B +C- 2.1)},
which is equal to sin (B - C) {cos A cos (B+C A) -cos(Z?-C)}
J {sin 2
(B - A) + sin 2 A - sin
adding the term
we have
or
sin
sin
.4
sin(.#- C)nin(B + C-A),
(B-C) {cos (B + C-2A)- cos (5- C)},

2 sin
(Z?-C)
sin
(C- 4) sin (4
-tf).
14
Prove that
(2)
cos
This
90
A sin (B - C) sin (B + C - A) = 2 sin (B - C) sin (C - A) mm A - B).

(
may
B, 90
Prove
-C
respectively, or
may
(1),
by changing A, B, C
(4)
be proved independently as in Ex.
-A,
(1).
the identities
(5)
(6)
-f-
arco?
number
large
of Trigonometrical identities are analogous to similar
1
Algebraical identities
For example, the following algebraical
correspond to examples
shall, in
identities
(1) to (5),
2a(b - c) (b + c-a) = 2 (b -c) (c -a) (a -b), to (1) and

2a(6-c) = 0, to (3), 2 (b + c) (o-c) = 0, to (4),
2oc(&-c)=-(o-c)(c-a)(a-6), to (5).
We
into 90
SwAsm(B-C) = 0, 2 cos Asm(B-C) = 0.

2sm(B+C)am(B-C)=0 2cos(B + C)sm(B-C) = 0.
2 sin B sin C sin (B - C) = - sin (B - C) sin (C - A) sin (A - B),
2 cos B cos C cos (B - C) = - sin (B - C) sin (C - A) sin (A - B).
Prove that if
A + B C = tt
sin 2 A = sin2 B + sin 2 C 2 sm B sm C cos A,
cos 2 A = 1 cos 2 B cos 2 C 2 cos A cos B cos C.
(3)
be deduced from Ex.
(2),
Chap, vn., give the theory of these correspondences.
Addition and subtraction formulae for the tangent and cotangent.
From
subtraction formulae we maythe tangent or cotangent of the sum or

difference of two angles in terms of the tangents or cotangents
46.
the addition and
deduce formulae
for
of those angles.
Thus
B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B

D _
^
cos A cos B + sin A sin B
cos ( A + B)
hence dividing the numerator and the denominator of the fraction
.
tan
cos
by
+ B)
= sin (A
;
-.
A cos B,
A
A
sin
_.
cos
-.
cos
sin
cos
cos
thus we have the two formulae

,.
tan
large
number
tan (A
Vol. n.
tan
(A+B) = =1 . =
- B)
A+T ..tan B
tan
B
tan-^
+A A-~
tan
tan
tan
"
(9),
v
tan^
B
of these correspondences are given by
(10).
M. Gehn,
in Mathesis,
45
In a similar manner we obtain the formulae

L / A
cot -4 cot
T1X
., ,
*(^+*>- cotA+cotB
m cot A cot B + 1
cot(A-B)= mtB _ mtA
i.
The formulae
/n
/ a
(9), (10), (11),
(U)
(12).
(12) are the addition and sub-
traction formulae for the tangent
and cotangent.
Various formulae.
47.
The
following formulae
mulae which we have obtained
may be deduced
from the fortwo angles, and are frequently
for
The student should
useful in effecting transformations.

each of them.
+ B) sin (A - B) = sin A - sin B = cos B - cos A

cos (A + B) cos (A-B) = cos A - sin B = cos B - sin A
sin (A + B)cos(A - B) = sin J. cos A + sin B cos B
sin
(A
cos(A
+ J5)sin
(A B) = sin A
sin
B cos B
cos
cos
tan
From
.(13),
.(14),
(15),
(16),
A 4- B) _ tan A + tan B
sm(A-B)~t&nA-tanB
sin
. .
cos A
verify
(A
(4
+ 5) ~
_
- JB)
n
4 tan B
1
1
tan J. t an 5
+ tan 4 tan 5
sin (^1
v
4
~ B)
cos .4 cos
17 ''
*>
>'
v
(19).
J
is
the formulae for the addition and subtraction of two
sines or cosines
we obtain
at once
4- sin B _ tan \ (A + B)
~~
A - sinB tan (A-B)
sin A 4 sin 5
=
M D
sin
'
''
sin
cos J.
+ cos 2?D
sin
4 sinZ?
cos
cos J.
cos
cos 1?
.-
.,
cos ^4Z? - cos
J5)/
,
(21),
\
/>
m
= cot ^ (4
+ 5)'
v
(22),
v
'
,
tan i
2
4
-
2 v
'
a \
THE C1KCULAK FUNCTIONS OF TWO OR MOKE ANGLES
4(j
Examples.
Prove the identity
(1)
1
cos- A cos 2 B cos 2 C + 2 cos A cos B cos C

= sin k(A + B + C)sin(-A + B + C)sin%(A-B + C)sin$(A + B-C).
:
The expression on the left-hand side may be written

- cos 2 A -cos (B+C) cos (B-C) + cos A {cos (B + C) + cos(B-C)}.
which
equal to
is
{eos
A cos (B + C)} {cos (B C) cos A]
then, splitting each of these factors into
on the right-hand
1
side.
+A
factors,
we
obtain the expression
BC is a multiple of 2tt, then
cos A cos2 B cos 2 C+ 2 cos A

2
sometimes
is zero; this result is
cos
B cos C
useful.
Prove that
(2)
1
If
two
cos 2 B cos2 C 2 cos A cos B cos C

= -4cos|(A + B + C)cosi(-A + B + C)cosJ(A-B + C)cos(A + B-C).
- cos 2 A
This
(3)
may
be deduced from
sin
or proved independently.
Prove that if A + B + C = nir,

sin 2
We
(1),
A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 1
(
n~
)
4 sin
sj'w
B sm C.
have
2A +sin 2Z?+sin 2(7=2 sin .4
cos 4
+2 sin (nw-A) cos (B-C)
= 2sinA{(-l) n cos(B+C)-(-l) n cos(B-C)}

1
=( -l)"- 4 sin J
(4)
Prove
1
Prove the
that,
under
the
sin
B sin C.
same supposition as in Ex.

(
identities
(6)
3A =4 sw A sin (60 + A) sm (60 - A).

cos 3 A = 4 cos A cos (60 + A) cos (60 - A).
(7)
sin
(5)
(3),
+ cos 2A +cos 2B+cos 2C = l) n 4 cos A cos B cos C.
sin
A + sin B + aim C sin (A + B -f C)

= 4 sm \ (B + C) sin h (C + A) smi (A+ B).
(8)
cosA+cos.S + cosC + cos(A + B + C)
(9)
2 sin 2 A swi (B + C) - sin
= 4 cos (B + C) cos $ (C + A) cos |(A + B).

2
2A sm 2B sin 2C
(B + C) - cos 2A cos 2B cos 2C
= 2 sin (B + C) sw (C + A) sin (A + B).

(10)
2 cos 2A
(11)
2 sin 2
cos
=2cos(B + C)cos(C + A)cos(A + B).

A sm B + C - A) - 2 sin A sin B st?i C
= sin (B + C - A) sin (C + A - B) sin A + B - C).
2
2 cos A cos (B + C A) - 2 cos A cos B cos C
= cos (B + C- A) cos(C + A-B) cos (A + B-C).
(
(12)

and
(9)
(10) correspond to the algebraical identity
2 2a
and
(11)
47
+ cf - 8abc = 2 (b + c) (c + a) (a + b)
(b
(12) to the identity
2a?(b + c-a)-2abc = (b + c-a)(c + a-b)(a + b-c).
Addition formulae for three angles.

48.
From
the addition formulae (1) and (2)
formulae for the circular functions of the
sum
we may deduce
of three angles in
terms of functions of those angles; we have
(A + B + G)
= sin (A + B) cos C + cos (4 + B) sin G
= (sin A cos B + cos A sin B) cos G + (cos A cosB sin A smB) sinC,
sin
cos (A+B + C)
= cos(-4 +B) cos G sin (A +B)s'mC
= (cos A cos B sin A sin B) cos G (sin A cos B + cos A sin B) sin C,
and
hence we have
sin
{A+B + C)
= sin A
cos
B cos C + sin B cos C cos A + sin G cos A
sin A
cos
sin i? sin G
+
(A+B C)
= cos A cos 5 cos (7 cos A sin sin C cos i? sin CsinA
cos C sin A sin 5
(24),
cos
The formulae
(24), (25)
may
(25).
be written in the form
+ +C)
= cos A cos B cos C (tan A + tan B + tan G tan J. tan B tan C),
cos (A+B + C)
= cos J. cos B cos (7(1 tan 5 tan C tan (7 tan A tan .4 tan B);
sin(A
hence by division we have the formula

tan
(A+B + C)
A + tan B + tan C tan A tan J5 tan G
1 tan 2? tan G tan (7 tan A tan ^1 tan B
tan
We
cot
might obtain
(A+B +
cot
in a similar
'
'
.(26).
manner the formula
C)
A cot 7? cot G cot J. cot B cot (7
CO) l',ru\ ('
r..t
..
f/co|
/I
-f
Cot
/l
COt
A'
.(27).
48
Examples.
tan (45 + A)
(1)
Prove that
(2)
Prove that if
A + tan B
tan
and
-+-
tan
C tan A tan B tan C =
A + B + C = (2m+1)^,
if
tan
and
- tan (45 - A)=2 tan 2A.
A + B + C = nir,
B tan C + tan C tan A + tan A tan B = 1
state the corresponding theorems
for the cotangents.
Addition formulae for any number of angles.
we might now obtain formulae

sum of four angles, then of five
angles,
by induction that the formulae
for the
It is obvious that
49.
circular functions of the
we
and
so
sine
and the cosine of the sum of n angles
on
shall prove
1}
...A n are
smiA^ A + ... + A n = S - S + S cos(A +A + ... + A n = S -S + S l
where
Sr
sum
denotes the
for the
(28),
(29),
of the products of the sines of r of the
r angles, the r angles

angles and the cosines of the remaining n
n
from
the
in
chosen
angles
every possible way, thus
being
5 = cos A cos Ao ... cos A n
5 = sinA cosA ... cosA n + cos -4
x
sin J. 2 cos
.
3 ...
A n + ....
cos
The formulae
(24), (25), for
(28), (29) agree with the formulae (1), (2), and

the cases n = 2, n = 3 assuming the formulae to
;
hold for n angles,
we
shew that they hold
shall
for
1 angles
we have
+ A n + A n+l
= sin(^l + ... + ^. n )cos^l ?l+1 + cos(^l + ... + ^)sin^l n+1
= cos A n+1 fa - S + S .) + sin A n+1 (S - S + S
sin (A,
+A +
2
. . .
now
Sr
'
.),
sum
of the products of the sines of r of the

of
and
the cosines of the remaining n
1 r
...A
x
2
n+1
angles
chosen
from
the
n
1
r
in
the
+
angles,
every possible
angles being
let
denote the
A A
,
way, then
we have
Si
for in
= Si cos A n+l + #o sin A n+
$jCOS-4 n +i there
angles A 1}
sinu4 n+ i.
2 ...
An
is
in each term the sine of one of the
and in each term of $ sin.4 n+1 there
is
only

Similarly
= #3 cos A n+1 +
S = S cos A n +i + 8
sin
A n+
sin
A n+1
#3'
'
sin(A +
hence
We may
'
shew that
similarly
cos^ +
thus
+ A n+1 = S - S8 + S,' ....

'
...
49
...
+ a +1 = So' - s: + s^
...,
the formulae (28), (29) hold for n angles, they also hold for
n + 1; and they have been shewn to hold for n = 2, 3, hence
they
are true generally.
if
These formulae may be written in the form

sin
(A x
cos
(A
where
t,.
+ A + ... + A n ) = cos ^.j cos A

+ A, + + A n ) = cos A cos A
2
2 ...
cos^^ +
t3
t 5 ...),
A n (1 - t +
denotes the sum of the products of tan A tan A
tan A n
,
. . .
. .
cos
1}
taken r together
tt
. .
.),
tan(A +
1
A +
...
+ A n) =
\
J.
~lCo ^ f;
( 3 )'
'
which is the formula for the tangent of the sum of n

angles,
terms of the tangents of those angles.
for
The formula
n angles, we
(30)
may
shall
tan(A 1 +A M +...
also be proved
independently. Assuming
it holds for n + 1 ; we have
+.4)-
ta "(î
(1
Now
if
'
tr
it
in
to hold
prove that
+ ^2+
+^) + tan A n + 1
m {h-h +h-
angles,
denote the
sum
...) + t&nA n + (l-t 2 + t i + ... )

-t2 + tt -.. .)-tanJ n + (<,-3 + <6 -... )"
1
of the products of the tangents of r of the
n+
we have then
= *i + tan^l n +
h' = i + tita.nA Hi
t3 = t3 +
tar\A n +
*i'
'
hence
tan (A,
+A +
2
...
>'~ "'
+A n ^)J^\+
1
+ti
tl
12
since the formula (30) holds for

generally.
IT.
T.
hence by division we have
= 2,
3, it
...
therefore holds for
77
= 4,
and
50
Expression for a product of sines or of cosines as the
sum
sines or cosines.
of
We may obtain formulae which exhibit the product of

50.
the sines or of the cosines of any number of angles as the sum
of sines or cosines of composite angles we have
;
2 sin
A = cos (A A. cos ( A + A
sin A 2sin-4 cos(.<4 A ) 2 sin A cos(A + A)
= sin (A - A, + A ) + sin (- A + A + A
+ sin (A.+A.2- A - sin (A + A + A
sin
2 2 sin^4 1 sinu4 2
2)
2 ).
3)
3)
3)
= 2 sin (- A, + A. + A ) - sin (A + A, + A
3
3 ).
A sin A sin A sin A

= 2 sin (A A + A ) sin A + 2 sin (A + A + A ) sin A
= cos (A A + A - A ) - cos (A A + A + A )
+ cos (- A + A + A - A ) - cos (- A A, + A + A )
+ cos( A -\-A -A -A )-cos( A + A -A + A
-cos( A, + A + A -A + cos ( A + A + A + A )
= cos (A, + A + A + A - 2 cos A + A + A - A )
+ 2 cos (A + A -A - A
2 3 sin
. . .
1 -f-
4)
4)
4)
4 ).
Similarly
A = cos (A A + cos {A + A._).

cos A
= 2 cos (A A cos A + 2 cos (J.j + /1 cos A
= cos (- A + A, + A ) + cos (A A + A
+ cos (A + A A + cos (A + A + A
= 2 cos (- A + A, + A + cos (Ai + A + A
cos.4 cos J. cos A qos A
= 2 cos (- Ai + A + A + A + 2 cos {A + A - A - ^4
A
cos J.j cos A
2 cos
cos
2)
2)
2)
3)
s)
3)
3 ).
4)
for
+ cos(A
The general formulae
+A
n angles are the following
4)
+A +A
3
(-1)* 2"~ sin^4

1
sin
...
sin.4 n
= Cn -Cn _ + Cn _ -...+(-l)hchn
l
when n
is
even,
3)
(31)
4 ).

where
sum
the
C,,_ r is
of the cosines of the
sum
of n
51
of the
the remaining r taken negatively, the
angles taken positively and
negative angles being taken in every combination
and when n
is
odd
(-
1)
2"- sin
1
sin
An
sin
= Dn -D^_ + i)n_ -...+(-l)"r Di

1
where
Dn _
fl
denotes the
sum
n+1
of the sines of the
(32),
sum
of
n r of
the angles taken positively and the remaining r taken negatively

2-i cos
An
= C n + Cn - + Cn - +...+Chn
(33)
cos A n
= Cn + CV, +
(34)
cos Ao... cos
when
is
2 ,!_1 cos
when n
is
even, and
cos
Ao
...
+ C$ {n+1)
odd.
have been proved above, in

and may now be proved generally by
induction; assume the formula (31) to hold for n, multiply it by
2ainA n+1) and replace any term 2Cn_,.sin^4,l+1 by a sum of sines,
These formulae
the
cases
we then
(31), (32), (33), (34)
2,
3,
4,
obtain for the product

n
l)
2" sin
sin
...
sin
A n sinA, l+1
the expression
D' n+1
-D' n +...+(-lfD' h(n+2)
where D' r denotes the sum of the sines of the sum of r of the n + 1
angles taken positively and the remainder taken negatively; this is
what (32) becomes when n is changed into n + 1; proceed again in

a similar manner with this result, we then shew that the product
+2
(-1)
is
2 n+1
sinA ...sinAl+2
+2
equal to
where C"r
C"n+2 G"n+1 +...+(

refers to
+2
angles
^ G'\
n+2
thus the formula (31
is
proved
+ 2, if we assume (31) and (32), for the value n;

we
may shew that (32) holds for n + 2; therefore as
similarly
these formulae have been proved for n = 3, 4, they hold generally.
for
the value n
(33), (34), for the products of a number of cosines,

be proved in a similar manner.
The formulae
may
42
52

Example.
Prove that for n angles
a,
/3,
5...
y,
sin
(n/3yS...) =
2 n_1 sin a cos
cos
(aPy8...) =
'2.
where 2 implies summation extending

indicated in the n 1 ambiguities.
Formulae
n~
to all
cos a cos
ft
cos
ft
cos
y cos
8...,
cos d...,
possible arrangements of the signs
for the circular functions of multiple angles.
51.
If, in the addition formulae which we have obtained for
two and more angles, we suppose each angle equal to A, we obtain
the formulae
2A = 2s\nA cos .4
cos 2A = cos J. - sin ^1 = 1-2 sin A =
sin 3 A = 3 sin A cos A sin A,
sin
or
A - 1...(36),
SA = 3 sin A - 4 sin A
cos 3-4 = cos ^4 3 cos A sin A,
cos 3 A = 4 cos A 3 cos A
n ( n _ l)(n
3
sin
(37),
or
(35),
2 cos2
= rcsin-4cos n -^l
sin
7?^l
cos
nA = cos w A
These
9)
'sin3 ylcos u
^f
sm ^
A
n(n-l)(n-2)(n-S)
-i
^-j
Yi (fi
^-
4-
(38),
"
cos'
-3
-4
+ ...(39),
1-2
'-
MA-
sin 4
L
cos" -4
. .
.(40).
formulae (39), (40) follow from (28), (29), since
last
Sr
49 contains as many terms as there are combinations of

n things taken r together, and becomes equal to
in Art.
n(n
i
1)
(n
...
'-
r + 1)
'
sm r A
cos n_r
A.
rl
The formulae
sin il
= cos n Aa
(39), (40)
\n tan
may
nA= cos n A
be written
n(n-l)(n-2)
i
,
~f
tan J +
^^
cos
also
(i%
v
)
-
tan 2
)
...[
2!
(n-l)(W -2)(B - 8)tan

4!
^_
|
)
We
find also,
im2A =
.
from
(9), (26),
2 tan
(30),
iûZ
Un3A= 3 tan A
.
n tan
(41 >'
tan*
IS** A
A
....
<
tan 3
^y
tan nA =
A+
42 >'
...
^-
We
and
53
(43).
tan 2 J.
have thus obtained formulae
for
4-
. . .
the circular functions of
the multiples of an angle in terms of those of the angle

It should be noticed that each of the sequences of
itself.
numbers
sinJ, sin2^4, sin3.4

cos A, cos 2.4, cos
is
a recurring one
for
ZA
we have
+ l)A = 2cosA. sin nA sin(w-l) A,

cos(?i+l) A =2 cos .4. cos nA -cos(n I) A
sin (n
thus each term of either sequence is obtained by multiplying the preceding

one by 2 cos .4, and then subtracting the term next but one preceding. By
this means the terms of the sequences
may be successively calculated, if we
assume the formulae (35) and (36).

The scale of relation of either of the
is
l+xsmA+.v2 s'm2A+
consequently 1 2x cos A + aP.
series
l+.rcos.4+.r2 cos24-f-
Expressions for the powers of a sine or cosine as sines or

cosines
of multiple angles.
52.
In order to obtain expressions for a power of the cosine
or sine of an angle, in terms of cosines or sines of
multiples of
that angle, we must make all the angles equal to one another in
the formulae of Art. 50; we thus obtain the formulae
A = 1-cos 2A,
4 sin* A = 3 sin A - sin 3 A,
8 sin A = cos 4 A 4 cos 2A + 3,
2 sin 2
= 1 + cos 2A,
A = 3 cos A + cos 3 A
A = cos 4fA + 4 cos 2A +
2 cos 2 .4
4 cos
8 cos
3.
54
-
n
2
(-1) 2
-1
sinn
n(n-l)
A = cos nA - ncos(n-2)A +
^ cos(w-4) A -
+ <- 1
n-
(44)
î^ki
n (n 1
cos n -4
sinM=sinw4-nsin(n-2).4+-^-^sin(?i-4)yl-...
2!
+ (-1)
71-1
(n even),
(-1)
cos
TT\7
TYTT7
(w-l)!
nA + ncos(n
(tc
2)A+
+
^j
x
^j
+ 1)!
sin
45 )
(n odd),
1 \
- cos
(n
4<)A
...
^fJF:
(w even),
2 n_1 cos"
A=
cos n^l
+ n cos (w - 2) A
+
-ix,
cos (n--i)
A + ...
'
iv
cos
(47)
(w-l)!(rc+l)!
(w odd).
The formulae
writing 90
(44),
for
be deduced from
may
(45)
(46),
(47)
by
A, or conversely.
Relations between inverse functions.

53.
Corresponding to the addition formulae of this Chapter,
formulae involving the inverse circular functions may be found.
Thus in formulae (1) and (3), put cos .4 = a, cos B = b, then we
have
cos -1 a
-1
cos
= cos~
{ab
similarly from (2) and (4), we have

-1
b = sin -1 {a Vl
sin -1 a sin
From
a? Vl
+ Vl
-b
Vl - a
}.
and (12) we obtain
(9), (10), (11),
tan -1 a + tan -1 b
= tan
cot -1 a
cot -1 6
Again from (26) and
(30),
r,
+ ab
1
+
= cot -1 ab
-p-
tan-1 a + tan -1 b
we have
tan -1
tan -1
\1
=
oc
ca
7
ab)

tan -1
On
tan -1
a.,
. . .
= tan _!
tan -1 a.
(81
-S +S
3
00
sum of the products of a^* ... an taken r together.

be observed that, in these formulae, the particular
values to be assigned to all except one of the inverse functions are
where
the
s r is
It should
but the particular value of that one is determined when

the values of the others have been assigned.
Moreover if in a
arbitrary,
formula involving, for instance, three inverse functions, two of

them have their principal values, it is not necessarily the case
that
the third
has
its
principal
For example,
value.
in the
formula
tan -1 a
if
tan -1
+ tan -1 b =
tan -3 b are both
a,
values, that
is,
tan -1 (a
positive
values between
sum
greater than \tt, this
is
tan -1 (a
and
b)/(l
ab),
and have their principal

\tt, and if their sum is
not the principal value of
6)/(l
- ab)
an angle between
and \ir, which has
-1
same
as
sum
of
tan
the
the
a and tan -1 b.
tangent
this principal value is
Geometrical proofs of formulae.
Direct Geometrical proofs may be given of many of the formulae of

we shall give three examples of such proofs. It should be remembered that such proofs often hold only for a limited range of the angles.
54.
this
Chapter
(1)
n
the formulae tan (A +
To prove
B) = -1 _'
1
+ tan A tan B
56
Let AB,
CD
ADE, BDEbe
be two chords of a
circle at right angles,
A and B;
denoted by
since
and
let
the angles
AE EB = CE. ED, we have

.
A EEB
ED
_ AEEB _
~ AB
AE EB~ ED + EC BE'
ED ED
"
A + tan B =
tan (AB).
+ tan A tan B
tan
whence
(2)
Let
AOA' be
therefore
sin
cos
also
(3)
= 2 sin A cos A,
_.
cos 2.4 = cos2
the diameter of a circle, and let
PN
~
now
.4
'
-sin 2
PAA'=A,
PN.AA'=2AAPA'=AP.
_.
24
ON AN
.4.
then
rOA' = 2A
OP
PA',
A A "2 sin A cos 4 =

2 sin .4 cos 4
7^ 7-77
OP. A A'
- J'iV2
_
2.AA'.0P
2
2A P
" = cos 2 .4 -sin 2 4.
AA' 2
AP
'
To prove the formulae
=3 sin A -4 sin 3 A,
CAB = ACB=A
triangle
AP.A'P
24 = - - =
OP. A A'
sin 3 A
Let
PN perpendicular to A A'.
Then sm2A =
.,
t?
To prove the formulae

sin 2 A
di'aw
a i
ABC
in
let
45
E; draw
cos 3 A
=4 cos 3 .4 3 cos A.
meet the tangent at C to the

perpendicular to CE.
2?Z)
circle
round the
BED is
The angle
3A
or
80
- 3A
Now
AE LACE AC*
BE~ABCE~BC*
2
-irn= 4 cos .4-1
therefore
BE
4 cos 2 A
=3
4 sin 2
BD AB
4
BE AB' BE,= 3 sin ^4 sin
hence
sin 3 J
= ZfZ)
and
cos 3 A
=+
4,
DEDCECDC
BO_AC
~
~
BE BE BE BC BE
AB
cos A (4 cos2 A - 1) - 2 cos A = 4 cos3 J - 3 cos

The
proofs in (1)
Mathematics, Vol.
57
and
(3)
were given by
Mr Hart
A.
in the Messenger of
IV.
Examples.
Prove geometrically the formulae
(2)
cos 2X
+ cos 2A
tan (45" + A) - tan (45 - A) = 2 tan 2A.
(3)
sin
(4)
sin 2 a
(5)
v
tan~ l
.,.
(1)'
K
tan 2
A=
.
A sin B = sm
(A + B) - sin (A
2
B).
+ swi 2 /3 = sin 2 (a + /3) 2 w a sin /3 cos (a + /3).

i
n 7r
=
in+n 4
+ aw2 C + 2 cos A cos B cos C = 1
,
to/t
'"
(8)
A + co*2
A + sin B-swC=4 sin \ A sin B cos \ C,
co*0=coec20 + co*20.
(9)
cos 36 -tin 18 =$.
(6)
cos
(7)
sin
1 !
wAere
w-Aere
A + B + C = 1 80.
A + B + C = 1 80.
CHAPTER IV
EXAMPLES.
58
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
Prove the identities in Examples
IV.
15:
2.
(120-4) = .
si n 4 4 = 3 - cos 4 A
(cos A + sin 4 + (cos A
3.
sin 3 A sin 3
cos 2 4+cos 2 (120 + 4) + cos 2
1.
A = cos 3 2 A.
4 cos 3 A sin 34+4 sin 3 A cos 3 A = 3 sin 44
4.
.4+ cos
3.4 cos 3
(120 + 4)-sin (120-4) = -f sin 34.

+ sin 34 + sin 54+ sin 74
4+sin
5.
sin
sin
cos
4 + cos 34 + cos o4 + cos 74
16 cos5
4 -cos 54 =5 cos 4
+ 2 cos 24).
cosec (m+).rcosec??w; cosec nx cot (in -\-n)x cot mx cot nx
7.
8.
(1
= cot mx + cot ?u; cot (to + n)
j?
2 008 4(008 3.5-008 3(7)
9.
= 4 (cos B - cos (7) (cos C cos 4

4
5+ sin
(cos
4 - cos 5) (cos 4 + cos 5 + cos (7).
- (7)
(7) sin (5
=sin (B - C) sin (C- 4) sin (4 - 5) sin (4 + 5 + (7).
10.
2 sin
11.
tan(4+60)tan(4-60) + tan4tan(4+60) + tan(4-60)tan4
12.
cot(4 + 60)cot(4-60)+cot4cot(4 + 60') + cot(4-60)cot4=-3.

cos
cos
(sin
34
cos
cos
64
24
cos
cos
94
34
-3.
184
cos
cos
64
= 2 {cos 24 - cos 44 + cos 64 cos 124}.

2
14
sin
'
(4
sin
cos
-Z>)
44
cos
45
7~a
7^7~a
777 +
47~rsin (4 - B) sin (4 - C)
sin B sin (5 - (7) sin (5 - 4

+ sin
-
sin(J? + (7+Z)-4)
- B) sin (4 -C) sin (4
-;=.
t^^
cos 4C"
77^
77=
f^-
= 8sin (4 + 5 + C) + cosec 4 cosec 5 cosec C.
(7sin((7 4)sin ((7 5)
If
+5+ (7=77,
prove the relations in Examples
1627
16.
2 tan
4 cot 5 cot (7=2 tan 4 -22 cot 4.
17.
2 cot
4 = cot 4
18.
2 sin (B -C) cos3 4
19.
20.
2 sin 4 cos (4 - B) cos (4 - (7) = 3 sin 4 sin 5 sin (7+ sin 24 sin 25 sin 2(7.
21.
2 sin
(sin
cot
B cot (7+ cosec 4 cosec B cosec

= -sin (B -C) sin ((7- 4) sin (4
(7.
-5).
B + sin (7) (cos (7+ cos 4) (cos 4 + cos 5)

= (sin5 + sin C) (sin (7+sin4)(sin4+sin5).
25 sin 2(7=4 {sin 2 4 sin 2 B sin 2 (7+ cos 2 4
cos2
B cos2 C
+ cos 4 cos 5 cos (7}.
CHAPTER IV
EXAMPLES.
5L>
24.
B - tan (?)
= - 2 sin (5 - C) sin (C- J sin (J - B) sec 4
2 cos8 A (sin25 + sin2C) = 2sinilsin5sinC.
2 cos A sin 3 J = (2 sin 2 J} { + 2 cos 2 A
25.
(sin .4
26.
sin 2
cot
^4
sin 2
sin 2
cotB
cotC
22.
2 cos 2 A (tan
23.
27.
sec
B sec C.
}.
+ sin B + sin C) - sin 4 + sin B + sin C) (sin J - sin B + sin C)

sin C) = 4 sin 2 A sin 2 i3 sin 2 C.
(sin A + sin 5
(
=0.
2 cosec i? cosec Csec(B- C)
= sec (5 - C) sec (C- A) sec (4 - B) (3 + 8 cos A cos 5 cos C).

28.
Prove that,
a+/3+y=sr,
if
sin 2 a
29.
+ sin 2 + sin
__^
+
2cos(i-7r
independent of
T
If tan
32.
Iftan^>
+ 0)
33.
If
V2
2 cos
prove that tan 6 =
= cos B + cos 3 .B,
cos J.
*/2 sin
J.
sin a sin
COS # COS a
,
'
.,
COS< + COSa"
= sin B - sin 3 Z?,
sin (J. - B) = cos 25 = J

+ cos_30
2 cos (#
0)
If 6
and
C0S + C0S
<)
cos (0 + <4)_( 8 in0+sin0)sin(0 + 0).
satisfy the equation
(f>
= V3 (cos cos 0),

sin 3d + sin 3$ = 0.
sin 6 + sin
then will
cos a
37.
If
38.
If
sin 4 a
-TT + sin 2 u =l,

#
cos 2 #
<\>
.,
then
cos4
/3
10.
sin 4
2
cos^+-^-^=1.
a
sin* a
cos(.4+5)sin(C+i))=cos(4-5)8in(Ccot .4 cot i? cotC = cot D.
then
If
<
tan 70 = tan 20 + 2 tan 40 + 4 tan
Prove that
4
(cos
L_
0-1
Prove that
cos3fl
39.
+ 2cos(^7r-<9)
n sin a cos a
,,
Q = /n .,
shew that tan(a-/3)
(l
n) tana.
o t 2 a
^n sin
/3=-1
prove that
36.
I
l
6.
sin a sin
35.
y = 1.
+ a) + sin 2 (^ + /3)-2cos(a-/3)sin(^ + a)sin(^ + /3)
31.
34.
sin
(3
Prove that
sin 2 (^
is
y + 2 sin a sin
Prove that
l
30.
/i
D),
a+/9+y=jr, then
a+sin a)
(CQS
|3
+ sin /3) (cos y + sin y) = 2 (cos a cos /3 cos y + sin
a sin
sin y).
CHAPTER IV
EXAMPLES.
60
then
B cot C= \
cot
will
If 4 sin 2 a sin 2
41.
and cos A = cos B cos
A+B+C=tt
If
40.
C,
8 sin 2 y + sin 4 a + sin 4 8+ sin 4 y 2 sin 2
sin 2
2 sin 2 y sin 2 a 2 sin 2 a sin 2 /3 = 0,

shew that aj3y
42
a multiple of n.
is
+ /3-y) = tany
/3 + y) tan/3'
sin 2a + sin 2/3 + sin 2y = 0.
If
prove that
(a
tan
(a
sec a
If
43.
tan
= sec /3 sec y+ tan /3 tany,
prove that
sec
8 = sec y sec a + tany tan a and sec y = sec a sec /3 + tan a tan /3.
2
T sin
If-
44.
^ cos
ci
cos 2 # sin
- = sin
d>
?-r cos
sin a cos
then
/3
a sin
= sin
/3
-,
If
46.
If
6 cos - cos 2 d> sin #

cos
2
/3
5,
.4,
cos
-^tan /3
= cos(0 + d>),
ir "
v
cos 8 sin a
-tan
-
= cos
(a
+ 8).
'
/3
be positive angles such that

sec
-T<p
cos a
cos a tan 8
45.
cos 6 tan a
A + B + C=60,
prove that
A sec 5 sec C+ 22 tan 5 tan C= 2.
+ /3)cos((9 + y) + l _ cos(fl + y)cos(<9 + q) + l _ cos (6 + a) cos (6 +8) + 1

cos (a + /3)
C0s(/3 + y)
COs(y + a)
that
cosec (/3 a) cosec (y a) + cosec (y /3) cosec (a 8)
cos(fl
prove
'
+ cosec (a y) cosec (8 - y) = 1.
47.
Having given
+ sin < = 14sin 2 #sin 2

2 sin 6 = sin ( ir\ 7r)/sin
sin 4
prove that
48.
then
49.
and
n-|-
sin 6 + sin
or cos ( \ ir
<f>
= sin j
7r,
J 7r)/cos A tt.
+ B + C) = cos^cos^cosC,
8 sin (5 + C) sin (C'+ J sin (A + B) + sin 24 sin 25 sin 2C=0.
= tan (0 +$ +
If tan# + tan( + tan\^= -tan # tan
tan
If
cos(J.
\/f
>//),
then either two of the angles 0, (f>, ^ must be equal to mir + ^n, mr-\i7,
or else one of them and also the sum of the other two must be multiples
of
IT.
50.
If
*(* -?> cos

- 2a)
{0
cos a
+-
cos a cos
If
Sin
cos
cos (5
a,
0, y, S be
/3
2/3)
cos {6 - 2y) = sin (8 - y) sin (y - a) sin (a
any four angles and
cos y cos 8 + sin a sin
/3
cos 6 = cos a cos 8 cos
prove that
51.
sin
2o-
y.
= a + + y + $,
/3
sin 8
= COS {(T -a) COS (<r- 8) COS (<r - y) COS (<r - 8)

+ sin (o--a) sin (<r B) sin (cr-y) sin (<r-8).
then
- 8),
CHAPTER IV
EXAMPLES.
(jl
Prove that
52.
tan
"1
x = 2 tan " '
{cosec tan
~1
x- tan cot "
x).
Prove that
53.
2tan-^r + 2tan-iy = sin-i{?^4|l^l.
\(l+^)(l+ r')J
Prove that
54.
tan" > { (cos 2a sec
2/3
+ cos 2/3 sec 2a)} = tan"
{tan (a
+ ,3) tan 2 (a - )} + tan-
1.
Prove that
55.
tan"
l+tau-^ + tan-
cos -1
If
56.
.i'
3 = 7r
= 2 (tan"
tan~ 1 y=5tan~ 1 #,
If
57.
shew that tan
_j /
+ COS
2
/3
+ tan-^l + tan-
-^).
ir,
1.
as an algebraical function of
10j 2 +
x; hence
1=0.
+ cos- y -
1/
-tan- [tano-tan(<r-a)tan((r1
59.
shew that
2 cos a COS /3 cos y
2
\COS a
find
2xyz=
18 is a root of the equation 5s 4
If 2cr = a + + y,
58.
+ cos -1 y+cos' 1 z =
r 2 + ^2 +5 2 +
then
/3)
tan
(a-
- y)] = tan -
60.
- x)
(s
tt.
Prove that the algebraical equivalent of the equation

sin
where n
'
Prove that
-- >/^g^-H-- v/^^^- V^gS =
{4
'
an
is
(s
"*
,r
"1
sin
sin
"1
sin
= mr,
integer, is
-y)(s- z)
(s
u)
(xy + zu) {xz +yu) (xu +yz)}
{4s(s-x-y)(s-x-z)(s-x-u)~ (zu - xy)

2s =
where
x+y + z + u.
Solve the equations in Examples 61
75
+ 2 cos = 1.
61.
sin
62.
sin
50= 16
63.
sin
70 - sin = sin
64.
tan 20 = 8 cos
65.
tan (45 + A ) = 3 tan (45 -A).
66.
2 sin (0
67.
sec 40
68.
sin
sin 5
0.
30.
- cot
0.
-0) = sin (0+0) = 1.
-sec 20 = 2.
md + nin n0 + sin (m + n) 0=0.
(yu
xz) (yz
- xu)} = 0,
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
62
1
+s
-J
n H^ll Q = cos
69.
sin
70.
tan
71.
2 (sin 4
72.
tan
73.
cot- 1 .r-cot- 1
74.
a
a
+ sec
(9
2(9
_1
i -1
sin
cos"
s _1
3(9
(9)
= 1.
+ tan 5(9 = 0.
+ 2) = 15.
(.r
cos
+ 66cos
a]
y = al
x b sin _1 y = (3j
1
.r
.?
75.
cosec 4a cosec40 = cot 4a
76.
Draw graphs
77.
Find
all
If mi be
sin 2m^4
cot 40.
of the functions (a) sin
.r
+ sin
2x, (b) cos 2.r/cos x.
the solutions of the equation
a
78.
0.
= 1.
+ cos 4
+ tan
IV
any
+sin
cos a) = b
(sin
and
integer,
2iZ?
+ sin
(sin a
A+B+C=
cos
it,
2mC=( l) m +
0).
shew that
4 sin
mA sin mB sin mf,

cos mB cos hjC 1.
m
cos 2mA + cos 2mZ? + cos 2mC={ l) 4 cos jmJ
xi + 8xz + 4z2 = 4#2y,
Prove that
79.
where
= sin .4 + sin 5+ sin
.r
C,
v/
= sin i?sin C+sin
(7
sin
.4
+ sin A sin i?,

A sin 2? sin
z=sin
Prove
80.
tan B tan C
"
Tos2 4
tan C tan
cos 2
.4
_Q
1 -
~tan
tan
.4
If
-1-
J5
cos
+ C= 7r,
82.
.4
= cos
sin
cf>,
prove that tan
ens
tan
Z>
= cos
c/>
tan
= 1.
\//-
sin
i/r,
cos
+ cos 0) = 1,
4 (cos 30 + cos 50) (cos 60 + cos 70) = - 1
30+ cos 40)
'
+B + C
C= cos \^ sin 0,
Solve the equations

4 (cos
cos 2
either tan J, tan C, tani? are in arithmetic progression, or

integral multiple of n.
81.
(7.
that, if
(cos 30
is
an
and
CHAPTER
V.
THE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF SUBMULTIPLE ANGLES.

Dimidiary Formulae.
If in the formula (36) of the
for A, we have
55.
cos a
= cos
sin \a =
2
\a.
last
2 cos 2 â
Chapter we write â
1=
2 sin 2 \ a,
whence we have
1 -- cos
2 sin 2 â,
taking the square roots

cos \ a.
and
sin \
a,
we obtain the
in terms of cos
sin â = v
(1
+ cos a =
cos a),
2 cos 2
following formulae for
a,
cos
= V^ (1 +
dividing one of these expressions by the other,

*.
a= \/l
cos a
4-
cos a
tan *<
*
cos a)
we have
also
These three formulae contain an ambiguity of sign now if a is

given, the three functions sinâ, cosâ, tanâ have each a unique
value, and the true expressions for them can therefore contain no
;
ambiguity. The reason of the ambiguity in the three expressions

obtained above is that they give the values of sin a, cos i a, tan \ct,
not when a is given, but when cos a is given; now, as we have
proved in Art. 33,
haw
all
the angles 2w7r + a, where n is an integer,

a, hence formulae which give sin a, cos \ct,
he same cosine as
tin â, in terms of cos
a, will give these functions for all the angles

included in the formula |(27r + a), and not merely the values of
sinôc, cosâ, tanâ themselves.
THE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF SUBMULTIPLE ANGLES
64
To
find the values
which
sin \
(2mr
a)
may
have,
we must
consider the two cases of an even and of an odd value of n;

sin \ (4nnr
if
= 2m +
if
nlm
a) = sin (+ -|a) = + sin \%,
sin 1 (4ra7r
-
2tt
= sin (ir a) = + sin \ a

and sinâ are given by the
a)
hence the values of sinâ

which expresses sin \a in terms of cos
formula
+ a)
and tan^(2n7r + a) can be shewn to have the values + cosâ,
+ tanâ, and thus the formulae which express cosâ, tanker, in
terms of cos a, will give the values of cosâ and cosset, and of
tan a and tan \a, respectively.
Thus the ambiguity of sign in
the three formulae
is
accounted
The ambiguity
56.
may be
obtained
A OP = a,
a.
Similarly cos | {2nir
for.
of sign in the three formulae
we have
illustrated geometrically.
and
AOP =
the two sets of coterminal angles

(OA, OP), (OA, OPi) are the only ones which have the same cosine as a if QOq, Q'Oq be the bisectors of the angles A OP,
lf
If
a,
AOP
respectively, the bisector of any of the angles (OA, OP) is OQ or Oq,

and of the angles (OA,
hence the formulae for
2 ) is OQ' or Oq' ;
0P
tan â, when cos a is given, will give the sine, cosine,
and tangent of all the four sets of coterminal angles (OA, OQ),
(OA, Oq), (OA, OQ'), (OA, Oq'). The sines of the angles in the
sin |
a,
first
and fourth
to
cos
sin
\<x,
-|cr
sets are equal to sin â, and in the second and third
the cosines of the angles in the first and third sets are
G5
cosâ; the
equal to cos or, and in the second and fourth to
tangents of the angles in the first and second sets are equal to
tanker, and in the third and fourth to tanker.
We
57.
shall
now remove the ambiguities in the three

The function sin|a is positive or negative,
formulae of Art. 55.
according as â lies between 2nir and (2n + l)7r, or between

(2n + 1) 7r and (2n + 2) ir, that is according as ot/27r lies between
2n and 2n + 1, or between 2n + 1 and 2n + 2 hence we have the
;
formula
sin \
where p
than
is
ol
= (-
1)p V|"(l
- cos a)
(1),
the positive or negative integer algebraically next less
a/27r.
The function
cos \ a
is
positive or negative, according as J a lies
2mr^ and 2mr + ^7r, or between 2mr+^7r and 2M7r+7r,

that is according as (a + 7r)/7r lies between 2w and 2n+l, or
between 2n + 1 and 2w + 2 hence
between
rr
costa = (-l) 9 v i( 1 +cosa)

/
where q
We
is
the integer algebraically next less than \ (o
(-l)^y^^
V
1 -f cos
number p q
is
always either zero or +
we write |a
have
we
Chapter,
58.
If
for
2 sin
sin a
hence
+ 7r)/7r.
have also
tanla =
the
(2),
in
a.
(3);
v
'
'
1.
the formula (35) of the last
cos â,
66
these angles have the same tangent tanâ; this accounts for
the absence of ambiguity in the formulae (4).
all
59.
We
now obtain formulae

we have
shall
tan %a, in terms of sin a
sinâ, cosâ, and
+ 2 sin \ a cos â = (sin | a + cos h a)
1
2 sin ^ a cos ^ a = (sin ^ a cos \ a)\
sin a = 1
also
+ sin a =
for
sin \ a
hence
+ cos a = + Vl + sin a,
therefore
sin
Ja= + Vl sin a;
cos
sinâ
â = -|{Vl-fsina + Vl
cos \a
=%
{ Vl
sin a},
+ sin a + Vl - sin a}.
may be taken we have,

and
four
values
of cos \ot, in terms of
a,
which
Formulae
sin
and
sin a.
cos â in terms of sin a
a
express
will give the sine and cosine respectively of all the angles included
in the formula \(mr-\-{l) n a), for as we have shewn in Art. 33,
In each of the ambiguities either sign
therefore, four values of sin h
the sines of
all
the angles
mr + (
l)
a have the value sin
and cosine of the angles % (mr
find the sine
a.
To
+ ( l) n a) we must
consider four cases.

(1)
If
w = 4m,
\
{nir
+ (- 1)" a) = 2nnr + \tx
the sine and cosine of these angles are sin ^ a and cos \ a respectively.
(2)
If
= 4>m +
\{nir
1,
+ (-
l)
a)
2mir
\it -\<x;
the sine and cosine of these angles are cos \ a and sin \ a respectively.
(3)
If n
= 4m +
\
(W7r
2,
+ (-
1)" a)
2rrnr
the sine and cosine of these angles are
+ |a
sin \ a
it
and
cos a
respectively.
(4)
If n
= 4m +
(W7T
3,
+ (-
l)' 0)
= (2l +
the sine and cosine of these angles

respectively.
+ \TT - h0C
are cos |a and -sinâ
1)
7T
67
Thus we obtain four values sin|a, cosâ, sinâ, cosâ, by

the formula which gives sinâ, and four values cosôc, sinâ,
cos-ôt, sin ha, by the formula which gives cos|a.
The
four sets of values of
x and y which
satisfy the equations
+ y) =l + sin a)
y) = 1 sin aj
x = cosia
x = sin \ a
~
=
It
y sm$a)'
y cosâj
2
(x
(x
are
x=
sin h a
y = cos-a)~
x=
'
y-
cos \ a
sinâ
As
in the preceding case, the ambiguities in the formulae

a,
of the last Article maybe illustrated geometrically. Let
60.
POA
P 0A = 7r
1
cc,
then the angles which have the same sine as a are
the two sets of coterminal angles (OA, OP), (OA,

QOq, Q'Oq be the bisectors of the angles A OP,
0P );
:
A0Pu
hence
if
the four
sets of coterminal angles (OA, OQ), (OA, Oq), (OA, OQ), (OA, Oq)
will be the angles whose sine and cosine will be given by the
formulae which express sinâ, cosâ,

see that
when
Q'0B = â, and Q'OA = \ (ir a),
sin a is given.
We
hence the sines of these
four sets of coterminal angles are sinâ, sin ha, cosâ, cosâ,
and their cosines are cos|a, cosâ, sinâ, sinâ; these are
the four values of sinâ, cosa respectively which are given by
the two formulae.
61.
We
have
sin
J + cosJa = V2 [-^sina +
cosâj
= v 2sin(ia + |-7r),
/
52
68
and similarly
sin
hence sin \ a
lies
cos \a =
Ja
+ cos h a
cosâ
Irr)
or
l,
between 2w
+1
and
+ 1,
between In
or
and 2n
4-
hi
=.
2??
positive or negative, according as =
is
tween 2n and In
(â
positive or negative, according as
is
between 2n and 2w +
sin^-a
\/2 sin
2,
and
1 lies betherefore
+ cos a = (- 1)^ Vl + sin a,

sin |a cos |a = ( 1)? Vl sin a,
sin
where
is
than -
|a
the positive or negative integer algebraically next less
\-l,
and q
-|; we have
is
the integer algebraically next less than
then the three formulae
Vf + sin a + (- l)i Vl - sin a]

cos ia = I {(- 1)* Vl + sin a - (- 1)9 Vl - sin a]
sin
la
= i {(-
1)*'
+ )
= -(- 1)p Vl +
tania
2
sin a
'-
(-
(5),
(6),
- sirTa
l)? Vl
(7).
(-lyVl+sma-t-l^Vl-sma
62.
To express
sin
sin \a, cos â, tan
|a = (l
=
cos2
ifl
+ Vl
a=(
and consequently
ha=
we have
+ tan
'
a)
_1
2
VlHh tan *>
/V
cos
a,
cos a)
sinAa=+
- V/^(l
2
hence
â in terms of tan
Vl +
H
a/A (1
-V
V
'
tan 2 a/
7=
Vl + tan
Vl + tan 2 a tanâ =
Lan a
J,
ec/
1
;
We leave to the
each of these formulae contains ambiguities.
the discussion of these ambiguities, which should be
student
made
as in the previous cases.

It should
be noticed that the values of tan
69
a are the roots of
the quadratic equation in tanâ,
tan a
2 tan i a
tan
obtained by replacing
'
â
in the formula (41) of the last
by a,
Chapter.
The
63.
functions sin
cos
a,
in terms of
a,
tan a can be expressed without

the angles which have the
for all
tanâ;
ambiguity
same tangent as â are included in the formula rnr + %a, and
2 (mr + â) or 2nir + a are angles which have all their circular
To find the expressions, we
functions the same as those of a.
have
2 sin â cos â
cos2
cos a
tan a
hence also
cos 2
cos 2
2 tan
a + sin a
sin \a _
\<x
sin â
-|-a +
2
\<x
+ tan
tan
+ tan
-|a'
2
-|a
'
\o.
2 tan ia
tan
â"
Examples.
(1)
=
If 2cos8 s/\-sin2d-\Jl
(8n+5)J
where n
is
an
and
(8n
A
^
.sin
Prove that
(3 '
K
an
integer.
What are
+ 7)J,
If sin
4A = a,
provided
tan \
(tt
+ x),
shew that
(4ii
lies
between
+ )tt,
the signs in other cases ?
Prove that the Jfour values of

J
cot 4 x,
(4)
between
+-=secA,
v I sin A
(4n )jt and

is
lie
yl + sinA
the radicals denoting positive numbers,
where n
shew that 6 must
integer.
cosh A
(2)
+ sin 20,
Vl sin x- + 1
.
are
^/l+sinx-l
- cot
- tan
x,
\ (n+x).
the four values of tan A are given
by
[(l+a)i-l}{l+(l-a)*}.
(5)
n
In
may
be
the formula tan
\A=- l) m where
replaced by (
,
iff /I
is
A.
prove thai the ambiguity of
the greatest integer in
(A + 90)/180.
70
The circular functions of one-third of a given
angle.
we replace A, in the formulae (37), (38), (42)

64.
last Chapter, by â, we obtain the three equations
of the
If
= 3 sin 4a 4 sin A a
cosa = 4 cos |a 3 cos â
tan ia
3 tan la
3
Jtana=
sin a
(8),
(9),
we have
_ N
(10);
o tan ^ a
thus, in each case, a cubic equation for determining a
Hence if sin a be
circular function of |a, in terms of one of a.
we
three
distinct
values
of
obtain
sinâ;- if cos a be
given,
we obtain
we obtain
given,
given,
three distinct values of cos
In the case of the formula
(1)
a,
and
if
tana be
three distinct values of tanâ.

(8),
we have
sin a given,
and
thus we shall obtain for sinâ the values of the sines of one-third
of
all
as
a.
0Q
the angles (OA, OP), (OA, OP^), which have the same sine
Let the trisectors of the angles {OA, OP) be 0Q lt 0Q2
so that Q 0A = â, and QiQ.Qs is an equilateral triangle, and
&0^ = 7r + ia,
Q 0A = 7r + ia;
3
the trisectors of the angles (OA, OPj) are 0q lt 0q, 0q3

qiq-
qz
an equilateral
is
q 2 0A
We
triangle,
= ir-a,
and q
q3 0A
OA = ^ (ir a),
where
so that
= %Tr-ia.
Qxq 2 Q3 q 3 are parallel to OA; the

q
sines of the two sets of coterminal angles (OA, 0Q ), (OA, 0q 2 )
see at once that
x ,
71
are sinâ, those of the sets (OA, 0Q2 ), (OA, 0q ) are sin(7r + â),
and those of (OA, 0Q3 ), (OA, 0q 3 ) are sin(|7r |a); therefore the
Act),
three roots of the cubic (8), in sin â, will be sinâ, sin (^7r
x
and
sin (+7r
(2)
same cosine
of the
+ a).
as a are
(9),
the angles which have the

0P X ); let the trisectors
(OA, OP) and (OA,
of angles be the three lines
first set
Q 0A = ct, and Q^Qs
0Q
OQ,,
0Q where
3
an equilateral triangle; the trisectors of

the second set of angles are 0q Oq,, 0q 3 where q 0A = \a, and
and
q q>q 3 is an equilateral triangle we see at once that Q qi, Qqi,
is
x ,
q 3 are perpendicular to
angles (OA,
(OA,
(OA,
The
OA.
0Q ), (OA, 0q )
X
cosines of the two sets of
are cos a,
those of the two sets
OQ.,), (OA, 0q 2 ) are cos(7r + â), and those of the two sets
0Q 3 ), (OA, 0q 3 ) are cos (f 7r + a) therefore the three roots of
;
the cubic
cosâ, are cosâ,
(9), in
cos(^7r |a) and cos^v + â).
(10), the angles which have the

and
(OA, 0P ). As before 0Q ly
(OA, OP)
in
the
on
are
the trisectors of the first
OQ.,, 0Q 3
figure
page 72,
of angles; the trisectors of the second set are 0q
Oq.,, 0q 3
where q q.,q 3 is an equilateral triangle, and q 0A = (ir + a); we
(3)
same tangent
as
a.
are
x ,
Qi0q are diameters of the circle. The

tangents of the sets (OA, 0Q ), (OA, 0q 2 ) are tanâ, of (OA,
OQ,), (OA, 0q3 ) are tan(7r + a), and of (OA, 0Q 3 ), (OA, (>/,)
see that
Qi0q2 Q,0q 3
,
are tan (^tt + \ a), hence tan^-a, tan (.!

the roots of the cubic (10), in tan la.
tt
â),
tan
(.!
ir+ la) arc
72
We may
express the results of this article thus
the cubic in
Sx -
4a;
the roots of
as,
= sin a,
are
sin ^ (tt
sin <x,
sin ^ (ir + a),
a),
those of the cubic

4a?
Sx = cos a,
are
cos 4a,
cos ^ (tt -
cos4(7r + a),
a),
and those of the cubic

tan a (1
Sx = Sx x
2
are tan i,
tan ^(tt
a),
tan (ir + a).
Determination of the circular functions of certain angles.
The formulae
of this Chapter may be applied to the

circular functions of angles which are
of
whose
circular functions are known.
submultiples
angles
65.
determination
(1)
We
of the
have
sin ^7r
= cos \it= l/\/2
hence from the formulae (1) and
sm
W = W2-V2,
cos
in tVtt = | J 2 - V2 + V2,
sin
and proceeding
(2)
We
in this way,
hence from formulae (5) and
(6),
sin -J^TT =
(V6 - V2),
J-
!7T=W2 + V2,
cos -^tt
we can
sin^7r = l/2,
have
(2), of Art. 57,
= n/2 + V2 + V2,
calculate sin
cos^7r
ir
and cos
7r.
= V3/2;
we have
cos
^tt =
(V6
V2),
the values obtained for sin 15, cos 15 in Art. 34; proceeding
in this way we calculate the sines and cosines of all the angles
7T
2"73"
We
(3)
have
sin tt
2 sin fair cos -fair
sin|7r= 2 sini7rcos|7r,
= 4 sin fair cos i7r sin T^7r cos
and
sin ir sin |7r
therefore
hence since
sin \ir
we have
73
j^tt
= cos îr,
4 cos ^tt sin x1o 7r==
sinj^7r = \,
= ^,
cos ^tr siny
(cos l7r + sin -^tt) = \ + 1 = f
cos i7r + sin y^Tr = i \/5,
= (V-5 + 1),
sin T1 7r = ^(V5-l),
cos^7r
sin tt = VlO -2^5;
cos -^w = | V 10 + 2 V5,
sin ^7?-
or
that
is
also
therefore
or
and hence
these values agree with those given in Art. 34.

It should be noticed that, if a is any angle of which the sine
and cosine are known, then the sines and cosines of all angles of
and n are positive integers, can be found

the form ma/2 n where
in a form which involves only the extraction of radicals for we
,
have shewn how to find the functions of
and when
angles of the form a/2'\

these are known, the formulae of the last Chapter enable
.
ma
us to find siii-^- and cos
66.
We
We
have
all
ma
=
are now in a position to calculate the circular

of
all
functions
angles differing by 3 or 7r/60, commencing at
3. and going up to 90
sin 3
= sin (18- 15)
18 cos 15 cos 18 sin 15

= TV(V6 + V2)(V5-l)-i(v 3-l)VF+75,
cos 3 = (<y/3 + 1) V5 + V5 + TV (V 6 - \/2) (V-5 - 1).
= sin
similarly
We
T
have also
21
= 36 - 30,
= 36 -15,
33
= 45 -12,
= 45 - 30,
= 45 - 21
39 = 45 -6,
9
24
12
30
18,
= 30 - 3,
42 = 45 -3;
27
hence we can calculate the sines and cosines of
all
the angles
then unnecessary to proceed farther, since

3 ,6
up
th" sine or cosine of an angle greater than 45 is the cosine or sine
...
of its
to 45.
It
is
complement, which
is
less
than 45.
calculation are given in the following table:
The
results of the
74
THE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF SUBMULT1PLE ANGLES

sine
3
= e1
7r
CHAPTER V
EXAMPLES.
75
In this table, the sines of the angles 3, 6, ...up to 87 are given; the
The
cosines will be found by taking the sines of the complementary angles.
values of the surds in the above expressions are given to 24 decimal places
in
the Messenger of Math. A
ol. vi.,
by
Mr
P.
In Hutton's tables the
Gray.
values of these surds are given to 10 places of decimals.

complete table
with the denomigiving the tangents, secants, and cosecants of these angles,
nators in a rationalized form, will be found in Gelin's Trigonometry.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
Prove the relations in Examples
8,
tan
kA ~ 1 cos A + cos 2? + cos C
tan
\C
1-cos C+cos.4
V.
A + B + ClQ0
where
c
:
+ cosB'
sm(A-B)sm(A-C) + sm(B-C)sm(B-A) + sm(C-A)sm(C-B)

= 2cosh{B-C)cos%(C-A)cosh(A-B)-2sin%AsmZBsm$C.
2.
cos 4
3.
^+cos |5 + cosH(7-r2cos^cos |5cosHC

4
+ 2 cos B cos2 i C cos2 \A + 2 cos C cosH A cos \B = 8 cosH A cos

2
4.
5.
6.
2 sin3 .4
= 3 cos J .4
cos h
\ B cos & G.
2
B cos %C+ cos f A cos 2? cos C.
A (1 + cot B cot C)
=cosec A cosec B cosec C {4 cos h(B-C)
2 cosec
2 cosec A (1 - cot B
sin 2/1
cos
i(C- A) cos \(A-B)-
1}.
cot C)
= | sec | A
7.
sec |
B sec i (7+ cosec A
cosec Z? cosec C.
sin(Z?-C)
= 16 cos \A cos |.B cos Csin |(2?- 0) sin (C- 4) sin (J. - B).
conk A- sinZ? + sin
'
9.
\G ~~
_ l+tan^.4
cos |z? + siiT^C'- sin | .4
sin
\{B-C)
| ( + C)
sin
sin
\{C-A) + sin $ (4
sin
If
.!+/?+ C= 300, and
C08il= (d-a)(b-c)
.
(d + i)(6 + c)'
- B)
| {A +
$ (<7+ A )
sin ^ (B siu | (Z?+
C)
A')
sin
sin |
(C-A
(C+ 4)
sin | (4- Z?)

sin \ (A + B)
if
n=
COSjB
(d-b)(c-a)
(rf+6)^+a)'
COS(7=
(d-c)(a-b)
(^-+^F+/0
tan4+tan.B + tan^C'=
then
11.
Prove the identity

sin
10.
+tan
1.
Prove that
tan \ {x + y) tan \
(:c
y)
= cosec
2.r
cosec
?/
cosec 2y cosec #
#
cosec 2 ^ c08ec y + cosec 2y cosec
=Q
CHAPTER V
EXAMPLES.
76
Shew
12.
{1-2
cos | J
prove that
cosiZ)sin^siniC-cos|5cosiCsin|il siniZ)
= sin h{A + B) sin * (A + C)
cos
(.4
+ D).
Prove that
14.
sin 2
|a + cot k0 = 2 cot 6, then

2
- 6) + sec 2 0} =tan4 0.
6) +sec 6} {1-2 sec 8 cos (0
cot
if
A + B + C+ Z)=360,
If
13.
that
sec 6 cos (a
h{B-
C) + sin ((7- ^l)+sin (J

2
-5)
+ icoal{B-C)cosh(C-A)cos\(A-B) = 2.
Prove that
15.
r-
'.
-.
J-*-
l+cos(y-z)+cos(z-x) + cos(x-y)
;
16.
Investigate what relation

cos
17.
tan i
2\(z x) tan h (xy).
must hold between
a+cos/3+cosy=l+4sin |asin
A+B+C+B=360,
If
z)
= - tan h(y
2 \ff
^ "
a,
0, y, in order that
i/3 sin |y.
prove that
cos(Z? + C+Z>) + cos((7+Z) + .4) + cos(Z) + ;l + ZJ) + cos(;l + Z? + C)

= - 4 cos (.4 + B) cos i (4 + C) cos J (J + D).
18.
tan
If
i0=tan 3 i<, and
shew that
,
19.
T
If sin-'&>
.
sin
21.
sin/3(l
22.
If
+ +
A+
If
- >//)
.
,
that
prove
0) tan |(s v//'),
\//.
4+ Z*+C+Z) = 180',
sin
(s
#) sin (s
or-i rVr-
= sin,ssin(s-0)sin
,-,-
4 cos- h 6 cos- 9 costan 2 ^ a) = tan hs tan |- (s - 6) tan ^
where 2s =
20.
= 2 tan a,
tan
# + $ = 2a.
shew that
5+sin C- sin Z)=4 cos \(A + D) cos (Z> + 19) cos | (C+D).
a+/3 + y = 2n-, prove that
+2 cosy)+sin
If 2s
(1
= a + b + c,
+ 2 cos a) + sin a (1 + 2
cos/3)
=4sini(y-/3) sini(a-y) sin(/8-a)

prove that
cos (s b) cos ^ (s c)
+ sin is sin \ (s a) sin |(s -
cos | s cos ^ (s a)
23.
Ifa+/3 + y = i7r, then

- tan \a) (1 - tan 10)
(1
(1
24.
Prove that
If
if
2a)+cos
sin ^
-taniy) ~
_
+ tania) (l+tan/3)(l+tau
cos (0/3 + y-
25.
ft)
(s
sin a
iy)
c) = cos | a cos 1 6 cos \c.
+ sin/3+sin y- 1
cosa+cos/3 + cosy
a + /3 + y = 7r,
+ a - 2/3) + COS (a+/3-2y)

= 4 cos | (5a - 2/3 - y) cos J (50 - 2y - a) cos (5y - 2a - 0).
(f y
cos 2 6 = cos a/cos
cos 2 ^' = cosa'/cos/3,
/3,
and
tan <9/tan #' = tan a tan
shew that
tan
,\
a tan
= tan
a',
J/3.
CHAPTER V
EXAMPLES.
If cos a
26.
= cos ft cos
shew that
If
27.
A+B + C=180
= 2sin -A< sin
-?y
0'
-h ft'.
and tan
sin a
A tan f 5= tan \C shew
that
f C= cot f J + cot B + cot f C.

tan|(y+2) + tani(s + .r) + tan|(x+y) = 0,
sin.r + sin + shi2 + 3 sin (.v+y+z) = 0.
tan | J
If
28.
= cosft' cos</>', and

A a = tan Aft tan
<
+ tan
77
prove that
+ tan f + tan
?/
Prove that
29.
(ft
y) + cos ft sin | (# + ft)sin^ (y-n)
cos y sin | (6 + y) sin J (a - ft)
= 2 sin A (ft - y) sin (y - a) sin A (a - ft) sin A (a +ft + y
cosasin |(0 + a)sin|
+ 6).
Solve the equations
30.
tan ja + tan Aft = 1

tan a + tan ft =f J
31.
If
sin(</>
+ n)sin(0-a) = sin (<ft+ft)sin

(<ft-ft) _
+M
si(^ )
-(=|fi-M)
If tan (| tt -f \ 6)
= tan 5 (i tt + j <)>
S infl-58in$
and
find a,
"
(1+a
prove that
2sin
^){1+j3 . 28^^,
ft.
If a
33.
tan
+ /34-y=7r, shew that

+ tan (tan Ay tan Aa) + tan 1
(tan Aft tan ^y)
= tan - 1
(tan A a tan Aft)
8sin l asin ^ sin

h + sin
ly|
a sin
sin
\
34.
sum
Prove that the

- cos 2 ft
cos 2 A y
cos2 ft cos2
cosHa + cos 2 ^ft-cos 2 0=A;.
shew that
32.
,,,,
: ,,
sm$(ft-n),
ft
yj
of the three quantities
cos 2 A a cos 2 A y
^y +
sin 2 ^ft sin 2
'
Ay
cos 2 |a cos 2
2
Ay + sin Aa
sin 2
'
|y
l
cos 2 AftCOS 2 A a
cos 2 1/3 cos 2 Aâ + sin 2 ft sin 2 Aa
is
equal to their continued product.

'','>.
'"-
'
Cos A
Prove that
<73 + y)
(ft
-y)
cos
,
(y + a) cos A (a +ft)
COS A (ft- y) cos A, (y- a) COS A (a -ft)
cos a COS ft COS y - cos (a + ft + y)
COB^(q+ft) _ 3 cos A (ft + y) cos A,
(y+a)
COS I (y- a)
COS (a
- ft)
COS \
36.
(ft
y) cos
(y
- a) COS
Having given that
+ cos ft + cosy
COS(a+ft + y)
cos a
prove that each fraction

COS
and also to
{tan a
is
sin a-f sin
ft
+ sin
y
'
8in(a+ft+y)
equal to
(ft
+ y) + cos (y + a) + COS (a + ft),

A (ft + y)J-/{tan a +
tan (ft + y)}.
-tan
(a
- ft)
"
CHAPTER VI
VARIOUS THEOREMS.
In
67.
this
Chapter,
we give
various
examples of trans-
of expressions containing circular functions.

Some
of the theorems given are of intrinsic interest, others are given on
formations
account of the methods emplojêd in proving them.
Facility in the
manipulation of expressions involving circular functions can only

be obtained by much practice, but a careful study of the processes
we employ
in various cases will very materially assist the student

power of dealing with this kind of symbols.
in acquiring the
Identities
Examples.
68.
(1)
and transformations.
Prove that
sin 2a sin
(j3
- y) + sin 2/3 sin (y - a) + sin
The
factors
- /3)
- j3) + sin
(y
-2y sin (a
= {sin (|3 + y) + sin (y + a) + sin (a + /3)}
{sin
(a
- y) + sin
(/3
- a)}.
on the right-hand side of the equation are the sum and the
two quantities sin y cos /3 + sin a cos y + sin /3 cos a
difference respectively of the
and cosysin/3 + cossiny+cos/3sina; hence the product of these
factors is
equal to
(sin y cos
Now
sin
/3
+ sin a cos y + sin /3 cos a) 2 - (cos y sin /3 + cos a sin y + cos /3 sin a) 2
y cos
cos 2 y sin 2 = sin 2 y sin 2

/3
the square terms

2 sin a cos a (sin
and
/3
is
zero
cos y
/3,
hence the algebraical sum of
the product terms are equal to
cos (3 sin y) + 2 sin
cos
/3
(sin
y cos a cos y sin
a)
+ 2 sin y cos y (sin a cos /3 cos a sin /3),

this is equal to
sin 2a sin (/3-y)
+ sin 2/3 sin (y-a) + sin
2y sin (a-|S);
thus the identity
2 sin 2a sin (/3-y) = 2 sin

is
proved.
(/3
+ y) 2 sin (y-/3)
VARIOUS THEOREMS
79
In the last example, put ir+ a, r +8, \^ + y, fora,
(2)
/3,
y, respectively;
we then obtain the identity

2 cos 2a sin Q3-y) = 2 cos (3+7)- 2 sin (y-8).
Prove
(3)
that-
sin 3 a sin (8
's,
y)= sin (a+8 + y)
sin (8
y)
sin (y
a)
sin (a
8).
In this case, as in many others, we replace the quantities sin 3 a, sin 3 /3,
sin 3 y, on the left-hand side of the equation, by the equivalent expressions in
sines of multiple angles
the expression on the left-hand side then becomes
1 2 sin a sin (8
or
IS
"We
sin 3a sin
now
(8 y)
y) j 2
sin 3a sin (8
y)
in virtue of Ex. (3), Art. 45.
replace the products of sines
by the
difference of cosines, the
expression then becomes

I {cos (3a
- 8 + y) - COS (3a - /3 + y) + cos
and the algebraic sum of the
first
2 sin 2
and
(3/3
last
a) sin
(y
+ y - a) - COS (3/3 - y + a)
+ COS(3y + a-/3)-cos(3y-a+/3)},
terms in the bracket
(a
+ 8 + y)
is
taking the second and third terms, and the fourth and
same way, the expression becomes
fifth together, in
the
-|sin(a + /3 + y)2sin2 (y-a)

-sin
or
in virtue of
(4)
(3),
+ /3 + y)sin
(/3-y) sin (y-a) sin (a
-8)
Art. 47.
Prove that
2
(5)
Ex.
(a
cos 3 a sin (8
y) = cos
(a
+ 8 + y)
sin (8
y)
sin (y
a) sin (a 8).
Prove that
2 sin 3 a sin3 (8 y) = 3 sin a sin 8 sin y sin (8 y) sin (y a) sin (a 8) ;

3
3
3
this follows from the fact that x+y+z is a factor of x +y +z 3xyz; put
x = sin
(6)
sin (a
a sin (8
- y), y = sin /3 sin (y-a),
= sinysin(a-/3),
then
x+y+z=0.
Prove that
+ 8) sin (a - 8) sin (y + 8) sin (y - 8) + sin (8 + y) sin (8 y) sin (a + 8) sin (a - 8)

+ sin (y + a) sin (y a) sin (/3 + 8) sin (8 8) = 0.
The expression
f 1 _
x ^2)
vanishes identically;
_ W2) + (^2 _ -2) (^2 _ w2) + ( 2 2 _ ^,2) ( y2 _ ^2)

= sin/3, 3=siny, tt>=sin&,
put # = sina,
s2
?/
then remembering that

sin 2 a
sin 2 8 = sin
(a
+ 8) sin
(a
- /3)
the theorem follows.

(7)
/Vove that
2 (co /3 cos y
sin 1 a (cos
- cos a) (cos cos a cos 8) (cos a cos 8 cos y) -f sin 1 a s/?i 2 /3 sin2
y
y
8 cos y cos a) 2 sin 2 8 (cos ycosa cos /3) 2 sin 2 y (cos a cos (i cos y)"
= (1 cos
cos 2 8
<-'OS
y + 2 COS a cos 8 COS y)\
VARIOUS THEOREMS
80
This follows from the known theorem that the square of the determinant
is
00
g = cos/3,
a=b=c=l, f=cosa,
put
-f 2 fg - ch
fg ch ca g
fh bg gh af
equal to
A=cosy,
~ bg
gh af
fl
ab h 2
then be / 2 = siu 2
a, ...,
expanding the determinant, the theorem follows.

Prove that
(8)
cos 2a cot
\ (y-a)
cot
J (a-/3) + cos 20
cot
cot
\ (a-0)
+ cos
A (0-y)
2y cot A (0 y)
cot \ (y
a)
= cos 2a + C0S 20 + COS 2y + 2 cos (0+y) + 2 cos (y + a) + 2 cos (a+/3).

Replace each cotangent on the left-hand
cot
w~
A0=
sin (0
sin 6
side,
by means of the formula
then reduce the whole expression

to the
r
y) sin (y - a)
sin (a
0)
common denominator
the numerator becomes
(0 y)
+ cos (a - /3)},
or 2 cos 2a sin (0 y) + 2 cos 2a sin (0 y) cos (y a) cos (a - 0)
+ 2 cos 2a sin (0 y) {cos (y a) + cos (a - 0)},
or {1+2 cos (0 y)} 2 cos 2a sin (0 y) i 2 cos 2a sin 2 (0 - y)
+ 2 cos 2a sin (0 y) cos (y-a) cos (a-0).
Now
1 + 2 COS (0 - y) - 4 cos 1 (0 - y) COS J (y - a) COS
|(a 0)
2 cos 2a sin
from Ex.
4,
+ cos (y - a)}
{1
Art. 47,
and 2 cos 2a
sin (0
y) = 2
cos (0 + y) 2 sin (y
0)
= 4 sin \ (0-y) sin |
(y-a)
sin $ (-/3) 2 cos (0 +

y).
2 cos 2a sin 2 (0-y) = O,
Also
and 2 cos 2a
sin (0
y) cos
(y
- a)
cos (a 0)
= \ 2 cos 2a {sin 2 (0 - y)
- sin 2 (y - a) - sin
= 1 2 cos 2a sin 2 (0 - y) - \ 2 cos 2a 2 sin 2 (0 - y),
which equals
sin (0
y) sin (y
- a)
sin (a
hence the numerator of the whole expression
sin(0-y)sin (y-a)
sin
- 0) 2
is
2 (a - 0)}
cos 2a,
equal to
(a-0) {22 cos (0 + y) + 2 cos 2a};

22 cos (0+y) + 2 cos 2a.
therefore the expression is equal to

(9)
If
a+0+y =
7r,
and to|(0 + y-a)
Squaring the given equation,

sin 2 (*7r-a) sin*
or
(1
tan (y + a-0) fcm | (a + 0-y) = l,
l+cos a + cos
prove that
- sin
+ cos y = 0.
we have
(,r-0)sin2 (*-?)
= COs2(^-â)cOS 2 a7r-i0)cO S 2(^-ly),

- sin
- sin
= (1 +sin a) (1 + sin 0) (1 + sin y)
a) (1
0) (1
y)
,
VARIOUS THEOREMS
81
+ sin /3 + sin y + sin a sin /3 sin y = 0,

Ja cos /3 cos^y + sin a sin /3 sin y = 0;
= 0,
1 + 2 sin â sin |$sin
?ry
=
cos a + cos /3 + cosy
1
4 sin |a sin /3 sin ^y
cosa+cos/3 + cosy + l=0.
hence
sin a
4 cos
or
hence
also
therefore
Prove that if
(10)
tan \
Me
(/3
+ y - a) tan \
+sm
SMi 2a
We have
sin|( + y-a)
or
{COS (8
which
may
2,3
(y
+ a - /3) *cm (a + ,8 - y) = 1,
2y = 4 cos a cos /3 cos y.
s'?i
^ (y + a-,8) sin \
(a + /3-y)
= cos(/3 + y-a)cos^(y + a-/3)cosi(a + /3-y),
- COS y} sin (a + j3 - =
- a) + COS COS
|
{COS (/3
y)
y)
(a + /3 y),
sin
- a)
be written
COS(f3-a)cos(a + /3-y + j7r) + COSysin|(a + /3-y+|7r) = 0.
Now
+ sin 2/3 + sin 2y- 4 cos a cos cosy is equal to

+ /3) cos (/3 - a) - 2 cos y {cos (8 - a) + cos (a + /3) - sin y},
- cos
2 cos (#- a) {sin (a + /3) - sin (in- - y)} - 2 cosy {cos (0 +
a)
(|tt
y)},
sin 2a
2 sin (a
or
which
is
equal to
2 sin | (a
ana
+ /9 + y - ^ tt)
{cos
(/3
- a)
COS |(a
this is equal to zero.
Having given
(11)
+ /3 - y + tt)
+ COSy sin |(a + /3-y + i7r)},
that
4 cos (y
- z)
cos (z
x) cos (x
- y) = 1,
prove that
1
+ 12
cos 2
(y-z)
cos 2 (z
x)
cos 2
(x-y)
= 4 cos 3
- z) cos 3 - cos 3 (y
(z
x)
(x
y).
=
a=y-z, $=z-x, y x-y, then a + /3 + y = 0,
hence
1 - cos a - cos 2 /3 - cos 2
y + 2 cos a cos /3 cos y = 0,
2
2
therefore
cos a + cos /3 + cos 2 y =
Now cos 3a cos 3/3 cos 3y = cos a cos /3 cos y (4 cos 2 a - 3) (4 cos 2 /3 - 3) (4 cos 2 y 3)
= (4 - 27 - 48 2 cos 2 (S cos 2 y+ 36 2 cos 2 a)
Let
= (31 -48 2 cos 2 /3 cos 2 y)
and
cos 2a cos
2/3
cos 2y = (2 cos 2 a
1) (2
cos 2 /3- 1) (2 cos 2 y- 1)
= (|-l+3-42cos 2 /3cos
= -42cos /3cos 2 y,
y)
hence
(12)
4 cos 3a cos 3/3 cos 3y
12 cos 2a cos
20cos2y = l.
Having given
y
n. T.
+ z 2 -2yzcos a _
m2 a
z2
+ x 2 - 2zx cos /3 _ x 2 + y 2 - 2xy-cos y

'
.v///-'/i
sYw^y
fi
VARIOUS THEOREMS
82
prove that one of the following
sets
__*__ _
- a)
cos (s
1
of equations holds
cos (s
cos (s
cos (s
y)
cos (s
cos (s
'
y)
- fi)
'
a)
cos (s
- a)
'
/3)
cos s
y)
cos (s
cos (s
=
/3)
cos s
2s denoting a+fi + y
'
COS s
Let each of the equal fractions be denoted by k2 and put x = kcos0,

,
</
Icoscf), z = kcos\js, we have then

2 cos
cos2 + cos2
yfr
<j>
or
(cos a
cos
cf>
<fi
cos
cos a = 1 COS 2 a,
= sin 2 (p sin 2 \^,
cos
2
\^)
t|/-
whence cosa=cos($ + \//); similarly we can shew that cos/3 = cos(\//'#),

cosy = cos(0<), whence without loss of generality we can put a = $\^,
= i//-#,
y = #$.
In order that these equations may be consistent, we

the ambiguous signs to be positive, or else two of them"
In the former case we find 8 = s a, $= /3,
negative and one positive.
=
in
the
other
cases we find the three sets of values
-\^
s-y;
/3
must take
all
<9=y-s
6 = S-ft
$ =s
(f)=a
f=S-/3j
thus one of the four given relations
The
solution
yjr
always
satisfied.
of equations.
Examples.
69.
(1)
is
=S
Solve the equation

sin 28 sec 46
This equation
may
+ cos 26 = cos 66.
be written
46+ cos 26- cos 66 = 0,

sin 26 sec 46 + 2 sin 46 sin 2(9 = 0;
sin 20 = 0, or sec 46 + 2 sin 40 = 0,
sin 28 sec
or
hence
that
sin 80
is
Hence the
0=$mir,
(2)
/S'o/re /;e
equation
cos
We may
= - 1.
solutions are
8=1 j7r-(- l)n ?[-
asecx + sin 3 a
cosec x
=1
/> x.
write the equation

cos 3 a sin
1
This example
is
.r
+ siu 3 a cos a?=sin .r cos x,
taken from Wolstcuholme's problems.
VARIOUS THEOREMS
sin 3 a cos
or
sin x = sin x (cos x - cos a),

=
sin x (cos # cos a),
a sin (a A')
by sin^(<i x), rejecting this factor, we have
x cos a sin 2 a
-
sin 2
hence
both sides are divisible
S3
= 2 sin x sin i(a + #)=cos ^ (x a)-cos^

cos ^ (3a? + a) = cos h (x a) cos 2a,
2 cos I (3# + a = cos i x + 3a) + cos | (.r - 5a),
2 sin 2 a cos h (a
therefore
or
v)
(3.r
+ a),
which may be written
+ a) cos ^ (x + 3a) = cos | (# - 5a) cos (3* + a),

- a) sin \ (x + 3a)
sin \ (x - a) sin (x + a) = sin
cos (3x
therefore
(an
again rejecting the factor sin \ (x a),

sin (x
whence
The
+ a) = - 2 cos J (# - a) sin \(x + Za)=- {sin (#+a)+sin 2a},

sin (x + a) = sin a cos a.
solutions are therefore

.r=2?i7r
+ a, and x=nn -a+( l)' l_1 sin _1 (sinacosa).
Solve the equations
(3)
We
a sin (x
(s + y)
a sin (x + y)
-:
('^
~{ =
then
t,
{a sin
(x+y) b sin (# -y)}

=4 (cos 2 y -cos 2 x) = 4 sin (# + ?/)
sin
(x-y).
given by the quadratic equation
is
<
....
<
*4~ 2/^
m(x-y)
Using;
+ b sin (x - y) = 2n cos y
+ y) + b sin (a?- y)} 2
sin
Let
- b sin (x - y) = 2m cos xl
have
sin (#
-j {a
TT
we have
whence
tan y
=
t
we have
at
+b
=-
% (at(at-b\
by
2
sec 2 a;-
^,
= tan#+tan
-
f,
{l
tan x
tan _y
by the
other,
- (at - b\
2
- n
(^j
which gives four values of tan

quadratic which determines
t.
x,
2
}
we have
,
ft-iy.
2
-} tan .r = l,
from which we find
*=
y)
and thence eliminating y by means of these two
2
2
equations and the relation sec y-ta,n y=l,
ten
'
sin (x
also dividing one of the given equations
ncosy
sin(.r+y)
we have t =
- ;
,
for either root of tins equation,
(n2 (at 8
|-
by j
(t
1\ 2 )
( <TI j }
*
,
two corresponding to each root of the

is found, and then y is given by
Thus x
tan y =
tan
x.
62
VARIOUS THEOREMS
84
Eliminations.
Examples.
70.
cos 3 8
= -7.sin 85-^. = m.
Eliminate 8 from the equations

2
-^
cos (a- 38)
(1)'
v
m=
"Wehave
sin 8 cos 3 8
:
-,
+ cos 8 sin 3 8
sin (a
whence
-20)
sin a cot 28
cos
sin (a
38)
sin 8 cos
a a\
sin (a -2(9)
>
a.
2wi
Also
?w
- sin 4
(a
30) sin 8
cos 4 8
=
cos 8 cos
cos 28
- 30)
sin (a
cos (a
20)
1
cos a + sin a tan 20'
hence
(zr-
\2m
or
cos a = sin 2 a,
+ cosa)(
J \m
J
2m2 \ = m cos a,
)
the result of the elimination.
Shew
(2)
that the result of eliminating 8
3(0 a)
cos
cos (0-/3)
is
from
the equations
_ cos 3 (0 + a y) =
_ cos 3a
""
cos(0+/3- 7 )
cos/3
independent of ft.
8,
We
8,
and zero are independent values of x which

COS 3 (x-a)
cos (x - /3)
cos 3a
cos
/3
have
cos 3.r cos 3a
where &=cos3a/cos/3
+ sin 3,r sin 3a =k (cos x cos /3 + sin x sin /3),
substituting for cos3.r, sin 3x their values in terms of

3
cos#, sin x respectively, then dividing throughout by cos #, we have the
following cubic in tana? ( = t),
cos 3a {4 - 3 (1
or
(A sin
hence tan
<
.if
therefore
0,
and tan
hence
or
(y
<
/3
0),
are the roots of the quadratic
(sin# + sin3a) + (cos/3+3cos3a) + sin/3-3sin3a=0;

tan
/!
and
+ sin 3a {3t (1 + - 4t 3 }=k (cos + sin /3) (1 + 2

+ 1 2 (& cos + 3 cos 3a) + ( sin /3 - 3 sin 3a)
+ k cos /3 cos 3a = 0,
)}
/3 + sin 3a)
tan
+ tan
.
(7
'
...
tan
tan y' =
(y
'
/i\
0)
^ cos M
/3 + 3 cos 3a
,
'
&sin/3 + sin 3a
3a
- 0) = ^ sin 8- 3 sin
=
/cam 0+sin 3a
...
~ (* os /3 + 3 cos 3a)
=_
4 sin 3a
7-3a = (2?- + l)^7r,
3a
,
'
VARIOUS THEOREMS
where r
is
any
85
integer, thus the result of the elimination is
independent
of 0.
(3)
xcosd
a
+ Jy
sin 8
.
=1, xsin8-ycos8 =
.
(& 2 sin 2 8
+ b 2 cos
n .\
8)-
Square each of the equations, and put tan 8 t, the equations become
'O-SHS+O-SH
*
respectively,
(a
^2 ) + 2fcry + (b 2
and we have to eliminate

f- and , we have
= 0,
from them.
Solving for
t
2
2
,,,,/,
J
(6
a2
& ^~y N
^
ab
-^
2 2
(a
-^
^(a*-**)
a2
b2
2 2
2xy(b
Hence
or
hence
is
~|-
=a+b
the result of the elimination.

(4)

x sin 8 + ycos 8 = 2a sin 26,
Solving for
x and
y,
we
x cos
8-y sin 8 = a cos 28.
find
cos 28), y = asin 8 (2 + cos 28)

3sin 2 #), y = asin 8 (3cos + sin 2 #),
+
#=acos0(cos
3
=
.r+y a(cos 0+sin0)
x-y = a(cos 8-sin8) 3
(a
+sin20), (x-y)% = a? (1 -sin 28)
(x+y)$=a$(l
#=acos
8 (2
or
therefore
hence
and the result
is
(x+y)
+ (x-y)* = 2a%.
Relations between roots of equations.
Examples.
71.
(1)
Consider the equation

a cos 8 + b sin 8 = c.
Let
a, /3
be distinct values of 8 which satisfy
a cosa + isin a = c,
acos|9 + &sin j3=c;
it,
b2
ab
then
-y
2
)
VARIOUS THEOREMS
86
therefore
siu
id
a
-
cos /3
cos a
sin a
sin
(/3
- a)
'
tan |(/3 + a) = 6/a,
hence
and also
-cos|
(/3-a) = r sin(|8 + a)
= - cos(/3 + a).
These relations may also be found as follows
may
given equation
put tan \6 = t, then the
be written
2
a(l-t )+2bt=c(l+t )
2
t
(c+a)-2bt + c-a=0.
or
The
roots of this quadratic are tan %a, tan 0,
tanâtan^/3 = -c
hence
whence we obtain the relation
fr^-
cos \ (p + a)
=-
from which the other relation
may
tan ia
a + tani/3=
J
Also
26
c
+a
,
'
be obtained.
(2)
a cos 20 + b sm 25 + c cos
Let
t
+a
= t&nhd,
+ d sin + e=O.
may be
then the equation
written as a biquadratic in
t,
2
(a-c + e) + fi(-4b + 2d) + (-6a + 2e) + t(4b + 2d) + (a + c + e) = 0;
tan \
if
tan \
>
tan i #3
tan I #4
be the roots of this biquadratic, we have

,
2 tan
tan i"
Stan Id,
8 l
d<>
"
0i
= 46-2d
a c+e
2 tan A-
46 + 2d
a-c+e
tan -*#.,=
z
5,l
tan
~
tan h 0, tan h
z
= 2e-6a
a-c + e
0o'
tan i
*
tan i
#4 =
-
and from these relations symmetrical functions of the four tangents
a + c+e
ac+e
may
calculated.
If
2s
+ 2+ 3+
1-2
We
leave
it
we have
2 tan \ 1 - 2 tan | #j tan 2 tan #3

tan ^ X tan ^ 2 + tan ^ d t tan | # 2 tan | 6 3 tan | #4
46- 2d +(46 4- 2d)
a-c + e-(2e 6a) + a + c + e
as
coss
sins
(3)
an exercise
for the student to prove the relations
2cos(s-0,)
2sin(s-0!)
2 cos
\ (0 v
-03 -
'
t)
If
sin a cos (a
+ 0) tan 2a = sin /3 cos (/3 + 0)
tan
2/3
= sin y cos (y + 0) tan 2y

= sin 8 cos (8 + 0) tan 28
be
VARIOUS THEOREMS
and no two of
a
+ fi + y + 8 + 6
the
angles
a,
Write each of the equal quantities equal to
shew that
it,
tt.
the equation
sin
a multiple of
8 differ by
y,
/3,
a midtiple of
is
87
cos
{as
+ 6) tan
2.*;
k,
then
a,
y, 8
/3,
are roots of
=k

2 tan 2
hence
2 tan a =
- sin 8 tan
(cos 6
2 sin 6
-r
and
2 tan a tan
tan a tan
tan
therefore
(a
/3
ft
= 2 cos 6
-.
tan y tan
(4)
If a,
/3,
a multiple of
is
2 tan
8= 1
a tan
2 sin 6
*
L COS c7
/3
tan y 0,
= - tan
+ /3 + y + 8) = j
tC
hence a+fi + y+8 + d
4
x)=k (1 - tan x),
d,
fC
it.
be unequal angles each less than 2tt, prove that the equations
cos (a
+ 6) sec 2a = cos (6 +/3) sec 2/3 = cos {6 + y) sec 2y
cannot coexist unless

cos (P
+ y)+cos (y + a) + cos (a + /3) = 0.
Writing k for each of the equal quantities we have

cos a cos 6 sin a sin 6 - k cos 2a = 0,
cos
j3
sin /3 sin - X- cos 2/3 = 0,
cos 6
- sin
cos y cos 6
y sin 6 k cos 2y = 0,
wc have
hence eliminating cos
0,
or
2 cos 2a sin (/3-y) =

2 cos (j8 +y) 2 sin (y - /3) = 0,
2 cos (/3 + y) =
hence
that
is
sin #,
unless
This example
sin J
may
(/3
- y)
unless 2 sin (y
sin
(y
also be solved in a similar
The greatest value of

a cos 6 + b tin 6
Put bja = tan
a,
then b = \/
cos
thus
Art. 68,
manner
to
Example
(3).
Inequalities.
Examples.
72.
now
(2),
= 0,
/3)
a) sin |(a - 0) = 0.
Maxima and minima.
(1)
by Example
-
cos (5
-a) always
2
\/a? + b
2
=
a \/a + 62 cos a,
is
+ & sin a,
+ 6 sin = V 2 + 6 2 cos (# a
2
),
between +1, hence a cos d + b s\n d
lies
lies
between
r
\ aF+l?.
(2)
2
If u = Va
cos 2 Q
+b
M&a #
a+b
+ Va'" wi 2 + b 2 cos 2 6,
emd
Tb
\/2~(a"
2
).
then
u Iks
bet ween
VARIOUS THEOREMS
88
x=a
Let
cos2 6 +
V sin
=*
(a
+ 6 2 + | (a 2 - 6 2
)
cos 2d,
u=Jx+\/a + b -x,
2
2
=
v? a +
+ 2 Vi (a + &*)* - { ( 2 + & 2 - *} 8
i
then
1'
ft
hence m is greatest when x = \ (a 2 4- ft2), or the greatest value of m is \/2 (a + 6 )

also u is least when | (a 2 + 2 ) - x is greatest, that is when x is least, which will
be when cos20 = 1, in which case x = b 2 and then u a-{-b; this therefore is
2
ft
the least value of u.
Shew
(3)
We
and
that if 6 lies between
^6 cot 6>2.
have
COti(9-COt0=4
sin|0
j-~
0 sin
hence
cot
|-
i<9
*
= l+2cosJ,-<9
= 3-4sin--2
2
-r-
sin 5
sin
now
n, cot
cot # = cosec
sin 5
+ cosec i
cosec ^d are each never less than unity,

hence cot j 8 cot 8 2.
cosec
8,
if
lies
between
and
rr,
>
//
(4)
that the
s?m o/ n angles, each positive and less than ^n, is given, shew
or the product of the sines of the angles is greatest when the angles
Z/ie
sum
are all equal.
similar theorem holds for the cosines.
Let a 1; a 2
...
sin a r
now
cos | (a r - a 4 )
be their sum.
+ sin a = 2 sin h(a r + a

s
s)
cos %
Then we have
- a g ),
(a r
than unity unless a r = a s hence
is less
sin a r
unless a r = a s
and
a be the angles
sin a 3
<2 sin^(a r -ho
s)
any two of the angles a x a 2 ...a s are unequal, we can

therefore increase 2 sin a by replacing each of those two angles by their
arithmetical mean, hence 2 sin a is greatest when all the angles are equal;
we have therefore 2sina^?i sin s/n.
.
If
sin a r sin a s
Again
and
this is less
unless
.si
of
sin
,.
=a
than
{cos
cos (<v+a
{1
Hence as
before,
if
(a,.
8 )}
a) - cos
(a r
+ a g)},
or sin 2 ^ (a r + a a )
any two angles
in
the product sina x
we can make the product greater by replacing each

those two angles by the arithmetic mean of the two; it follows that
= a 2 = ... = a, or the greatest value of
(I,, sin
L,... sin is greatest when a
.,...
sin a are unequal,
<i
the product
(5)
is
Under
(sin s/n)
the
same condition as in
the cosecants of the angles
We
l ,
is least
when
the last
example, shew that the sum of
the angles are all equal.
have
cosec a r + cosec
n,
\cos^(a r -a,)
cos (a r +a
t)
cos h
hence for a given value of a r +a, cosec a r + cosec
o,
(a,.
has
- a) + COS
its least
(a,.
value
+a
'
s )J
when
VARIOUS THEOREMS
cos i (a r
last
- a 8 ) = 1,
or
when
ar
=a
The reasoning
89
now similar
is
to that in the
example.
Under
(6)
the
the last two examples, shew that the
same conditions as in
.nan of the tangents or of the cotangents of the angles is least ivhen the angles
are all equal.
Shew
(7)
a + /3 + y = n, cos a cos
that if
cos
y > 1/8.
Porismatic systems of equations.
73.
system of equations
is
said to be porismatic
when the
equations are inconsistent unless the coefficients satisfy a certain

when this relation is satisfied the equations have an
relation
;
number
infinite
of solutions.
The system
=0
acos^cosy + 6sin/3siny + c + a'(sin/3-fsin-y)+&'( cos ^ + cos y) + c sm (/3 + 'y)
'
'
acosyCOSa-f osinysina + c + a'(siny + sina) + &'(cosy +cosa) + c'sin(y + a)=0,

acosacos/3 + 6sinasin/3 + c + a'(sina+sin 3) + 6'( COSa + cos 3 + c sm a+ ^) ::=0
'
is
>
a system of three porismatic equations.

a cos
a cos 6
this
is
thus
t,
Write this as an equation
by 0=/3, and by 0=y.
satisfied
tan h& =
t- (
+ h sin a si n 8 + c + a' (sin 6 + sin a) + b' (cos 6 + cos a) + c' sin (6 + a) = 0,

in
- a cos a + c+ a' sin a + b' cos a-b'-c'
sin a) + 2t (b sin a + a' + c' cos a)

+ (a cos a + c + a' s'm a + b' + b' cos a+c sin a) = 0.
From
this equation
we
find
tan i/3 + tan ^ y, and tan i/3 tan | y,
Wc
/^
=
tan i
(p + y)
/y
2VM
,
hence
2 (osin a + a' + c'cos a)

jrv2 (a cos a + 6 +c sin a)
should find similarly

6sin/3-f a' + c' cos
tan i- (a
+ y)
v
" = a cos +
,
we can now deduce the value
of tan i(a
,,
0)
+c
,
Q,
sin/3
we
find for the
numerator the
value
I>
sin
+ a' + c' cos 0) (a cos a + b' + c' sin a) - (6 sin a + a'+c' cos a)
(acos0 + o' + c'sin0)
or
2 sin i (a
- 0)
{(c'
- aft) cos I
(a
- 0) + (aV - &&') cos
(a
+ 0)
i
-('- 6V) sin
1
See Proc. London Math. Soc. Vol.
by Wolstenholme.
iv.
"On
(a
+ 0)},
systems of Porismatic equations"
VARIOUS THEOREMS
90
and
for the denominator,
(6 sin a
+ a' + c' cos a) (6 sin /3 + a' + c' cos ) + (a cos a + 6' -fc' sin
a)
(a cos
# + 6' + c' sin )
or
2
c'
)cosacos^ + (6
+ c' 2 )sin,lsin 3+(a' 2 +&' 2 + ('fe + ^'V)(sina + sin^)

+ (aV + a 6') (cos a + cos ) + ( + 6) d sin (a + /3)
)
we have
this
by
sin | (n
4-cos (a -
/3)}
+ (a'o' - 66') (cos a + cos /3) - (aa' - 6V) (sin a + sin 0),
(c"
- a 6)
{1
#),
denominator equal to
dividing this fraction
hence
(a
+ 6) {a cos a cos /3 + 6 sin a sin /3 + c + a' (sin a -f sin j8) + 6'
is
equal to
c'
(cos a
- a' 2 - 6' 2 + ca + cb-ab.
+ cos /3)
+ c'sin{a + j3)}
Hence unless the condition

c'
is satisfied,
of
a, /3, y.
- a' 2 - 6' 2 + ca + c6 - a6 =
the system of equations cannot be satisfied except by equal values

When this condition is satisfied, any one equation can be deduced
from the other two.
The summation of
74.
be
large
summed by
series.
number of series involving circular functions can

the method of differences. The most important
example of the use of this method is the case of a

or cosines of numbers in Arithmetical Progression.
Let the series be
S=
cos a
we have
cos (a
cos {a
+ cos (a + fi) + cos (a +

cos a
=
2
+ 0) =
+ (?i
2 gin
JL
i^
. . .
+ cos
{a
{sin (
+ )- sin (a -
{sin (a
+ f /3) - sin
(a
sin
2lhTp {
= \ cosec | /3
jsin
^^) -
(a+
~
/3)
+ (n
) /?},
{ )},
+ * )},
l)/3}
"
whence
2/3)
series of sines
sin
*)}
-sin(a-|/9)i
= cos(/ aH n 1 _\ sm n/3 cosec fl

i^
i7
9~ PJ
.
(X).
VARIOUS THEOREMS
91
In a similar manner we find

sin a
+ sin (a + /?) + sin (a +
2/3)
/
= sm
.
The sum
+ sin
+ (n - 1) }
(a
n 1 _\
/?
??/3
cosec
+ y~ fi sm -y
2
/0
'
fa
''
may be deduced from (1) by changing a into a + ^7r.

change /3 into /3 + ir, we have then for the sum of the
(2)
In (1)
series
- cos (a + /9) + cos (a + 2/3) n - 1 a\

n/3
/3
(
or
a + o
sec
cos
-/3j
^,
cos a
cos
sin a -
-1
+ (/
l)"
fl
sin
j8
sec
-y
of the series
+ /3) + sin (a +
sin (a
+ ( - 1) 0],
cos {a
n-l
a+
1
The sum
odd or even.
is
sin
according as w
2$)
...
can be found from (2) in a similar manner.
Examples.
Prove that
(1)
sinx\ajsina
and find a
{cos
(n-
1)
+ cos (n- 3) a + cos (n 5) a + ...},
similar expansion for cos na/cos
*Swm *Ae
(2)
=2
a.
series
COS 2 a
+ cos2
(a+/3)
+cos2
{a
+ (n - 1) j3}
We have
cos 2
hence the
a= (1 +cos 2a),
sum
+cos
2 (a + )}
...,
+ ^cos
{2a+(-l)/3} sin
i/3
cosec 0.
may
any positive integral powers of the terms of the series (1)

be found by a similar method.
(3)
Sum
The sum
(2)
{1
is
required
^ft
cos 2 (a + /3)=4
We
of
cosec 2a
the series
+ cosec
cosec 2a = cot a - cot 2a,
find
cosec 2 n a
hence the sum required

(4)
Sum
is
have tan 3"

l
. . .
cosec 2
= cot 2"
'
+ cosec 2 n a.
a cot 2a - cot 2
a,
a - cot 2" a,
cot a - cot 2" a.
3 sin 3x - sin 3 2 x
3 strc 3n
3co3 x
"
>
jt
~1
x-OTw3n x
3- 1 co*3x~
co* 3x
~
3 sin 3 n
the series
3 sin x -sin 3x
We
22 a
and
tan 3 n x
~
x cos 3 n x - cos 3 n * x sin 3n #

_
3 cos 3" l x cos 3* x
n-1 xcos3 n .r- sin 2 S" -1 ^

~
3 cos 3" l x cos 3* a-
_ 2 sin 3
VARIOUS THEOREMS
92
_2sin3
n-1
n
n
.z(cos3 a;-cos3
- 8 sin 3 3" ~ x cos 3 n ~ x

l
:l
.r)_
3cos3n-1 .rcos3n #
3cos3 n-1 .rcos3 n .z
1-1 x -sin
3cos3 n
= -2 3 sin 3"
3".v
o,'
3sin.r-sin 3.r
"
Whence
^3x~
3 cos
- 1l
3sin3n
sum
^
Vx
tan to - tan
n9 - 1
- hr* tan 3*x
- tan
= 3/1
'
2 \3 2
3v
x
\
x-$,n\3n #
3/1
#-sin3
n - - 1
~
- = 3/1,tan 3
x
tan 3 n ^
s
^ o
2 \3'
3 n_1
.
-i1
-
~~3
therefore the
/l
2 V3
3sin3.r-sin3 2 07
hence
=3
cos 3" a;
of the series is
|(glitan3*-tanA
The sum
75.
cos a
of a series of either of the forms
+ u, cos (a -f ft) + u3 cos (a +
2ft)
+ ... + u n cos {a +
2ft)
+ ... + u n sin
Uj sin a
u.,
sin (a
can be found,
if
+ ft) + u
ur
is
S = Mj
cos a
S= u
{cos (a
{a
+w
l)ft\,
+ (n 1) ft},
a rational integral function of
positive integral degree
Let
sin (a
(n
of any-
r,
s.
cos (a
+ /3) +
n cos {
+ (rc 1) ft},
then
2 cos
/3
..
. . .
+ cos (a + ft)} + u, {cos a + cos (a + 2ft)}

- 2/3) + cos (a + r/3)}
{cos (a + r
ft)
+ ur
+ u n {cos
[a.
+ n- 2ft) + cos (a + nft)},
whence
2 (1
cos ft)S = (2mj m2) cos a +
(2i< 2
w, w
3)
cos (a
+ /3) +
+ (2w r w r _! u r+1 ) cos (a+r- 1/3)
+ ... + (2m_j w n _ - m) cos (a + n 2#)

+ (2wn - w_i) cos (a + n lft) u cos (a ft) u n cos (a + nft).
Now 2 r w r _j u r+1 is a rational integral function of r, of degree
2
1, whence excluding the first and the three last terms, we have
a series of the same kind, but of which the coefficients are of lower
degree than in the given
series.
and proceed
in this
to the form (1).
way
times
We
;
cos ft,
again multiply by 1
the series will then be reduced
VARIOUS THEOREMS
i)'S
Examples.
Sum
(1)
the series
cosa + 2cos(a+p) + 3cos(a + 2lS)
We
have
(1
iu this case
- cos j8) S= ( >i +
+ ...+T\cos{a + (n-l)p}.
-u r + = 0, 2u -u 2 =0, whence
cos {a + ( - 1 ) j8} - cos (a - j8) - n cos (a + nj3),
2u r 1
ii
=(n + l)cos{a + (ft-l)/3}/(l -cos/3)

- cos (a -0)/(l - cos j8) - n cos +
- cos
(a
1
/3)/(l
/3).
or
aSmwi the series
(2)
cosa + 2 2 co5(a + /3) + 3 2 cos(a + 2 3) + ...

i
This series
will
The
76.
+ n 2 cos{a + (n-l)
3}.
be reduced to the last one by multiplication by 2
(1
- cos )
series
+ xn~
+ "
+ (n - 1) /3),
sin a + # sin (a + /3) + x sin (a + 2/3) +
sin {a + (n -1)0],
are recurring series of which the scale of relation is 1 2x cos /3 + x
cos a
+ x cos (a + /3) + x- cos (a + 2/3) +
. . .
cos {a
a;'
2
,
we have
for
cos (a
and
sin (a
The
series
summing
we find
+ r/3) +
+ r/3) +
+
sin (a +
cos (a
r
r
2/3)
2 cos
/3
2/3)
2 cos
/3 sin
+ r #),
1/3).
(a + r
cos (a
summed by the ordinary rule for

If S denote the sum of the first series
can therefore be
recurring series.
S(l-2x cos /3 +
= cos a x cos (a - /3) xn cos (a + ??/3) + xn+l cos
If #
sum
<
we
1,
find,
by making n indefinitely
{a
+ (n 1) /3}.
great, the limiting
of the infinite series
cos a + x cos (a + /3) + x cos (a + 2/3) +
x cos (a 6)
cos a
= 0,
be
we find
x^.
Putting
* a
1
zx cos p
+ 2
1 x cos /3
= = ,1 + x cos /3- + a- cos 2/3 +
i s
1
2# cos5
p + x2
. . .
to
whence
5- 5
x2
2x cos
77.
of
ad
inf.,
also
1
/3
x2
2a;cos/3
In some cases the
a figure.
Art. 74.
r=l +
-f-
Let
We
0A
+ 2
cos2/3
sum
A A 2}
X
...ad
inf.
(3).
v
'
of a series may be found by means

an example the series (1) and (2) of
A 2 A 3 ...
be equal chords of a
will take as
l ,
AÂn
CHAPTER VI
EXAMPLES.
94
0A produced and A A
draw a straight line OX so that A OX=a, then the inclinations
of 0A A A ... AÂn, to OX, area, a + /3, a +2/3, ... a + (n-l),
and that of 04 n is a + ^(n l)/3; also if D be the diameter of
and
circle,
be the angle between
let j3
1}
the
circle,
we have
OA, =
Now
OX,
the
sum
D sin /3, 0A n = D sin i/i/3.
of the projections of CMj, J.^.,,
0A
cosa +
A A
1
cos(a
on
4. n _ a J. n>
+ /3)+...+ AÂn cos {a + (n 1) /3|,
D sin ^/3 [cos a + cos (a + /3) +
or
and
...
is
this
must equal the projection of
+ cos
0A n
{a
+ (n -
which
1) j3)\
is
1) /3},
or Z) sin \n(3 cos

cos a
0A n cos (a + 1 (n
1) /9}, therefore
{a + ^ (?i
+ cos (a + /3) +
. . .
+ cos {a -f
= cos {a +
If
we
obtain the
1) /3}
1) /3}
(;i
(n
-i
sin
|-??/3
cosec
project on a straight line perpendicular to

sum of the series of sines.
i/3.
OX
we
Examples.
(1)
OA
is
a diameter of a
such that each angle

in p, q, r....
at
sec
(2)
circle,
0, P, Q... are points on the circumference
PAO, QAP, RAQ... is a; AP, AQ, AR... meet the

Find by means of this figure the sum of the series
ma sec (m + 1) a +sec (m + 1) a sec (iu + 2) a + ...
Prove geometrically, that if a,
ft,
y ...
k be
to
tangent
terais.
any number of angles,
+ sec (a + ft) sec (a+ft + y) sin y

+ sec (a+ft + y) sec (a+ft + y + d) sin 8+ ...
= sec a sec (a + ft + y + ... + k) sin (ft + y +... + *).
sec a sec (a +/3) sin
ft
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
1.

cos 3
2.
VI.
+ acos# = &,
sin 3 8 + a sin
8~c.

(a + b) tan (8
- 0) = (a - b)
tan (0 + <),
a cos 20 + b cos
2<9
= c.
CHAPTER VI
EXAMPLES.
3.
95
Prove that
(a sin
(f>
+ b cos 0) (a sin ^ + b cos ^) sin (0

+ (a sin + b cos (a sin # + b cos 0) sin (\^ 6)
+ (a sin 6 + 6 cos 0) (a sin + 6 cos 0) sin (# - 0)
+ (a 2 + 6 )sin(0-^sin(^-0)sin(0-0) = O;
>//)
>//)
y\r
and interpret the equation geometrically.

4.
Keduce to
cos
5.
its
simplest form, and solve the equation
cos a
2 cos
Prove that the
If
6.
sum
A + B + C= 90,
2 sin 3
6 (cos 6 - cos a)
- sin
(sin
a).
of three acute angles A, B, C, which satisfy the
A + cos2 B + cos2 (7=1,
relation cos 2
is
8-
than 180.
less
is
shew that the
least value of
tanM + tan2 B + tan2 C
unity.
7.
Find
from the equations
0,
+ sin 0+sin a = cos # + cos + cosa|

+ = 2a
j
sin
8.
If
A+B+ G= 180, shew that 8 sin %A sin hB sin J C>
1.
+y sin 0+2 sin ^ _ 4 sin 6 sin sin \^ + sin (0 + + ^)

6+y cos + z cos ^ 4 cos 6 cos cos cos (0 + +
a?Mnfr(0 + ^-fl)+ysiu(^ + fl-0)+gsin$(fl + fl->
prove that ^^ ,
^ + ^_^ )+y cos |(^ + 0-0)+ 2C os \ (6 + cji-f)
4siu^(0 + ^-(9)siiU(^ + (9-0)siiU((9 + 0-^) + sin|((9 + + ^)
~4cos|(0 + ^-<9)cos|(^ + <9-0)cos^((9 + 0-^)-cosi((9+0 + ^)'
Tf
x sin
.r
'
cos
\jr)
\|^
fr)
^
10.
and
t.
i.u
Prove that
generally, if
2 sin 3a sin
(/3
y)
2sin2
11.
<?>
r are
(Y
Having given
a2 cos acos/3 + a
a 2 cos a cos y + a
Ql
-V =2{Sm(Pa +
any odd numbers whose sum
g/3
'
X1
y)}
'
is n.
+ sin/3) + l=0,
+ siny) + l =0,
a 2 coscosy + a (sin/3 + sin y) + l=0;
prove that
,i,
n be any odd number,

2siii7iasin(/3-y)
where jo,
g^-^J =sm(a+/3+y),
(sin a
(sin a
y being less than n.

12.
If $i,
6-i
are the two values of 6 which satisfy the equation

cos 6 cos
sin 6 sin
cosâ
shew that 6 and

{
being substituted for
sinâ
d,
in this
equation will satisfy
it.
CHAPTER VI
EXAMPLES.
96
If
13.
a cos a cos /3 + b sin a sin /3 = c,
a cos y cos 8 + 6 sin y sin

a cos
and
a cos /3 cos y + b sin
= c,
cos a
a cos $ cos
6 sin t sin a
+ b sin
the angles being
all
unequal and between
y = c,
sin
8 sin
c,
= c,
^ + ^ + ^ = (1 + 1) Q + I) (I + *)
prove that
/3
and 2n.
If
14.
sin(# + a) = sin(( + a)
= sin/3,
a sin
and
(6
+ $>) + b sin (0 (j>)=c,
prove that either
a sin (2a 2/3) =

If the
15.
c,
hold when n=l, shew that
and prove that
cos ($
tan y
tan /3
when n
will hold
it
*!/)
\|/-)
+ sin
(cos a sin
= I,
is
any positive
integer.
tan y
.
OQ
sin 2/3
= (cos $ - cos
>//)
(sin
<j>
sin
>//),
tany _sin(.r 2a)
tan
sin a
>//)
or cos 2a.
_ sin (x a)
shew that
tt-x =
= -sin
sin 2a
2/3
'
sin 2a
cos x
5
cos 2a
- cos r^
2/3
Prove that the system of equations

sin (2a
/3
y) _ sin
~
COS(2a + /3 + y)
y be unequal and each
(2/3
cos"(2/3
If
-y a) _
~ sin (2y-a-/3)
+ y + a) cos(2y + a + /3)
than n,
less
COs2(/3 + y) + cos2
19.
+ cos 2 " + 2 0/cos 2n a = 1
+ cos <) (cos a sin + sin cp)
= 4 (cos a cos 0+cos
if a, /3,
=a
16.
4 (cos a cos 6
18.
2/3
equation
sin 2n + 2 0/sin 2n a
a sin 2a b sin
or
is
'
equivalent to the single equation
(y + o) + cos 2
(a+/3) = 0.
#=2cos(/3-y)+cos(0 + a) + cos(0-a)
= 2cos(y-a) + cos(<9+/3) + cos(<9-/3)

= - 2 cos (a - /3) - cos (0 + y) - cos (6 - y),
2
prove that .r=sin 0, if the difference between any two of the angles
neither vanishes nor equals a multiple of n.
20.
Ifvl+5 + C=180andif
2 sin (2+ 1)
n being an
A sin (B- C) = 0,
integer, then shew that
2siu(tt-l)J
sin(ft
+ l)(/?-C) = 0.
a, /3,
CHAPTER VI
EXAMPLES.
coH(a + 0)(cosy-cos8) + cot(a + y)(cosd-cos0)
If
21.
97
+ cot
and no two of the angles are equal, or
differ
cot \ (0 + a) (cos y - cos 8) + cot h (0
(a -f 8) (cos
by a multiple of
- cos
y) (cos 8
sinJa + 0)
sin(a + 0)
If
sin(0+fl )
sin (0
shew that either a and

an even multiple of jr.
a cos
if #,
24
and
0,
cos y) = 0.
cos (0 + 4)
=g
cos (0 + 0)
cos(a+fl)
cos(a + #)
by an odd multiple of
acos^ +
and
(cos a
| n, or
'
and
differ
by
acos(0 + ^) + &cos(0-\//) + c = O,
If
23.
differ
+ 0)
prove that
2tt,
a)
+ cot -|(0 + S)
20
- COS y) = 0,
cos(d
<9)
sin (a +0) cos 2
+ c = 0,
+ 26c = 0.
<f))
shew that a 2 -
CQs(q +
jf
+b
(6 +(p)
0, \^ are all unequal,
+c = 0,
+6cos(\^-<9)
fl)
62
+
+
COS (y a + <9)
2
sin (y
a) cos 0'
y are unequal, prove that each member
will
equal
cos(0+y + 0)
2
sin(0 + y)cos a'
cot# =
and
25.
If A, B,
sin (0
be positive angles whose

cos
26.
+ y) sin (y + a) sin (a + 0)
2
(a + 0) + sin (a + + y)
COS(0 + y)cos (y + a) COS
If 2s x+y + z,
tan (s ,r)+tan (s y)
>3/2.
<9
+ sin
7(9
= 0.
prove that
+ tan (s-z)-tans
4 sin
1
tan -1 (s-A-)
tan -1
(-y) +
tan _1
_1
(s-2)-tan s
1
(x
Tf
J-i
COS a
cos
breve
16
sin
Sin a
- +
cos
<j>
sin
2 sin a cos (d +<j>)
- +
sin
>
(<9
yjr)
rf>
sin J a
= 1,
= 0.
(</>
\p-)
cos 2
'
=2 cos (0 -0) + cos 2 n,

= 2 cos ty-O) + cos ,
+
a cos (0 + ^) = 2 cos
2 sin a cos
-.
sin
-o
+f+z* + 4f-4 (if z- + s 2
cos^ a
2 sin
sind
a cos0
cos a
cos 5
/t-sin ?/sin 2
cos 2 x - cos 2 y - cos 2 2-2 cos x cos
= tan 0fl
*"
prove that
is 180,
Solve the equation
64 sin 7
27.
sum
J + cos 5 + cos C>1 and
+ cos 2 a.
^-
+ x*f)
'
CHAPTER VI
EXAMPLES.
98
cos
If
30.
(y-z)+cos(z-x) + cos (x y)
3/2,
shew that
cos 3
(.v
+ 8) + cos 3 (y + 8) + cos 3 (z + 8)-3 cos (x -f 0) cos (y + 8) cos (2 + 8) = 0,
for all values of 8.
sin
31.
?'a
If
sin(r + l)a
sin(r + 2)a
cos ra
prove that
32.
cos(r+2)a
_cos(?'+l)a
2m*-l(l + n)
m(n-l)
?i(^
+ ) 2/^ 2
Prove that the equations
x+-
V + -)
(1\
y)
(z
sin a
= - + - + cos 2 a,
sin a
= Z-H X
hcos2
a,
sina = -+^ + cos 2
a,
are not independent, and that they are equivalent to
111-=
x+y+z=-x i
33.
sin a.
Prove that
2cos(/3-y)cos(0 + /3)cos(0 + y) + 2cus(y-a)cos(<9 + y)cos(0 + a)
+ 2cos(a-/3)cos(0 + a)cos(0+/9)-cos2(0 + a)-cos2(0 + /3)-cos2(0-|-y)-l

is
independent of
34.
8,
Prove that
and exhibit
if a,
/3,
y, 3
its
value as the product of cosines.
be four solutions of the equation
tan(<9+!7r)
= 3tan30,
no two of which have equal tangents, then
+ tan y + tan 8 = 0,
tan 2a + tan 2/3 + tan 2y + tan 2S = 4/3.
tan a + tan
35.
If
shew that
36.
6 tan (r + x) = 3 tan
2 tan a
38.
= 2 tan
(r +y)
- z) (?/
5 sin 2
sin
~l
cos
~2
x- sin ~ l y =
^ - cos ~ y = \rc)'
3 sin 2 (x -y)
2 sin 2
(r
+ 2),
x) =0.
(z
Solve the equations
111
37.
($
71-)
Prove that the nth convergent to the continued fraction

.
+ 2 tan a + 2 tan a +
spc a) n - (tan a
sec a) n + J - (tan a
(tan a
is
(tan a
4-
3a cos + a cos 38 = 4r)

4r)
3a sin 8 -a sin 30
l
- sec o Sn
- sec a/'
T x
'
CHAPTER VI
EXAMPLES.
_
- a)
tan (0
Tf
tan
a) _ tan
(<ft
99
- a)
(\^
'
prove that
p {q-rf cot (< - f + q (r -p) 2 cot (^ - 0) +

)
40.
+a
cos
(jo
q)-
cot (0
<f>)
= 0.
sin
-
Develop
in a series of the
+6
form
A +A cos(0-a) + J 2 eos2(0-a) + ....

t
41.
Solve the equation
42.
If
tan 30
cos 3
prove that
43.
x + cos 3 y = cos
sin 3 # + sin 3 y
3a,
cos
+ b sin
0+6 sin
a cos 8 cos
+ 6 sin
a cos
If
bc + ca
(f>
yfr
cos\j/
+ ab=0,
"l
(x
+ h) + COS
~~ J
.i'
.r+y=2/3,
8 sin
<
c,
c,
= c,
a=b=
c.
+ COS "
(x
- ) =
1 7T.
=O,
Solve the equation
Eliminate
5(9
+5
cos 30
+ 10 cos = .
from the equations
cos
cos 20 = 2 (a cos
0 #),
sin 8 sin 20 = 2 (a sin
6-y).
Prove that the number of solutions in positive integers (including

of the equation 3x+y = n (n integral), is
cosJtt
Solve the equation

6 cos 30 - 3 sin 30 - 10 cos 20
50.
yj/
sin 6
<f>
L
49.
\|/-
sin
+ 6 3 #cos< + 6 (a2 sin 2 + 6) eos 2

a# sec - by cosec = a 2 6 2
cos
zero,),
(f>
unless
<f>
48.
and
from the equations
Eliminate
a?y sin
47.
= sin3a,
Solve the equation

COS
46.
- tan = 0.
8 sin 3 (a+/3) = 27sin20sin 2 4,3cos(3a+/3).
prove that
45.
20
a cos
44.
- tan
+ 5 sin 20+22 cos - 5 sin 8 = 10.
Find the greatest value of

cosec2 6 - tan 2
cot 2
+ tan- 0-1'
7-2
CHAPTER VI
EXAMPLES.
100
Prove that
51.
sec 2 a
sec 2 a
4
to r quotients
is
sec 2 a
sec 2 a
equal to
sin ra
2 sin (r+1) cos a
Eliminate
52.
asin
8,
(8
<f)
from the equations
-a) + b sin
a cos (8-a)-b
+ a)=x sin (< + /3)+y sin (0-/3),

+ a) = # cos ($4-/3) -y cos ($ -/3),
Prove that
53.
2 cos a
(8
cos (0
(cos 3,3
- cos
3y)
= 4 (cos cos y) (cos y cos a) (cos a cos

j8
a cos a + b
If
54.
/3)
(cos
a+cos /3 + cos y).
+ ccosy = 0,
= 0,
/3 + csin y
cos/3
asin a + 6sin
a sec a + 6sec/3 + csec y = 0,
&c = 0.
prove that, in general,
55.
+ 0) + 3 sin {lir + 8) = 2a,

sin3(j7r-(9) + 3sin(j7r-^) = 2&.
sin 3 (Jtt
If 61,62, 63 be values of 8 satisfying the equation tan (8

a)
of them differ by a multiple of rr, prove that
56.
= h tan 26,
and such that no two
6^62 + 63+0
is
a multiple of
it.
Prove that
57.
cos 4 A
sin
58.
sin
(A
- B) sin (A C)
= 8sin(A+B + C) + cosec A cosec JScosec C.
Prove that
2{sin (^-a)cos2(u-$)sin(/3-y) + sin (^-^)cos2(/3-$)sin(y-a)

+ sin 3 (6 - y) cos 2 (y - (fj) sin (a - 0)}
3
= {sin 2a + sin 2/3 + sin 2y- 3 sin 26} sin (/3-y)sin

= 1 (a + /3 + y - 3d).
where
59.
(N=
sin
IfJ + 2? + C+2) = 180,

J)
(6'- sin 2?)
(S-
sin
(sin .4 sin 2?+ sin CsinZ>)
w here
(7)
(y
a) sin (a-/3),
prove that
(5- sin D)
(sin 2? sin
2# = sin A + sin
C+ sin .4 sin 2)) (sin Csin.4 + sin2?sin2)),

2? + sin C+ sin 2>.
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
Prove that the
60.
sum
of the products of
VI
n terms of the
cos a + COS (a + /3)+ cos (a + 2/3)
takeu two and two together
cos0 + sin0
~
+ cos 26 + sin 2(9 4
shew that there
will
- 1) /3cos {2a + (n -
+^
6i
+ tan
6,
-| n.
'
such that
+ tan
= 9.
= tan
2(f)- tan
an odd multiple of
is
1)/8}]
0)
= tan
tan 20 -tan
If
62.
4 (cos - sin 0) (cos 20 -sin 20)

- sin 20) 2 - (cos - sin
(cos 26
be three values of
tan
shew that
series
is
2
cosec J/3 sec |/8 sin \ ?i0[sin?i/3cosj + sini (n
..
101
2\|r
tan -^,
provided tan0, tan0, tan
\tt,
are all unequal.
#cosa+y sin a+2 + cos 2a=0,

x cos /3+y sin /3 + 2 + cos 2/3=0,
If
63.
# cos 7+3/ sin y + z + cos 2y = 0,

+ 2 + cos 20
+3/ sin
x cos
prove that
= 8 sin \ (a+/3 + y + 0)
Eliminate
64.
sin
sec 6 + sec
= a,
= 6,
+ cosec
=c,
cosec 6
that, if 6
and
are of the
cos
(0- 3a)
COS 3 a
sin
66.
of
xn
is
67.
same
> 2a.
sign, be
Prove that the result of eliminating 6 from the equations
65.
is
y).
from the equations
6,
tan 6 + tan
and shew
-a) sin (0-/3) sin (0 -
((f)
(/3
y) sin (y
If (1
sin J
- a) sin
-x+x )' be
+ 1 jr/sin ^
2
(?i
cos 3
- /3)
(0
3y)
COS 3 y
/3
{cos (a + /3+y)
expanded
in
- 4 cos a cos /3 cos
powers of
x,
y) )
shew that the
=0.
coefficient
7r.
Prove that
(a
_ cos (0-3/3) _ cos
2cos4asin 0+y)sin(/3-y)
= - 8 sin (/3 - y) sin (y - a) sin (a - /3) sin (/3 + y) sin (y + a) sin (a + #).
68.
Prove that
2 cos 2 (3 + y 69.
If
a) sin (/3
- y) cos a = 8 sin (/3 -
70.
a) sin (a
+ 6 cos 6 = a cosec + 6 sec 0,
a sin
shew that each expression
y) sin (y
is
equal to
Find the greatest value of

sin (/3-y)
+ sin (y-a)+sin
(a-/3).
- /3) cos a cos /3 cosy.
CHAPTER VI
EXAMPLES.
102
Solve the equation
71.
cos (x - a) cos (x - b) cos (x
- c) =sin a sin b sin
x + cos a cos b cos c cos x
Solve the equation
72.
2(x-a)+ cos 2 (# - b) + cos 2 (# - c) = 4 cos a cos 6 cos c.
cos 2x + cos
73.
Solve the equation

sin 3 3a + sin 3 2a
74.
= sin 2 a (sin 3a + sin 2a).
a cos 20 + 6
a' cos
75.
If
^ + 5 +C= 180, shew

sin
is
c sin
5 sin
not less than

76.
= c,
that
2
2
2
\ C+sin JCsin I A +sin
^W
Eliminate
sin 20
30 + b' sin 30 = 0.
(sin J.
+ sin B + sin
2
sin 2
\B
(7).
from the equations
4x= 5a cos - a cos 50

4y = 5a sin
77.
cos 2a sin (/3 y) sec
If
(/3
-a
+ y)
= cos 2/3 sin (y - a)

cos 2a + cos
prove that
and
sin 2
78.
(/3
+ y) + sin
sec (y
2 (y
(-gJ/a
i=0
m=
and
+ a) +sin
=cosi(.l/a +
- )
sec (a + /S),
2 (a + /3)=0.
r
i\ /3
cos
(??ia
79.
sin 2 a
80.
sin 2 a sin 2a + sin 2 2a sin
81.
cosecacosec (a+/3)
n terms
the following series in Exs. 79
sin
2x sin
+sin 2 asiu (?i+l)
3a+
+ cosec {a + (n -
a.
1)
/3}
cosec (a + /3).
3.r
+ sin 2x'sin
3xsin Ax +
sin 3 a + ^sin 3 3a + isin 3 3 2 a

z
J
93.
+ sin 2 na.
+ sin 2 2a + sin 2 3a +
+ cosec (a + /3) cosec (a + 2/3) +

.z
+ Py + ...)sini(i/+l)asini(iV+l)/3...cosecâcoseci 3....
to
sin
+ /3+j0y+
/)=0
Sum
84.
(a
+ S) sin i (iy+1) acosec â,
M n=N p=P
2
2
m=0 =0
83.
+ a) = cos 2y sin
= 0,
2/3 + cos 2y
Prove that
in-M
2 cos (ia + /3)=cos
82.
sin 50
tan0tan30 + tan20tan40 +
+ sin
+s
o"
+ tan
?u;sin
(?i
sin 3 3"-
+ l).tsin (n + 2)x.
a.
'
w0 tan
(71
+ 2)
Q.
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
sec 20 + tan 20 sec 2 2
85.
tan
86.
tan#+-tan
+ tan w0 sec 2" 0.
+ 4TtaiT4T +
tan x sec 2 # + - tan

O
87.
'-
sec 2
25
+ 2 n ~* tan 2 n_1
?
+ c cos
22
cos 20
2 cos 40
sin 2~20
sin 2 40
cot 2a
1.3sin- + 3.5sin
93.
3. 4 sin a
94.
If
0j,
62
a,
shew that
95.
cos (n
sec2
1)
6 cos ( -
1)
$.
n0
'
+ cos n2
cos w0
'
cot(?i+l)a
1
- cos 2 (n + 1) a
^
+ (2w-l)(2n + l)sin
2"
'
sec 2 a
'
+(+2)(w+3)sinna.
be two solutions of the equation
and
/3
+ a) + sin (0 + /3) + sin ( a + ) =
are each less than
sin (0j
)+sin
(/3
(),
2ir,
+ 0^+sin (/3 +
2)
= O.
Prove that
.
= +Atan -1,#4+1
7^- =1ji,
.,24/4 + 1
and
itan
2
If
a,
|3,
.#2 + 1
7=
V3
+l=
t,W.
"5
V3
A tan -1,2#2;=
are four unequal values of
y, 8
V3
x /.3
each
0,
less
than
2tt,
which
cos 2 (X
prove that
and that
cos 2"
sin 2 2"
- cos 2 3a sec 2 a
A cot -1
96.
sin
+ 4. 5 sin 2a+
sin (0
where
2"
tan
cot 3a
1
92.
cos20 + cos2 2
1- cos 2 2a sec 2 a
15
+ c" _
sin 20
cos0+cosl 2
,
sin 2 80
sin0
qo
4 cos 80
'
+ c2 cos 20 cos 20 +
cos
+-2 tanpsec2-+
88.
103
VI
6)
+ cos
a + /3 + -y +
(/x
- 0) +cos
i/
= 0,
8-4X = 2/i7r,
sin (# + y+8-a-2/x)
+ sin | (y + 8 + a-/3-2/i)
+ sin^( + a + j8-y-2/*) + sin J(a + /3 + y-8-2 i) = 0.
/
CHAPTER VIL
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS OF MULTIPLE ANGLES.
Series in descending poiuers of the sine or cosine.
If in the formula (40), of Art. 51, we write for sin2 ''^. its
value (1 cosrA)r and arrange the series in powers of cos A, we
shall obtain an expression for cos nA in powers of cos A only.
78.
cos n6
A, we have
for
Writing
= cos" - n
C0S "
^7
coefficient of
n(n-l)...(n-2r +
~~i(2r)
'
n-2r
~ COs2 ) +
"
+ n{n
' '
^^
in this series
l)''cos
l)
"
(1
(n-2r + l)
+ (- iy n(n-l)
The
-2
Q (J
(2r+2)!
(r
_
+ w(n-l)...(w-2r-3)
(2r + 4)
!
Qy +
is
1) ... (n 2r 1)
^+
+
'
1) (r
2!
+ 2)
"'
coefficient is
x2r in the product of (1 + x)n and

x being supposed to be greater than unity; the
~
therefore equal to the coefficient of xr l in the
expansion of
(1+ a?)--
this is equal to the coefficient of
(1
l/x-)~
{r+1)
(1
- l/oc)- {r+1)
This latter coefficient
is
equal to
+ (.-2r)(-6-l) (r + !i)+
|
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS OF MULTIPLE ANGLES

and
this is equal to
l)
(-r-l)-yfo-2r
The
or 2"
{r (1
_ 2r
);i
+ (n _ 2r) (1 + 1)n - 2r-^
(n-r-l)...(-2r +
or to
coefficient
_1
be
+ 1)"~
(1
is
+x)
(1
,__
seen to be {(1 + 1)B + (1 - l)n} f

is the term independent of
cos 71-2
the coefficient of
l)
of cos"0
x in the expansion of
to
105
n ~2
2
l/x)~ and this
or n 2"~ 3
(l
+ (n - 2) (1 + l)" -3
easily seen
is
Hence we have
cos
nd
= 2*-
cos"
0-~ 2 n~
A.
\~
Z
cos"- 2
of which the general term
~5
cosn
~4
-0-)'
is
n(n-r-l)...(n-2r + l)
(- 1 y
2?l
^^
cog
ft
In a similar manner we obtain from the formula (39) of

Art. 51 the series
sin nd/sin
2"- 1
cos'
"
+ (n
of which the general
term
2n
"
~3
4)
cos 71
-3
2"- cos- 5 0-
(2),
is
(.-)
cos. !r_,
and
(2)
- 2""3
sin' 1
If in the formulae (1)
79.
we
=
ffi
(a-r-l)
I*
"1
we change
into îr
0,
obtain the formulae

n
(-
2
l) cos 710
2"" 1 sin"
IX
+
--i
(-
1 )a
sin n0/cos
(-
is
(
1)*
3)
(?
27
2"" 5 sin"-"
"3
n 2
2"" 1 sin""
+(
where n
"2
"
~ 3 > <" ~ 4)
2"~3 sin71
2-* sin7
(3),
(4),
even, and
_,)
sin
n0
2"" sin"
1
2"~ 3 sin"- 2
n(
3)
",7
2-sin-*0-
(5),
106
1'
(_ i)^*- cos
7i
(9/cos
2n
"
sin"" 1
- 2
n " 3 sin n "-8
^^
w
+ (w -3)( -4) 2M_Bgin
where w
is
(6).
odd.
Series in ascending 'powers of the sine or cosine.
In order to find expansions of
80.
powers of cos
or sin 0,
we may
cos?i#,
sinn# in ascending
we
write each of the six series
It will, however, be better
have obtained in the reverse order.
to obtain the required series directly.

First suppose n even, we have then
cos
nd
= (1 -\
sin 2
n
n(n ~ 1 )
0f -
n(n-l)(n-2)(n-S)
sin
in
f^
sin2
sm 2/)0)a-2 sin4
q
a
tf
by the Binomial Theorem, we
sin
s i n2
(1
nCn-1)}
,^ = l-|- + -A
T_^ ^ +
a
expanding each power of 1

have
coS
(i
(n in
_ -\
2 V2
|-l^
n (n-l) { n-2Kn-S)
+ n(n-l)in
-l__^__
\^
\
1
j
fe
the coefficient of ( l) s sin 2s # being
^(|n-l)...(|-7i-s +
l)
+ ~n(n-l)(%n-l)...(% n-s+l)
~2~T
(s-1)!
ra(n-l)(ra-2)(-3) (M-2)...(&w-a+l) +
4!
(s-2)!
s\
which
may be
written in the form
l w(n-2)(ro-4)...(w-2g + 2)
si
/2*-l\/2*-l
_\
1.3.5...(2s-l)
,
i/2s-l\/2s-l
\[
/ 2s- 1
/"A
(2s- 1
S+
Wrc-1\
*
!

1
Now, taking Vandermonde's theorem
where
2]
*?"
>
l)...(p s + 1); since this holds for all
2s 1
= n51 then applying the
let > =
9
denotes p(/>
values of
_p
and
q,
to the series in the brackets,
theorem
of
P*
s(s-l)
+ q) =ps + p-i qi H
(p
107
(-lYwf*6
see that the coefficient
is
w(n-2)...(n-2a + 2)
J<
1.3.5...(2*-1)
n2 (n2
or
we
- 4-)
2 2 ) (w 2
(n-
^""^
,
+*
(*
0)
)U??+
(]
- 2s-2, 2 )
(5)1
We
when w
have therefore,
=1-
cos ro0
w2
.-
^ sin
?z
is
even,
(ft
-2
+ (rl y *H"-*>
2
.
sin4
fl
...
*-*-* &.,+
(7);
this series is the series (3), written in the reverse order.
sin
81.
We
nd =
cos
have also
In (1
sin
n~
sin
0)-
n(n l)(n 2)
i
'(1 sin
a
2
/^l-2
^
/.
sin 2
+...[;
series in powers of
supposing n even, we expand each term of the
s+1 cos Asm 28 "
2
to be
sin
we find the coefficient of (- l)
n-l \
./ 2s-\\
1
w(n-2)...( n -2s+2) f/ 2g 1 \
1
(*
(s-l)l
1.3.5...(2s-l)
|V
A-i
A- 2 V
2 J1
/n-1
(s-l)(s-2) (2s-l\
2 A_
2!
\
V
S-33 V
2
^
'2
*
!
which
is
equal to
1
w(w-2)...(w-2g+
2)
(
^-1;!
"1.3."5...(&-1)
?i
orto
(n
2 2 ) (n*
42 )
'^
(n
+S
- 2*-2
(ln + 1)
J-W
l
a
l
)
'
(27=7)1
1
See Smith's Algebra, page 288.
1>
108
We
have therefore when n
n
-
/,
n
sin /?0/cos0
= sm
/i
even
is
n (n 2
^-=-
22)
, n
sin 3 #4.
,x ,n(n"- 2")
;
+ (_1)_L_
...(
When
is
odd,
^=cos^(l-sin^)
n~
and sin n0 = n (1 sin 0)^
-^^
expanding in powers of sin

Ql
cos w0/cos
=1
n2
'
'
-)
sm ??0 = -
83.
sin 6
-l
=
sm ,. + (n
2!
we
,.
find in a
-l)(n -3") sm4J/1 ^

.
4!
^- l
n (w 2
)
'
sm
,
3
(--fr-ip^^
-iS)
+ (n
-3
l 2 ) ( 2
+ W2( ^" 23) cos

2
a/
sm rip/sin
= wT cos0
/i
)( n
{n
a
w(w
into
-4 )
2
22)
cos 6
(9
...(11),
-cos 3
^-^
o
-2
^^
cos 2
+
is
sin 5
we change
^y
w,
'-
4!
- n(n -2
i\"+l
obtain the following formulae
2
(- 1)*" cos n 0=l- J, cos
2!
{-ly
(9)
If in the formulae (7), (8), (9), (10)
0, we
I)"
Sin^+...l
dn . g+
tf)
as in the last article,
0,
(-
4(n - 8)
sin
+ ( _ 1)( (n'-l^-3')
when
...(3>.
manner
similar
(l-8in^)
. (-m-g) (1 _ rin
it 7r
sm *-i<? +
we have
i("- 1)
coS
-2*- 21*)
U
l ly
{2s
82.
...
w (na
(n
-4
^j
cos
)
.
5
0-...(12),
even, and
1}
sin u0/sin
= 1-
+(
"'-
lf-
3' )
eo^-...( 13 ),
( l)*
'
cos
n6 =
r-
cos 6
when n
Arts. 78
and
(71
) (if-
These formulae are
odd.
is
cos 3
^
n
32)
rD
,-..
the same as those of
all
79.
The circular functions of sub-multiple

84.
109
angles.
If in the formulae (1) to (6), or in the equivalent formulae
(7) to (14),
we
write 6/n for
cos - or sin - when

n
>i
and
cos 6
6,
we obtain equations which
We
sin 6 are given.
give
will consider
the various cases.

(1)
Suppose cos 6 given, then the equation obtained from
(1)
a
will
If cos 6
give us n values of cos-.
expect to find the cosines of

represents
all
all
is
the angles
since 2kir 6
the angles which have the same cosine as 6, where k is

Now whatever value k has, we can put + k = s + k'n,
any integer.
where s always has one of the values 0, 1, 2
We have then
positive or negative integer.
COS
we should
given,
2/W 6
=
n
(6
cos IV^\-/0
+ 2stt +
.
i_
A=
lirk'
aj /i /u
I
j
...
cos
1,
and
k' is
2stt
v>\-/o
thus we should expect to obtain the n values

6
cos -
cos
0+27T,
COS
+ 47T
+ 2(71- 1)tt
i
cos
and these will be the roots of the equation we obtain from (1).
These roots are in general all different, since neither the sum nor
the difference of two of the angles is a multiple of 27r.
(2)
Suppose cos 6
is
given, then the equations obtained from
Before we use
sin -.
(3) or (6) will give the values of
IV
write
square both sides and
equation of degree
2ti,
for
sin
sin-,
for cos
when n
is
(6),
we must
6
- thus we obtain an
;
odd,
and the equation
110
an equation of degree n when n
(3) gives us
to obtain
all
the last case,
the values of sin
we can shew
sin
expression
1
is
values which are the
avi
\\
hen n
all
cos 9
is
is
even,
given
expect
;
as in
these values are included in the
has the values
when
0, 1,
...
these values are different, and therefore
all
odd,
that
+ 9 where
n
2sir
We
even.
is
n 1.
When
we obtain 2h
roots of the equation obtained from (6).
2?i
we uhave
sin
(n-2s) 7r-d =
n
2stt
sin
+9
hence
in this case there are
only n values, these being given by the
equation obtained from
(3).
When
(3)
sin 9
is
we
given,
cos-, this o
gives
n
find
to
(2)
/
v
square both sides and replace

ttt
We
equation.
If sin 9
ing as n
is
cos
before using the

s-rr
we expect
by an equation of degree
(4)
by
shew as before that the expression cos
has 2w values, so that

sin 9,
9
sin2 -
2??
use the equation obtained from

9
values of cos-, for we must
is
given in terms of
by
(4) or (5), accord-
to find cos
2n.
- will be
given
given, sin
When n
even or odd.
+ (-l)
even, the equation from (4)
is
gives
values
2/i
sin
of
When
-.
these
sin-;
is
will
be
the
In
values
of
odd, the equation formed from (5)
gives n values
sin
of sin -
these will be the n different values of
Symmetrical functions of the roots of equations.
The formula (1) may be regarded as an equation of the nth

Now each of the n angles
9, when cos n9 is given.
85.
degree in cos
9,
-7r
+ ~"~
'"*
is
such that the cosine of n

times the angle
cos
__
4.
equal to cos nO, hence since cos
is
cos \d H
equations
cos
all different,
they are the
we can now
use the ordinary

functions
of the roots of
for calculating symmetrical
of
the n cosines
functions
to calculate symmetrical
+--7r)
cos (0-\
n roots of the equation (1) in cos 6;
theorems
are
0,
111
r having the values 0,
1,
...
1.
We may
of
when it is convenient, use the forms (11) and (14) which

are equivalent to (1).
Again the equation (2) may be used to
calculate symmetrical functions of the cosines of the n 1 angles
course,
which sin
for
6 has a given value.

(3) may be used in the same
?i#/sin
The equation
symmetrical functions of the

.
smtf,
sin(*
tt\
(n
-), sm(0
2m
+ 2tt\
where n
2ir
(n
= 2m +
to calculate
2m +
2m7r-7r\
sin^H^ ),
-)
where n = 2m.
In the same way the theorem
symmetrical functions of the
way
sines
(5)
may be
used to calculate
1 sines
4?r
t'
4?mr
/.
1.
The equation
' A
n(n-l)
0/1
7i(w-l)(w-2)(n-3)
iQ
/
tan B
--^tan ^ +
-^
jl--^-T
(
tann^
= wtan0n
may be regarded
tan*, tanffl
and
may
n i(n
~(n2)'tan 0+
1)
as an equation in tan
+ ^V
tan (d
,
8
6,
of which the roots are
tan \$ + fcllirl
therefore be used for calculating symmetrical functions
of these expressions.
112
Examples.
Prove that
(1)
the
sum of the products of the
M+-
fl
cosecants of
2(n ~ 1)ff
,
taken two at a time, is \x\ 2 cosec 2 lx\8, n being an even integer.

Using the equation (7), the required sum is the sum of the
sines of the angles taken n 2 at a time divided by the
this
sin
is
2
equal to the coefficient of sin
or
8,
n2
products of the
product of all of them
divided by the term not involving
#,
^r
which
is
2(l-cos?w)
-n
to
equal
l
cosec 2 I- nd.
Prove that
(2)
J 77 + COS* 77 + COS* 77 + COS 77 = 19/16

1
COS*
and
sec J77
+sec
tt
sec*
n + sec* ir = 1120.
be expressed in terms of cos 8, and be then equated to zero,

the values of cos 8 obtained by solving the equation of the eighth degree so
obtained will be
If sin 90/sin 8
We
COS^jr, COS 77
COS
fir.
notice that
COS 77=
thus
-COS J 77, cos \ 77= -cos fir"
+ cosfjr, cos 77,
cosi77,
We may either
are the roots of the equation.

thus
if sin 95 =
we have
:
cosf77.
use the series
(2),
or proceed
sin 58 cos AS + cos 58 sin 48 =
or
(sin
38 cos 28 + cos 38 sin 28) (2 cos 2 28- I)

+ (cos 38 cos 28 - sin 38 sin 28) 2 sin 28 cos
28=0
substitute the values for sin 38, cos 28 ... and reject the factor sin#, then let
.=cos2 8, we obtain the following biquadratic in x
2
{(4#
- 1) (2x - 1) + 2 (4^2 - 3x)\ {2
{2x
1}
-8
or
or,
(l&c
- 12.V+1) (8x2 -8x + l) +

(Mx3-
{4 (2x
(4z 1)
80o; 2
1)
{Ax
- a?)
(1
a?}
+ 20.r) (2#-
- 3x)
- 1) =0
(2.t-
1)
arranging according to powers of x,
25&Z4 _ 448^3 + 240a;2 - 40.r + 1=0.
The sum of the
of the roots taken

,
roots
of the roots
is
40 - 2
2
Prove that
(3)
where
two together
448 2 -2.240.256
is
is 448/256, and the sum of the products

240/256, hence the sum of the squares of the
roots of this equation
19
=
is
.
;
..
also the
sum
or the squares of the reciprocals
240, or 1120.
sin
a+sin 2a + sin Aa=l
</?,
= j 77.
We
find
(sin a
+ sin 2a + sin 4a) 2 = sin 2 a + sin 2 2a + sin'-' 4a.
Now
the roots of the equation sin 70/sin 8 =
sin
siner,
2
in x
put x=ain 8, then the equation
sin
hence
therefore
in sin 6 are
sin 4a;
2a,
found to be
+ 56a:-7 = 0,
a+sin 2a + sin 2 4a = 112/64 = 7/4
sin a + sin 2a + sin 4a = A v7.
64a;
is
112.r
113
7T
Evaluate sin
(4)
Writing a = 2ir/l7, we find by the formula
for the
sum
of the cosines of
angles in arithmetical progression
+ cos 9a + cosl3a + cos 15a) + (cos 3a + cos 5a + COS 7a + cos 1 la) = - 1.

Also (cos a + cos 9a + cos 1 3a cos 1 5a) (cos 3a + cos 5a + cos 7a + cos 11 a) is found,
(cos a
-f-
on multiplying out and replacing each product by half the sum of two cosines,
The two quantities in brackets are therefore .the roots of
to be equal to - 1.
- 1 = 0, of which the roots are ( - 1 + *]\ 7). It is easily
z2 +
the
quadratic
\z
seen that cos a + cos 9a + cos
3a + cos 15a
is positive,
and
cos 3a + cos 5a + COS 7a + COS 11a

is
negative,
we have
therefore
cosa + cos 9a + cos 13a + cos 15a = | (\fl7 COS 3a + COS 5a + COS 7a + COS
1),
lla= -j(Vl7 + l).
We
cos a
can now shew that (cos a + cos 13a) (cos 9a -f- cos 15a)
+ cos 13a, cos 9a + cos 15a are the roots of the quadratic
= ,
hence
^2 -i(Vl7-l)x-i=0,
cos a + cos 13a =
hence
similarly
Now
we
cos3a + cos 5a =
find
- 1 + ^17 + \fte-2JVi)
/
(-1 - N/17 + 'V 34 + 2,v/17).
(
cos a cos 13a = J (cosl2a + cosl4a) = ^ (cos 3a + cos 5a) and since we have
sum and the product of cos a, cos 13a, we can find each of
;
thus found the
Noticing that cosa>cos 13a, we have
them.
cos Q = iV {\fV7 -
We
+ V34- 2 V17 + 2 Vl7 + 3 \/T7 - V170 + 38V17}.
have then
sin 7r/17
= \/i( 1 -cos a)
= J v 34- 2 Vn-2 V34- 2 Vl7 -4 Vl7 + 3 Vn- Vl7W387l7(5)
Shew 1
that, if f(x, y)
be
a homogeneous function of
x,
y of n 1
dimensions,
1
sin (x
[sin x, cos x)
- a\)sin
(x
a 2)
_
sin (x
an
{(sin a r cos a r )
-a{) sin (a,. a...)
,
r-
...
r=n
=i
sin (x
ar) sin (a r
sin
(a,.
an
'
This theorem was given by Hermite in a memoir "Sur l'Int<5gration des

in the Proc. Lond. Matlu 80c. for 1872.
Fonctions circulates"
II.
T.
114
The expression on the left-hand

(t- aj)
(t-a 2 )
Now
... {t
since f(t, 1)
method of resolving
"
cos
x cos a\ cos a 2
. . .
cos a n
n 1, lower than
of degree
is
side of the equation
may
be written
where t=t&nx, a r = tana,..
,
'
we have by the ordinary
n,
into partial fractions
(-aj)(*-cr 2 )...(*-a B )
r=1
(- r )(a P -a!)
(a r
-a 2
.
sin (x
- a,.) sin
...(a,.-a)
/(sin a r cos a r ) cos
a;
cos
ai)
(a r
ct]
...
cos a 2
...
sin (a r
cos n
- a H)
thus the result follows.
Factorization.
Since cos??# can be expressed as a rational integral function

86.
of the nth degree in cos 6, we can express cos nd as the product
of n factors linear in cos 6; the values of cos 6 for which cos nd
vanishes are
(2n-lW
3tt
7T
cos -
=- COS
s
cos^-,
2w cos^r2n
2n
,
these cosines are

cos
JL
nV = A
different
all
cos
cos #
tf
=-
therefore
1
)
2/i
(
(
cos
if
3tt
cos
^
cos (2n-l)7r
-
cos
where
is
a numerical factor.
cosnd
in the expression for
Since the highest power of cos

n ~1
0, we see that A = 2
2 n_1 cos n
is
therefore
COS 710
2 n_1
COS
COS
jj-
COS 6
COS 53tt\
2n)
COS (2n
cos
1)
tt>
('
Now
cos x-
2n
= cos
2n
therefore this expression tnay be
written
cos
nd
= 2"-
^cos
- cos
- cos
(cos
when n
is
odd,
and
~
J
(cos
0-cos 2(n
)7r
~^
)cos0,
- cos
2n
f cos
115
^-
2w
COS
cos 2
(n
1) 7r
2rc
when n
even
is
these expressions
cos w0/cos
2"- 1
[sin
may
also
sin 2 d\
be written
1^
(sin
sin 2 d\
sinit""
sin 2
2ra
when
?i
is
cos ??0
odd,
2' 1
')
and
-1
f
sin 2
7T
Sm
sin 2
<r
2^-
sin 2
**=gZ-**e).
when
n-
is
even.
= 0, we
In each of these equations put
then obtain the
theorems
7T
37T
0*(-l)
2V
2
sin^-sin^
2w
2/i
when n
is
1,
(15),
7T
v
a*(-l)
2'sin^-sin
2??
is
(W-
2>7T =
odd. and
when n
sin-
2n
37T
2n1>9T
=
(W
sin-
--
1,
even.
The positive sign is taken in extracting the square root, since

the angles are all acute.
If we divide the expressions for cos n0/cos
or cos n0 by the
one
of
the
in
(15) squared, we obtain the
corresponding
products
expressions
COS 110
sin
1-
/ 1
costf
sin 2
3tt
7T
sin-
In
when n
cos n
is
=/
sin 2
1-
sin-
sin 2
sin 2
1-
3tt
sin-
274,
is
2w
odd, and
7T
when n
(16"),
An-2)7r
sin2
sin-
sin 3
1-
Sill'
'In
(w- I)tt
2
even.
82
.(17),
116
We may
write the theorems (16) and (17) thus:
cosh0/cos0=
-n
n is odd,
sin
r-J
even.
As
87.
sin 2
I
is
(16),
and
r= - n /
where n
**&>=)
{
where
in the last article, since sin
function of degree
expression for
it
1 in cos 0,
n0 /sin
in factors linear in cos
cos
for
which sin
IT
cos
are the values of cos
l)7T
(n
2-7T
...
is an algebraical
find a corresponding
in this case
we may
cos
IT
These values may be thus grouped cos -
equal to zero.
is
?i#/sin
'2.HT
cos
hence
as before
sin nfl/sin
= 2""
- cos
cos
[cos
- cos
-) (cos
) ...
(cos^-cos^l^),
when n
is
even, and
sin w0/sin
= 2""
1
('
cos 2
- cos
- cos
-)
[cos
. . .
cos-
zn
cos-(n-l)7T\
a
-
when n
We
is
can
sin n0/sin
when n
is
Avrite these
= 2""
equations in the forms

(sin2
cos
- - sin
0)
= 2""
[sin
- - sin
0)
sin 2 0)
...
odd.
sin 2 0\...
[sin
Anl)tr
zr
sin 2
is
[sin
even, and
sin M0/sin
when n
odd.
2n
\
sin 2 a
.
We
shew
shall
when
limit n
117
in the next
Chapter that sinnO/sind has the

indefinitely diminished; hence
1
77"
IT
= 2 2 sin
sin
<\/n
(18),
x
'
n
n
is
"
the last factor being sin

is
*""
or sin
)7r
_
sinn0/7isin0
= cos0
sin2
r=i(-l)/
sin
n0/n sin
o/i \
'7T
(20),
odd.
is
The expression
88.
(19),
- -î
r=l
when n
even, and
is
??
according- as
/l--ii-
r=1
when
Hence
even or odd.
cos
nQ
cos n$ may
be regarded as an
algebraical function of cos 6 of degree n, and can therefore be

factorised
the values of cos 6 for which the
expression vanishes
;
are cos$,
cos($H
j, cosf<
COS 111
*0-cos??<
89.
We
xn
We shall
= 2-
now
+-
r
,
hence
n |cos5'-cos^+ 27^)l...(21).
factorise the expression x- n
2a?n cos n9 + 1
have
+ x~ n = (x"- + x~ n+1 ) (x - 2 cos 9 + ar1)

+ 2 cos (x - - 2 cos (n - 1) 6 + ar n+1 )
- (xn ~ - 2 cos (n - 2) 6 + x~ n +-).
2 cos nd
11
If
we denote x n 2
cos
nd + x~ n by u n we may write
this equation
ii
,i_o
Now
hence
1
shews that u n
are divisible
"_,
Mj
is
this identity
u n = (#M_1 + x~ n+1 ) Uj + 2u n _
is
divisible
cos 6
w_j
by u l} provided u n ^ and
by u^
= (x - 2 cos + x~
divisible
(x
+ 2 cos 6 + ar ),
1
by and therefore u 3 and
This method was given by Ferrers in Vol.
v.
so on.
of the Messenger of Mathematics.
118
Hence u n
factor of
is
divisible
x m 2x
11
by u
nO +
cos
and therefore x2 2x cos 6
since 6 can be changed into 6
without altering cos nd we see that, when r
x2
+1
- 2x cos
is
+ \ +
($
is
any integer,
a factor of the given expression if we let r = 0, 1, 2 ... n 1

obtain n different factors of the given expression, and these are
the factors, hence
is
we
a-*"
this
- 2xn cos nd + 1 - '"ft
may
also
.(22)
. .
all
be written
x2n - 2xn y n cos ?id + y m
90.
- 2a cos f +
jar
= U
\x--2xy cos 10 +
= 0, we
In the equation (22) put

r~n-\
(xn
and since cos
- 2^ cos
-iy= rn=o
u-2
= cos ^
+?/ k..(23).
have then
^rrr
the factors on the right-hand
side of this equation are equal in pairs, except that when n is even
is the single factor x- + 2x + 1, and whether n is even or odd,
there
there
is
2x + 1,
the single factor x2
xn -l=(x 2 -l)
when w
ie
is
-2acos
- +
x2 - 2a cos
- +
(a
-l=(a-l)
II
(x
= ir/n
2
+l) =
nOW
COS
in the formula (22),
r=n-l
(2r
(
2
ja
(2r
-2acos v
we have
+ l)7r
;
= COS 2 (n - r) -
1) 7T
xn +
even, and
7T,
when n
is
odd we
n~
hence the factors are equal in pairs, except that

+ 2x + 1 hence
have the single factor x2
is
(25),
odd.
Again, putting
when n
(24),
even, and
a;
when n
hence
\x
2x cos
(2r
+^v
ll
(26),
xn +l = (x + l)
when
is
?i
r=i(n-3)
C2r+lW
*
17
l-cos??0=2 n -
r=-l
= 1,
Ave
lL..(27),
have then
n U-cos(0+
\
r=o
/,
into 20 this
changing
n0 = 2 2n ~- sin 2
or sin n$ =
2n
~l
becomes
sin 2
+ ?)
(#
sin 2
(#
+ -)
sin f
sin
'7T
sin 2
odd.
In the equation (22) put x
91.
ja-2a;co8
119
where the ambiguous sign
is
^)
+
sin f
sin 2 ( e
^T^)
'""
.
sin f
7t has
as yet undetermined.
been
shewn, in Art. 51, that the form of the expansion of sin n0 in

terms of sin and cos is definite the sign of the product on the
;
= 7r/2n,
right-hand side is therefore always the same put then
the sign to be taken is clearly positive as each factor is positive.
;
We
have therefore
sin^=2^-
sin^sin(6'
In (28) change
cos 0
into
= * sin (d +
^sinf6'4-^)...sin^
+ irjln, we
^j
sin
(o
^^V..(28).
thus obtain
sin
^j...
(*
?L-i*)...
(29).
can be deduced from (28) by putting 0=0, and taking

In a similar manner, the theorem (15) may be deduced
The theorem
(18)
the square root.
from
(29).
Examples.
(1)
Prove that ifn be an odd

sin 6 + cos
9,
integer,
sinnd + cosnd
or else by sin 8
- cos
is
divisible
by
6.
w n =sin w0 + cosw0,
Let
+ n _ = 2cos20. w_ 2 = 2 (cos2 #-sin 2 0) w_ 2

Hence, if m_ is divisible by cos 6 + sin 6 or by cos 6- sin 0, u n is divisible
by the same quantity. Now Wj = sin + cos#, hence u5 u w 13 ... are all
u n ... arc all
divisible by sin# + cos0; also w_! = cos0-sin 6, hence u$, u
then
ttn
by cos#-sin
divisible
(2)
ixt
We
Factorise tan
x.
have
6.
nd - tan na.
a - tan
tan nd
na =
4.
smn(d-a)
cos nd cos na
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS OF MULTIPLE ANGLISS
120
In the formula (28) write

sin
n (8-a) = (- l)"" 1 2 n
Again,
we have from
~U
r=o
n
\m[6-a\
J
cosCa+ jtan0-tan (<*+)}
cos" 8 sin
and
(a+|)
*'*!
r=4
s i n 2fl
/I
expression for cos nd

r=*(-i)
We
Now 1 -
tan 2
tan 2
<9
^^
^
/l
r=l
sin 2
sin "
g
l" 2
sin /3
or cos" 8
2n
'
Prove that,
tai
sinrc(a+^j
cos
if
n be an odd
$ = - 1)4
(
w-1) tan
n tan 0 = tan
(p
+ tan
1
^
tan^"
2?i
tan 5 -tan
(a+
J22-J
'
\
n /,l-ll
tan'fcl^;7
2n
^(n-
1),
VII.
positive integer,
and a=7r/n,
$ tan ($ + a)
tan (0 + ra^T a ),
(<
58- cos 58
sin50 + cos5i9
n(
+ a) +
k
,r)
+tan
((f>
+ n-
la).
- 2 sin 28 -
4 sin 2 28
1+2 sin 28 -4 sin 2 20"
Prove that
n cot na = cot a + cot (a + - +

)
being an integer.
U
UL
tan-0
?ia
Prove that
sin
?i
<9
have therefore
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
3.
) ,
tan 2
/ 1
2.
hence the
tan J /3/
-n
the product in the denominator being taken up to r = |/j or

as n is even or odd.
and
<9
(2r-l).
sin2
= cos 2 0(1,/=*
rr
2n
tannd-tanna = (-l)-
1.
be written
may
cos"
jl
'
odd or eveu.
/
/
r=1
(2r-l)5
3
is
or
rr
7-
?i
(9
{tan
(17)
sin2
according as
- tan (a +
(16)
we then have
2- 1 cos'^ ~n~
r=J(n-l)
cos nd = cos 8
for 8,
= (-I)"=( - 1)-
a- 8
~
+cot(a+
"
j,
according
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
If
<
= 7r/13,
121
VII
shew that
+ cos9(/j = j(l-f-vl3),
cos 5$ + cos70 + cosll$ = j(l - \/l3).
cos$-t-cos
and
3</J
Prove that
5.
6tt
liz
4lT
/1\'
r COS 3tT
COS
COS 2n
COS COS COS =
57T
77
COS
15
15
27r
cos -=-
..
Prove that
6.
Form
15
15
+ cos
15
An
15
877
-f cos -=.
15
\2
= 5
the cubic of which the roots are

27T
-
cos
87T
4?7
cos
cos
Prove that the roots of the equation
7.
are tan 20, tan 80, tan 140.
Prove that
8.
4
sin a
where
+ sin 4 3a + sin4
7a + sin4 9a + sin4
1 1a
+ sin4 1 3a + sin 4 1 7a + sin
1 9a
= 3,
a=*7r/20.
Prove that
9.
lM
o.-iJ
^ (a.
2"
sin< sin <p-\
I
sin (a.
<p-\
,
2n-lir\
sin (a.
<p-\
.
= cos - cos n
10.
Prove that
tana + tan
-a )+tan ~+a + tan

)
J
\2n
(
terms
11.
is
12.
2ft
cosec
\2?i
2?ia.
Prove that
sin
where n
equal to
-a +
\2n
to 2/4
is
2n
2n
2ft
an even positive
integer.
Prove that
.
n 4ir
sm -
sin 4n
2ir
sin 2
77
2ft
sin
n-2n
r
2n
sin
?iir
-
2n
<f>
+-
14.
odd
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
122
m sinnd-
Prove that
/jsin
md
VII
is divisible
sin 3
by
0, if
and n are
integers.
15.
Shew
that
if
expressed in a series of
_
16.
a positive integer, sec2"1 A

powers of cosec 2A.
Prove that
is
sin2asin4a
-
sin 2 x
- a) sin (x - b)
+ COS (a +
4
according as
is
'+
'
4^l7r\
1+COSl( a-\
,
2l
or
~n
(\+ cos
no),
\ (versing) \
(versing)
n terms being taken on the right-hand
side.
Prove that
+ tan 67|)
(tan 7 1 +tan 37^
Shew
that, if
is
(tan 22| + tan 52| + tan 82) = 17
tan
J
(f)
it,
CO
If 28a =
K 0+ ^?)
shew that
N/14 = 2
13
sinasin2a
cos 2a + cos 6a + cos
and
Prove that
tan
n being any positive
+ 8^/3
odd,
=
tan??i$ tan<cot (cf) + ^-
cosec
- c)
Prove that
=(versin^)
24.
cos (x- a) sin a

sin (x - a) sin (a - 6) sin (a
'
even or odd.
*2
23.
c)
2 2 -" {(-l)2"-cosi/6a} 2
is
22.
a
- b)
sin (a
sin (x a) sin (a
- c)
Prove that the product of
1+COSa,
21.
sin 2
_
sin (x
sin.r
20.
sin
sin (# - a) sin (# - 6) sin (x - c)
19.
can be
Prove that
sin (x
18.
sin(2%-2)a
rr
,
jr.
(2^-1) a
sin a sin 3a
where a = r/2?i.
17.
+ cosec 2 " A
tan
2n
"(
0+
^)
sin 13a,
1 8a = h <J7.
tan
2n
ta
- =
1,
2/1
integer.
Prove that
x + cosec
(
I
2 "\,
#-1
-f
cosec
(
I
2w-1tt\
-
x+-
n {cosec nx + cosec (nx + rr) +
+ cosec (nx + n -
1 n)}.
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
Prove that, according as n
25.
+ cos n6)
2 (1
is
even or odd,
is
or (l
+ cosn0)/(l+cos0)
the square of a rational integral function of 2 cos
1+ooa
9<9
= (1 + cos 6) (16 cos
-8
Prove that 2"~ cos"#-cos?i0

:
26.
the form
6m- 1,
and by
(1
+2
123
VII
cos 26) 2
cos 3
when n
Shew
6.
that
12 cos 2 6 + 4 cos 6 + 1) 2
divisible
is
,
6-
by
+ 2cos2#, when n
is
of the form
+2
cos 20) 3 + (l
6m+ 1, m
is
of
being
a positive integer.
Prove that
2 10 cos 11 6
-cos 110 = 11 cos 6
Prove that,
27.
if
(1
sin
26)
{(1
n be an odd positive
tan (
then
+ 2 cos
#=
/t
integer,
+ 2 cos2<9) + lj
and
+ h(j>) = tan" (tt + \8),

,
+ sin 2
6 cot2
sin 6
r=l
l+sin 2 0tan 2
nr
28.
Shew that any function of the form /(sin 6, cos 6)/(f) (sin 0, cos 6),
n
where / and (f> denote rational integral functions of degree n, containing cos 6,
can be expressed in the form A IT sin \ (6 - a)/n sin h{6- a), where A and the
and there are 2n factors in the numerator
quantities a, a are independent of 6,
and 2n in the denominator.

,
,.
If the function
,
26 + b cos 6+c sin 6 + d

-acos aa
be expressed
.
,,
a cos20
+ 6 cos0 + c sin#a + tf
,
even multiples of
prove that 2a and 2a' are
29.
3tT
yy +
4 sin
it.
/
= vll.
27T
Prove that
2 G sin 7
26 cos 7
+ sin70 - tan
0- cos 16
tan 2 f
^ tan
("^
...
in this form,
Prove that
tan
30.
.,
CHAPTER
VIII.
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS AND

THE CIRCULAR MEASURE OF AN ANGLE.
We
now
investigate theorems which assign certain

limits between which the sine, cosine and tangent of an angle
92.
shall
The first
is less than \it must lie.
whose circular measure
theorem which we shall prove is that if 6 be the circular measure
< tan 0, unless = 0.
of an angle less than \tt, then sin <
Let AOB = AOB' = 0; and let TB, TB' be the tangents at

and B', and let 8AS' be the tangent at A. In Art. 11, it
was shewn that the length of the arc AB does not exceed AS+SB;
and thus the arc BAB' does not exceed BS + B'S' + SS', and
or arc BA < BT.
Also
therefore arc BAB' < BT + TB'
arc
BA>BA> BG.
Consequently we have
Now
BC/OB < arc BA/OB < BT/OB.

= arc BA/OB, am = BC/OB, and tan
= BT/OB
THE CIRCULAR MEASURE
125
0< 0< tan#. If had been greater than \tt, T might

have been on the other side of 0, and the inequalities which we
have employed would not necessarily hold.
therefore sin
<
Since sin
< tan
we have
0,
<
<
0/sin
is
diminished,
sin
-av
unity.
we have the theorems

is indefinitely
is
indefinitely
Since
tan
= sec 6
^
n
(0 cosec 0) \
now supwhen = of
sec
pose 6 to be indefinitely diminished, then the limit

hence also the limit of #/sin 0, when
is 1
sec
and
that the limits of

J
(0 cosec
x and
_I
.
6>)
when
diminished, are each unity.
The triangle OAB, the sector

The theorem may also be proved thus
OAB, and the triangle OBT are in ascending order of magnitude; and
2
AOAB =
BC^lOA*- sin 0, also sector OAB =
.d, and
:
WA
WA
AOBT=iOB. BT=hOB
2
.
tan
6,
< 6 < tan 6.
therefore sin 6
which we referred in Art. 5, why the

more convenient in Analytical Trigonometry
than any other measure of an angle, is that in this measure the
sine and tangent of an angle are each ultimately equal to the
The
93.
reason, to
measure
circular
is
angle itself, as the angle is diminished indefinitely

use any other measure, as for instance seconds, this
We
whereas
is
if
we
not the case.
have in the case of seconds

sin n"
sin
n"
tan 6
tan n"
n"
where
sin
is
tt
180 x 60 x 60'
tt
180x60x60'
the circular measure of n seconds, hence the limits of
when n
//
'
}/
ta.n
yj>
Tk
180 x 60 x 60
-
Dneaaure,
If
is
indefinitely diminished are each equal to
then we used seconds instead
we should
constantly have the
number
of circular
7T
180 x 60 x 60
occurring, instead of unity, in the large class of formulae which
involve the limits of
^
o
and
for
= 0.
126
The
limits of
for wi sin
m sin
a = a
/sin 6\
=\ 6 J
rn
94.
is
<
Since, if
^0 >
tan
Now
>
cos 1
sin
or cos
>1
hence cos
<
\0'
obtained thus
If
>
(1
=1
Also cos
We
or
),
cos
now shew
- \0\
>
sin
is
greater than 1
> ^6
2 ( 0f
(h0y, we have
state the results Ave have
less
than
\ir,
then sin0
between
<
îr,
cos(9<l-^ + ^^
2
cos \Q,
lies
that if
3 sin 10
and
cos
= 4 sin
sin
O sin
3
e sin 5e = 4A sin
sin-
-sm. = 4sm
Multiply these equations by

then add them, we have
\0 > \6
closer
4
.
than in the
last article.
have
S n sin
sin
l-%0* + ^0\
and
This makes the limits for sin
We
limiting values of
i0).
measure of an angle
\0 and
sin0>0-0
theorems of the
tu-
We may
shall
m is
i0<(i6>)
2
1-10
95.
- J0
-|0 + jV^
and
and when
6 cos- 1 0,
2 sin2 ^ 0, and this

Also, since sin \0
be the circular
between
The
we have
10,
sin0><9(l-sin
sin
'
\tt,
or
hence
where o =
to *p/q.
indefinitely
J diminished, are each equal
4
u
2 sin \
hence
lies
/tan d\
\
hecomes indefinitely small.
- when 8
^
smqd' t&nqe'
,
mtan =a
definitely increased, 6
,
are each n, when m is indefinitely increased,
tan
in
- sin = 4
1,
(sin 1
3,
Z
3
%0,
-~
-,
3"" 1 respectively, and
32
3 sin 3
-+
. . .
S"" 1 sin 3
^j
127
cm
.
Sn
a
0.
hence
sin
< 4
-j<
(-
^
3
+-+
(0*
...
^ A1 + 1 + 1 + - + 1 A
^ 3^
3^)-
^^(
sin
Now
is
unity,
let
?i
be increased indefinitely, then the limit of
and of the
11
+ + +
series 1
Q4
19
=
... is
3^
;
therefore
31
0-sin0<0 or sin > - \0\

= 1-2 sin 10;
cos
cos
< 1 2 (|0 - Jg
< 1 - + ^0
3
Also
3 2
therefore
Hence sin
\-\0- and l
We
between 6
foes
^0- + ^0\
= sin 0/cos 8,
have also tan
and
the angle
3
,
and
4
.
cos
hence
tan0>(0-03)(l-^)-i>(0-^)(l+02+jn
or
tan<9>0 + <9 3 + i<9 5 -Jj<9", therefore ta.nO>0 + $ea
Eider s product.
96.
We
have
sin
.
sin
sin
hence
sin
2 sin
2 sin
2 sin
sin
\0
cos 1 0,
^ cos ^
^ cos ^
gjjz^sin^cos^,
*
*
On
2 n cos % cos
...
lies
being less than
cos
0.0
^ sin
between
%tt.
128
Now when
hence the
is
n
indefinitely increased, the limit of 2 sin
when n
limit,
is indefinitely increased,
is
of the 'product
sin0
In this product put 8 = \ir, we then obtain Vieta's expression for w,
viz.
2_^/2 V2 + x/2 j2 + \/2 + J2

*
ir~ 2
Examples.
Prove that as 8 increases from
(1)
,
ana
ta%0
We
,
ii
i-
, ^
,,
2/tt,
continually diminishes,
that
7r > >sinyA
6
h
tan 6
hence the inequality
as 8 increases from
shall next
tan(#+A)
T '
/-\-h
and
tan#
,,
is
li
or
'
is positive,
We
+ h)sm8>8(sm8cosh + cos8smh),
..
to
^ > sin(<9
a1+A)
sintf
i,
4.1.
shew
that
Now we know that
77
shall
(8
v
continually increases.
-r
xwt
to %it,
sin//
>
7
h
sin
..
,
A-f(l
;
77-77,
cosh)
8
thus
h + (l-cosh)8
sin A
established
is
>
since
- cos h
^ diminishes from
to \it.
shew that
tan 8
> 8z
or
..
,,,,..,
,.
..
8sm(8 + h)cos8>{8 + h)sm8cos(8+_h);
this is equivalent to
#sin
A>Asin
,*!-,
cos (8 + h), or
sin 8
,.
yA >
-j cos (8+h);
sin
now we may suppose k<8, hence by the
j > t
Thus
sin #
increases from
as
may be
Art. 32
sin h
first
sin 8
.,
and therefore -^
,
to i 77-,
,,
theorem
> 8^ cos (5 + A).

sin
..
increases from 1 to 00
,.
The theorems
seen to be true by referring to the graphs of sin 6, cos 8 given in

it will be seen that in the first case the ratio of the ordinate to
the abscissa diminishes, and in the second case increases, as 8 increases from
to in.
(2)
Prove that the equation tanx.=\x has an
and find
the
approximate values of the large
infinite
number of real
roots,
roots.
In Art. 32 we have drawn the graph of the function tan a: draw in the
The
figure the graph of Xx, this is a straight line through the point 0.
;
same
129
of tan x, and
straight line will obviously intersect each branch of the graph
the values of x corresponding to these points of intersection are the solutions
There
of the equation.
is
therefore a root of the equation between
and (2A+1)
|,
af=(2*-l)|
where i
is
any
mate solution
small, then
2
,
+ 1)
If X be large, then (2k
integer.
x-(2k + 1) +y, where y
to find a nearer approximation let
-coty = \y + (2k + \)
=
putting cos y
obviously an approxi-
is
l,
is
smy=y,a,nd neglecting
we have
2
-l =
or
(2*+l)^y,
y= - (2ife+ 1)X7r
therefore
-(tt+l)f
{2k
+ 1)Xir
the approximate solution. To find a still nearer approximation, neglect y 3

2
in the terms which involve y 2 we have
putting y=
j
is
if-l = {\y+(2k + l)
^y = \y + y(2k+l)^
2
-l + V2
v
(-X)
y(2#+l)^=
2
2
2
(2^ + l) X2 7r
hence
orv=
^= _
fore
2
-
(2^+DXtt
+ ^- ~ ^
(
+ l) 3 X 3 7r 3
<>
- +(l-x)
'
the aPP roximate vaIue of #
is
there
8
.
,
(jft+ iy x><g>
Prove *Aa ^ = co;!
'
-(tt+l) | - - l
(3)
+ 1 ton - + tot - + J tow - +
. .
arf jk/.
can easily be shewn that
It
8
& cot -
- cot
8
-
8=\ tan
= * tan-,
cot-- Acot*
hence also
2^
cot
pi
2^=1
,5
cot
~~
22^1
2 2n
'
hence by addition we have
i tan 2
Xow when
is
hence the limiting

If
+ 22 tan p + - +
92
tan
pS
"
p:
cot
2^-
cot *
indefinitely increased, the limiting

value of
sum
2-"
cot
2 2"
of the series is 2 -cot#.

8
we put 6 = %7r, we obtain the theorem
- - tan
i
|+ tan +
IT.
T.
ft tan
^+
....
is
130
When
97.
The
limits of certain expressions.
indefinitely increased, the limits of each of
is
sin
e
the expressions cos -
-rn
is
unity
hence the limiting values
of
cos
tj
\
is
'
e\
are also unity provided r is any
number which
independent o/n; but
if
is
a function f(n) of n, which becomes
Sm d\sw
n\
77~"
are
(. n J
undetermined forms of the class
depend upon the form of f(n).
1,
and the values of their
To determine the limiting values

denoting the expression by
log,
It will
of
0\ fw
cos J
- sin
\f{n) log e (l
is
lo
have,
2
.
-J
becomes indefinitely small, of
we
u,
be assumed as a known theorem that the
log,
limits
i/(w) sin
^ f1
1.
~
limit,
when x
Then, since
sin2
n)
sin 2
n
a
the limit of loge w
is
2
with
equal to that of ^/(n)sin -,
lb
its
sign
changed, provided this latter limit exists. We can find the limit
of logg u and therefore of u, in the following cases
(1)
limit of
limit of
If
f(n)
sin -
log,,?/
n
is
= n:
then
sin
Jf(ri)
v
'
is
0,
and that of
zero, or that of
6
-
sin -
is
1.
OB
:
>
n sin -
is
zero
sin
and the
therefore the
limit
= *;
If /()
(2)
is 6-.
Hence the
f(n)
(3)
limit of \oge
= nP, where p > 2,
of loge a
is
oo
is
n does
hence the limit of u
(nsin-J
2
= n?'
(. n
1
the limit of
and (cos -J
We
/
/ sin
and
~,
Series for the sine
99.
and
let
and between
and
(p > 2)
and
cosine of an angle in powers of

circular measure.
In the formulae (39), (40) of Chapter

= n9, we have then
-1
+ ("
/i
n(nl)(n
i
/i
B sin 6
2)}
cos n
3!
r
l)
~n
r)
(ll'+
x = cos n 6 - ^-.
iy
iy
cos n
n(n-l)
~2
si
its
write 6 for A,
iv.
-3
6 sin 3 6
cos " _2r_1 6 sin2r+1 6
na 6
. .
..
(n-2 a + l) coatl . gBinMg +

8.
(2s)
lie
0, respectively.
sm x = n cos"
cos
iP
of
last
see also that
6>v
\
(e\
9
lies
thus from case (1) in the
sin
e~^
\ n /
n*
and
Article, the limit of the expression is unity.
is less
between
-r
since
6\ n
l n or 1,
tan -
between
/
8\
/ sm - \
or cos -
sm-
and greater than
(n sin
than
e~2
is
zero.
71
sin
the
Therefore the limit
so.
is
sm e\
\
.6-
of which
or that of u
then /() sin2 -
this increases indefinitely as
and
then /(w)sin 2 -
131
92
132
We may
sin
write these series in the forms
n
= x cos"-
,
1
+~
gy-
x(x-6)...(x- 2r6)f
+ i)i
( ar
+ ( _ 1)s
The number
-j- J
r -
+(- 1 >
n_9r_ia /sin
number
of terms
+ 10) (x - 2~F+~2d)
(2r+2)(2r + 3)
2r
negative, and
x"
(2r +
*
0^+*
\rr)
+-
and does not
to the
immediately
is
(x
If
is fixed,
increase indefinitely with n.

The ratio of one term of the series for sin
is
0V
\^-j-\
limits of the expressions when n is innecessary to replace each of these series
definitely increased,
by a series in which the
number
/sin
s ,,
^-^_^
it is
this
of terms in each of these series depends upon the

increases indefinitely as n is indefinitely increased.
value of n, and
In order to obtain the
preceding term
_d
x{x-6){x-2d)
cos'
fsmd\
2) (2r
+3)
is
have any fixed value,
numerically
/xV
-
x1
\n)
n 'r+
/tan #\ 2
(
/tan 6A6
less
than
/tan 6
lj \
diminishes as n
is
increased
??!, rx of w and r may be so chosen that the above expression

has values which are less than unity for n = /?
r = ?v For the
fixed value of x, and for all values of n Avhich are = n 1} the series
values
x ,
for sin
which
is
such that, from and after a fixed term, the position of

independent of n, each term is numerically less than the
is
one that precedes

alternate
signs,
preceding one,
where 6
it.
Since the
when each term

is less
than the
x/n, provided
=n
sum
is
first
is
of a series of terms with
numerically less than the

term, we have
independent of
w,
and
e is

and
number between
less
than
The
1.
133
may have any
integer r
value not
i\.
In a similar manner, we can prove that

cos
= cos'
'-
x(x-6)(x-
and
20) (x
l-g- J
^-j
provided n
/sin 0\ 2
x(x-O) COS"" nn
??/; s is
30)
_
cos' 1
and
/sin 0\ 4
*~e(iffi
of??,
independent
is
number between
1.
Now let n be indefinitely increased the limits of the exSince

pressions for sin x, cos x must represent these functions.
the number of terms in each of the series is fixed, being independent of n, we have only to add the limits of the several terms
;
in order to obtain the limit of the
where k
is
in
independent of
is
that of cos n
L cos 0=1;
upon
n,
limit of
fc
it
0,
L cos' 1-* 0=1.
hence
but they are
for
therefore their limits
x= x
sin
x=
COS
q3!
e,
-r-
4!
...
'
has been shewn

1
follows
The numbers
e,
+ (v
1)'
' e Ti
(2r
- "'
... + (- l)
v
'
and
We
cannot exceed unity.
jr,
2!
each value of n between
+ .
5!
\6~)
Also the limit of cos M-fc
n, is unity.
divided by that of cos 0; and

that L cos n = 1; that L cos*
97
Art.
/sin 0\*
The
sum.
from
depend
1, and
thus have
l)!'
e'
(2s)!'
are positive numbers which cannot exceed unity.

These results hold, for each value of x, for all values of r and s
where
e, '
which are greater than or equal
to fixed
integers r :
follows that for each value of x, sin
is
and
,.
It
represented by the con-
sent series
,.-,
a?
and cos
a;
is
~3!
rrX>
5"!"---
+( ~
/V.2OT+1
1)
(2
W + l)! + -
represented by the convergent series

._
W
~2~!
1*1/
4!~"'
(_
Wt-
*"*
^(2^0"!
For the sum of a fixed number of terms of the
first series differs
134
-=
from sin x by
J not more than
^r+i
(2/-
is
which
be chosen sufficiently
arbitrarily small if r
case
^-.
1)!
seen by
J observing
& that the ratio
#2r-iY\] may
ma de
De
for
That
large.
x2
-
2r(2r +
is
this is the
a;
-r of 7=
l)
(2r
2r "t" 1
r-,
+ l)!
any fixed value of
arbitrarily small, for
by taking r great enough.
each value of x
to
x,
Similar reasoning applies to the
for cos x.
expression
Examples.
Expand
(1)
We
x,
we
cos 3
x in powers of x
have cos 3 x = j (cos 3x +3 cos x)
find for the general
cos3.r, cos
expanding
term in the expansion of cos 3 *',
in powers of
l)
32n _|_ 3
,
..
,',
x2n
4 (2m)
It will be seen that any integral power of cos x or sin x, or the product of two
such powers, may be expanded in powers of x by putting the expression into
!
the
sum
of cosines or sines of multiples of x.
Expand tanx
(2)
We
in powers of x as far as the term in x 7
have tan
x -
^=|.r--
terms of higher order than x7
tan * = J
r~6
^
x
|l__
r4
(x
\2
T20"5040J L
_x* +
24
"1
_-_|
Expanding the second
_ofi\
leaving out
factor,
we have
+ (x _
V2
720;
-1
x*\
24/
(aP\*
\j)
7
multiplying out and collecting the coefficients of the terms up to x , we find
tan x = x + ^ x3 +
.
(3)
Find
,.
the limit of
The numerator
tan x - \ tan 3 x + T
sin (tan x)
tan x -
xb + ^g x7
- tan (sin x)
~f~
of the expression
5
2
j
^^
is
^ + ^^ + ^^)-^
3
when x = n
,
equal to
tan 7 x - sin x - sin 3 x - fg sin 5 x -
using the expansion obtained in the last example.

(x +
This
is
sin 7 x,
equal to
+ ^ + l^) + i|) (l+|^ )-5ô

2
(l
#
+ +
-(-^+^-S&)-s( -F S 5)-A -W-*<1
7
this expression reduces to
rejecting all terms of higher order than x
The limit of the given expression is therefore 1/30.
;
r'
fast?.
relation between trigonometrical
135
and algebraical
identities.
trigonometrical identity in which the angles

of the letters, a series of algebraical
functions
homogeneous
be deduced, by expanding the circular functions
identities
From any
100.
are
may
and equating
powers of the circular measure of the angles,
the terms of each order. Thus for example, in the formula
sin a sin 6 = ^ {cos (a -6)- cos (a + 6)}, expand each of the sines
in
and cosines and equate the terms of the second order, we have
In Articles 44 and 47 of
then ab = \ {(a + b) 2 - (a - b) 2 }.
of examples of analogous
a
number
we
have
given
Chapter IV.,
in each case the
identities
and
algebraical
trigonometrical
have
above explained,
as
we
is
obtained,
algebraical identity
;
from the trigonometrical one. For example, in example (11),

Art. 47, which may be written
2 sin2 a sin (6 + c a)
2 sin a sin b sin c
sin (6 4- c
a) sin (c + a
b) sin (a
we equate the terms of the third order, when the

expanded, we obtain the analogous algebraical identity
if
2a
(6
+c-
a)
2abc
(b
+ c a) (c + a -
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
1.
c),
sines are
+ b c).
VIII.
Prove geometrically that
where
tan#>2tan^0,
2.
b) (a
4-
Trace the changes
0<\n.
in the value of tan 30 cot 3 0, as
increases from
to \ir.
Shew
that
174l2 v/2
is
minimum and 17-12^/2
maximum
the expression.
3.
Prove that tan 3$ cot
4.
Prove that
5.
Prove that 3 tan
6.
Shew
cannot
cos
0>~2
50>5 tan
lie
s,
between 3 and
1/3.
where 0<hn.
30, if
lies
that the limiting value of -r-s-%

sin^0
between
-r,.
l
when
and
7r/10.
= 0,
is i.
*
value of
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
136
(sin 8) for all values of 8.
7.
Prove that sin (cos 8)<cos
8.
Prove that the limiting value of the

2
If
J\A
r = l+n, and n
sin
<
"
..
,,,
.'
Prove that the limiting value of
cot<9
/
.
\tan* (if+ifl)
when
8 = \ir.
tan 26
- 2 tan
12.
4
is c"
when 6 = r,ir,
W2 - 2 sin 6 )
Prove that
/sin.?\ 2
|
\ x
an
-J.
cos (6 sin 6)
Find the limiting value, when 6 = 0, of
14.
tan 6
approximately.
11.
13.
be very small, prove that
= (! 2) sin hd,
Find the limiting value of

.
product
8\
(f>
sin
10.
infinite
a
2
0(l-tan *)(l-tan |3)
(l-tan
9.
0\/,
VIII
a?
z = 1 sin-a?- cos #
sin- - - cos
.
tan#=
If in the equation
a?
- cos 2 - sin 2
a?
-p
.r
a
cot a\
"2 a 3) a 4 De a ^ nearly equal;
+ cot a
-\
8*
cot a 3 + cot a 4
shew that 8
is
the angles
very nearly equal to
k( a l+ a 2 + a 3 + ai)15.
Sum
the series
cos -
16.
-f
Prove that the

tan
x
Z
17.
6
6
*
^
*
a
2 cos 5 cos 2 + 2 2 cos = cos 2 cos +

3
Shew
sum
..
to
n terms.
is tana?.
that
a
a
6
6
2 2 sin-sin 2 - + 2 3 sin -sin 2 5 +
2
4.
4
o
tanfl=
Prove that
cot -
ad
shew that
8
.
6
2 sin + sin
2
22+
[_
,
2
If 8<ir,
cot -
-5
cot
. .
to infinity of the series
19.
x
x
x
x
seca? + tansec- + tan sec,4-
6- sin 8 cos 8 = 2 sin #sin 2 - +

18.
+ sin
8~\r c
^J[
os2
+ cos22 +
<^sin0sin-
6~\
-t-cos^J
sinî]'
inf.
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
If
20.
a 2 =i
a and
+b
(a l
&2
1 ),
be positive quantities, and
= (2&i)^
if
ai
= i(a + b),
a> = b*> =
shew that
ar>d so on,
137
VIII
(1)2
b1
= (a
b)^,
_ a 1)h
.
cos
r
b
Shew
that the value of
n may be
calculated by
Find the limiting value of the
21.
infinite
means
of this formula
product
(sin#cos|<9)i(sin|0cos|<9)i(sin|<9cos-|0)i
If tan 6
22.
= 46,
7T
2 cos -"
2
be
_11_ +
+
+ 247r3
4807r5
+ 2 cos 6
\ir will
403
V2^r
Prove that
23.
and
the value of 6 between
)'
-1
J
Prove that
24.
2 OS 2 " 6
*
= (2 cos
+11
v
2 cos
Sum
25.
to
fl
1 /v
) (2
cos 26 -
(2
v
)
'
cos 2-
0-l).
'
terms the series
?i
-log tan
2<9
+ jplogtan2
+ jplogtan2
Having given that the limiting
26.
neither zero nor infinite, find
when 6 = 0,
6 n sin n 6
of
is
powers of the small quantity
k,
value,
n.
limit, when x=0, of

- cos 2x + cos 4x cos 6x 4- cos 8.r cos 1 Ox cos 1 4x + cos 1 6%
Find the
27.
1
3- 4 cos 2#+cos4.r
28.
Prove that the
- 1)
29.
If
sin
(f>
and
+ 2e sin
y = z+sin(2 4-a),
as far as the
31.
of the infinite series
273T (2^2)"!
If e be very small,
6=
30.
sum
"" 1
term
From
(d-b)
<
Sin
iS
72
whose rth term
(^ +
is
1)
= 0-2esin # + fe 2 sin 26,

+ \e sin 20, nearly.
shew that
<fi
expand
z in
in k*.
the trigonometrical identity

sin
(a-c) + sin(6-c) sin(a-of) + sin(c d)sm(a-b) = 0,
deduce the algebraical identity
[d-b)(a-c){{d-by + {a-cf\ + {b-c)(a-d){(b-c? + (a-dy-}
+ (c- d) (a - b) {(c - df + (a - 6)8} = 0.
EXAMPLES.
138
Prove that
32.
small angle.
d>
differs
CHAPTER
VIII
5
from ->
N by 4*r0
nearly,
'
2 (2 + cos
2<p)
-
(6
being
a
(Snellius' formula.)
33.
Find the circular measure, to five places of decimals, of the smallest
angle which satisfies the equation sin {x-V\ it) = 10 sin x.
34.
and not
Solve the equation (sin 6) a cos e = fe, approximately, where a is positive

large, and 6 is known to be nearly equal to a, which is itself not very
small.
Shew that there
35.
and
find its value to
is
only one positive value of 6 such that 6 = 2 sin
0,
two places of decimals by means of a table of logarithms.
36.
In the relation asin~ 1 x = b sin _1 y, where a and b are integers prime
to each other, prove that there are 26 values of y for each value of x, unless
a and b are both odd numbers when there are b values.
r
Assuming that
37.
be ill
256
if
a be the acute angle
prove that cos a - cos
^
i
exceeds _
7
_,,.
2 10
whose sine
by
J
is
less
sin la
than -OOOOOOo.
must
CHAPTER
IX.
TRIGONOMETRICAL TABLES.
101.
In order that the formulae of Trigonometry may be of
practical use in the solution of triangles and in other numerical

calculations, it is necessary that we should possess numerical
tables giving the circular functions of angles, so that from these

tables we can find to a sufficient degree of accuracy the functions
corresponding to a given angle, and conversely the angle corresponding to a given function. Such tables are of two kinds,
1
(1) tables of natural sines, cosines, tangents,
&c,
in
which the
numerical values of the sines, cosines, tangents, &c, of angles are

given to a certain number of places of decimals, and (2) tables of
logarithmic sines, cosines, tangents, &c, in which the logarithms
to the base 10, of these functions, are given to a certain number
The latter kind of tables are those which
of decimals.
of
places
in nearly all such
are now used for most practical purposes
all
increased
are
tables the logarithms
by 10, so that the use of
;
negative logarithms is avoided the logarithms so increased are

called tabular logarithms and written thus, L sin 30 ; so that
;
L sin 30 =
10
log sin 30.
Calculation of tables of natural circular functions.

102.
We
shall
first
shew how
to
calculate
tables
of the
natural circular functions, which will give the values of these

functions accurately to a certain specified number of places of
decimals, for all angles from 0 to 90, at certain intervals such
as
1'
or 10".
and of
We
shall first calculate the sine
and cosine of
1'
10".
1
Logaritbms were formerly called "artificial" numbers, thus ordinary numbers
"
were called "natural numbers.
TKIGONOMETK1CAL TABLES
14-0
To find sin
(1)
Let
to
cos
1',
r-rrr
180 x 60
1'.
denote the circular measure of
3141592653589793...
lOoOO
then
1',
0002908882086(i5
5 places of decimals, hence
= I (-0003 ) = 000000000004
3
to 12 places of decimals.
Now from the theorem in Art. 95, sin 1' lies between 6 and
^6*, and these numbers only differ in the twelfth decimal
place, therefore to eleven places of decimals
00029088820
We
find also 1
is
the correct value of sin
1'.
$6* = '999999957692025029
to 18 decimal places,
4
and
J*
Jj (00029
4
.
to 17 decimal places.
cos 1' lies between 1
Now
1'
(2)
To find
6
If
we
= -00000000000000029
hO and
2
^6 +Î 6
2
i
;
and since
16th decimal place, we have

-999999957692025 correct to 15 decimal places.
numbers
these two
cos
find
=
=
Id*
8
differ only in the
sin 10", cos 10".
nn
the circular measure of 10",
-000048481368110, to 15 decimal places,

-000000000000021, to 15 decimal places,
hence the two numbers 6 and 6
agree to 12 decimal places,

-000048481368, to 12 decimal places.
zero to 17 decimal places, thus cos 10" = 1^6'-,
sin 10"
therefore
Also ^ 4# 4 is
or cos 10" = -9999999988248, to 13 decimal places.
1
103.
The formulae
nA = 2 cos A sin (n 1) A sin (n

cos nA 2 cos A cos (n 1) A cos (n
sin
2)
A,
2)
A,
enable us to calculate the sines and cosines of multiples of 1', or of

10".
Let A = 10", 2 cos 10" = 2 - k where k = -0000000023504,
then the formulae
may be
written
A - sin(>i - 1)^ = {sin (n -1)A - sin (n 2) A} ksm(n-l)A,

cos nA cos(n 1)^. = {cos (n 1)^. cos (?i 2) A kcos(n- 1)A
sin?j
141
TRIGONOMETRICAL TABLES
we put n 2, we can calculate sin 20"

and cos 20". We can now by letting n = 3, 4, 5, ... calculate
the differences sin nA sin (n - 1) A, cos nA cos (n 1) A,
when the preceding differences sin (n 1) A sin (n 2) A
if
formulae
these
in
1) A cos(?i 2)^1, and also sin(ri 1)J., cos(w 1)A,

cos(n
have been found; hence these differences can be found by a
continued use of the formulae; we can then find sinn.4, cosn-4,
and thus we can form a table of sines and cosines of angles at
We have k = -000000002354, thus in calculating
intervals of 10".
k sin (n 1) A, k cos (n 1) A we need only use the
of the value of sin (n - 1) A, cos (n 1) A.
When
104.
first
few figures
nA, cosnA are thus calculated by successive applications
sin
from the use of approximate values of

accumulate during the process; it is therefore necessary to
consider how many places of decimals must be used during the process, in
order that with assumed values of sin A, cos A, correct to a certain number
of places of decimals, we may obtain values of sin nA, cos nA which will be
of the formulae, the errors arising

sin A, cos
will
number of places of decimals.

number of places of decimals to which sin A, cos A have
been calculated, and suppose that r is the number of places of decimals that is
correct to a prescribed
in
Suppose
the
retained in the calculation of the sines and cosines of successive multiples

let be the value of sin nA or cosnA, obtained by this process, and u n +xn
;
the corresponding correct value,
we have then
Mn + tfB =(2-)(wn _ 1 + #_l)-(n-2+#n-2)j

also m
= (2 k') u n _ u n _ i
l
of decimals
where
k')un _ 1
the approximate value of k to r places
k' is
=yn we have then

n = (2 - ) - - - + ?/
xn ={2-k)x n _ -xn _ 2 -y n
=
x n 2.r n _ -xn _ 2 -z n where z n =yn + kx n _ x
xn-i xn-2)~ zn,

written
(%n Xn-i)
(^-i -^n-2) = (#-2- ^n-3) 2-i
let (k
hence
or
this
may
whence
be
>
insensibly from
X-^ X
Z'l
xn -xn _ 1 =x 1 (z2 +z3 +... + zn )
therefore
number kx n _
is
>/,
very small compared with 2.r_i, hence y n + kxn _i differs

hence each of the numbers z2 , z$...zn is less than 1/10'",
therefore their arithmetic
mean
xn - l
6n
than
less
is
1/1
=x -(n-\)e n
-xn _ 2 =x -(n-2)6 n _ u
xn -x
_
1l
X2 A*j X^
=
nx
xn
+ n-(6 2 + Z9 z +
i)'i ,
or
',
Xi
the
...
\6 n )
thus
142
now
r
d 2 63 ...0 n are each numerically less than l/10 hence
,
-(02 + 203+...)
is less
than \n()i- l)/10r or

,
n(n \)
r <r
10 "
a fortiori
.r n
If in this formula
m = 12,
< Jq^ + 2
'
10'*
10''
m = 10800,
108
^n<-10
nio~'"*
10
5832
'
10''
-*
< -0000000108 + -00

where there are
r-8
'
5832,
zeros in the last decimal, hence if ?'=15,
xn < '00000007,
now 10800x10" = 30, hence the

correct to seven places of decimals
sine or cosine of 30 will be found correct to seven places of decimals if when
calculating the sines or cosines of the multiples of 10" up to 30 we retain
or
un
is
15 places of decimals throughout the calculation.

number
applied in all such cases to determine the
to a certain
number
of decimal places 1
The formula (a) may be

so that xn may be zero
r,
Example.
Prove that in order to calculate the sines and cosines of multiples of 10"
up to 45, correct to 8 places of decimals, the values of sin 10", cos 10" being
known to 12 decimal places, it is necessary to retain 17 decimal places in the
calculation.
105.
When
of 10", or of
1',
a table of sines and cosines of angles at intervals

is required, it is only necessary to calculate the
values for angles up to 30, we can then obtain the values of the
sines and cosines of angles from 30 to 60, by means of the formulae
sin (30
+ A) + sin
cos (30
-A)-
values
(30
- A) =
cos
A,
+ A) = sin A,
When the sines and
cos (30
cosines of
up to 30.
by giving
the angles up to 45 have been obtained, those of angles between
45 and 90 are obtained from the fact that the sine of an angle is
equal to the cosine of its complement, so that it is unnecessary to
all
proceed in the calculation further than 45.
The method of calculating Tables of circular functions, which we have

explained, is substantially that of Rhcticus (1514
1576) ; his tables of sines,
The earliest
tangents, and secants were published in 1590, after his death.
This article has been taken substantially from Serret's Trigonometry.
143
table is the Table of chords in Ptolemy's Almagest, for angles at intervals

Historical information on the subject of Tables will be
of half a degree.
found in Button's History of Mathematical Tables

Article on Tables in the English Encyclopaedia.
Tlie verification
see also
De Morgan's
of numerical values.
It is necessary to have methods of verifying the correct106.

ness of the values of the sines and cosines of angles calculated by
the preceding method
We
(1)
this
may be done by
the following means
have formed in Art. 66 a table of the surd values of
the sines and cosines of the angles 3, 6, 9 ... differing by 3 we

can therefore calculate the sines and cosines of these angles to
any required number of places of decimals, then the values of the
;
functions obtained by the method of calculation above explained

may be compared with the values thus obtained. If necessary,
the values of the sines and cosines of angles differing by 130'
may be
obtained by means of the dimidiary formulae, and we

still closer check upon the calculations.
have thus a
There are certain well-known formulae called formulae
(2)
of verification, these are
sin
+ A) + cos (36 - A) = cos A + sin (18 + A) + sin (18 -A),

A = sin (36 + A)- sin (36 -A) + sin (72 - A) -sin (72+ A)
cos
A = sin (54 + A) + sin (54 - A) - sin (18 + A - sin (18 - A
cos (36
(Euler's formulae),
)
(Legendre's formula).
The
verification consists in the substitution of the values obtained
of the functions in these identities.
Tables of tangents
107.
To form a
table of tangents,
to 45 from the tables of sines
angles up
the formula tan
to 90
may
we
find the tangents of
and cosines by means of
the tangents of angles from 45

then be obtained by means of Cagnoli's formula
+ A) =
2 tan 2 A
+ tan (45 -A).
table of cosecants can be formed
A = tan \A + cot A, and a table of

formula sec A = tan A + tan (45 $A).
cosec
secants.
A = sin A/cos A;
tan (45
and
by means of the formula

secants by means of the
144)
Calculation by series.
108.
more modern method of calculating the
cosines of angles
x=
in
it
- we
n
We
is
to
use the
99
series in Art.
have
thus obtain the formulae
sin (m/re 90)
= 1-57079
63267
94896
61923
13
m/n
-0-64596
40975
06246
25365
58
m /
3
+ 0-07969
26262
46167
04512
05
m^n*
-0-00468
17541
35318
68810
07
+ 0-00016
04411
84787
35982
19
m7/
m /%
-0-00000
35988
43235
21208
53
mn jnn
+0-00000
00569
21729
21967
93
?n,
-0-00000
00006
68803
51098
11
13
13
/rc
m
w
16
15
/n
+ 0-00000
00000
06066
93573
11
-0-00000
00000
00043
77065
47
+ 0-00000
00000
00000
25714
23
-0-00000
00000
00000
00125
39
m^jvP
+ 0-00000
cos (m/n 90) = 1-00000
00000
00000
00000
52
00000
00000
00000
00
-1-23370
05501
36169
82735
43
+ 0-25366
95079
01048
01363
66
m /n
m jn
-0-02086
34807
63352
96087
31
m 6/n6
+ 0-00091
92602
74839
42658
02
m*/n
-0-00002
52020
42373
06060
55
72
m
m
19
mu
+ 0-00000
-0-00000
04710
00063
87477
86603
88181
08379
17
1J
(n
19
19
/?i
21
/n
21
2*
25
/?*
10
10
/n
12
12
/?j
H
/,i
+0-00000
00000
00003
43773
92
-0-00000
00000
00000
01835
99
m
m
m
m
+ 0-00000
00000
00000
00008
21
wi 24 /n 24
-0-00000
00000
00000
00000
03
w 26 / 26
+0-00000
00000
65659
63114
98
-0-00000
00000
00529
44002
01
16
18
/n
/n
20
18
18
20
/?i
22
/n
22
sines
if
and
we put
145
Since
we need only calculate the sines and cosines

m/n is always taken less than J,
to 45, the fraction
few terms of the series
the calculation to a small
number
taken from Euler's Analysis

where they are given to six more decimal places.
of decimal places.
of the Infinite,
suffice for
of angles up
so that very
These
series are
Logarithmic
tables.
and cosines have been

made
constructed, tables of logarithmic sines and cosines may be
will
give the
by means of tables of ordinary logarithms which
When
109.
tables of natural sines
of the sine or cosine

logarithm of the calculated numerical value
of any angle; adding 10 to the logarithm so found, we have the
be
corresponding tabular logarithm. The logarithmic tangents may
= 10 + L sin - L cos A,
found by means of the relation L tan
and thus a table of logarithmic tangents may be constructed. We

shall in a later Chapter give a direct method by which tables of
constructed.
logarithmic sines, cosines, and tangents may be
Description and use of trigonometrical tables.

110.
Trigonometrical
are constructed as follows:
tables,
either natural or
logarithmic,
(1)
They give directly the functions for angles between 0
and 90 only; the values of the functions for angles of magnitudes
beyond these limits may be at once deduced.
The
(2)
0 to 45,
tables give the values of the functions of angles from

90, by means of a double reading of
and from 45 to
the same figures the names of the functions, sine, cosine, tangent,
and also the degrees (< 45), are printed at the top of the page,
;
and the corresponding minutes and seconds are printed in the

left-hand column, the angles increasing as we go down the page;
again the names cosine, sine, cotangent, &c, and the degrees
printed at the bottom of the page, in the same
(>4o), are
columns
which
in
at the top
and seconds
sine, cosine, tangent, respectively are printed

the right-hand column are printed the minutes
for the angles which are complementary to the
in
former ones, these latter angles of course increasing as we go

II.
t.
10
146
Callet's
We
give as a specimen a portion of a page of

seven-figure logarithmic tables for angles at intervals
up the page.
of 10".
17 deg.
147
the difference between the values of the function for the smaller
tabular angle and an angle greater than this angle by y"
-~ a
is
the increase of the function for an increase 10" of the

angle is a,
and that for an increase y" (< 10") is that fraction of a which
y"
is
In the specimen of Callet's tables which we have
of 10".
given, the differences between consecutive logarithms are given

without the decimal points in the columns headed dif.
For example, suppose we wish
to find
Zsin
17 51' 13",
we
find
from the
table
Zsin
17 51' 10"=9-4865328,
Zsin
17 51' 20"
= 9-4865982,
=
654;
dif.
we have 1^x654 = 196*2, hence we must add -0000196

and we obtain Zsin
17 51' 13"
= 94865522.
to the first logarithm
Again suppose we require the angle whose tabular logarithmic tangent

We find from the table that the given logarithm lies between
the two
is
9-5082032.
= 9-5081819,
=
50" 9-5082540,
Ztan
17 51' 40"
Ztan
17 51'
dif.
= 721;
the difference between the given logarithmic tangent and the first obtained
from the table is 213, hence the angle to be added to 17 51' 40" is
fifxl0" = 2"-9 approximately, hence the required angle
is
17 51' 43"
approximately.
The principle of proportional parts.

112.
We
shall
now
how
investigate
and with what excepwhich we have assumed
far,
tions, the principle of proportional increase,
in the last Article, is true.
Suppose x to denote any angle, and f(x) to denote a natural

or logarithmic function of x, we shall shew in the various cases
that if h be any small
measured in circular measure, added
angle
to x,
f(x +
where f'(x)
remains
is
h)
-f(x) = hf (x) +
another function of
when h =
From
x,
and
h?R,
J? is a function
which
we
see that, provided h be

(x) is for a given value of x prosufficiently small, f (x -\- }i)
J
will be so
portional to h, and it will appear that in general fi
finite
0.
this
102
TRIGONOMKTRICAL TABLES
148
small that
number
it
not affect the values of the functions to the
will
of decimal places to which they are tabulated
number
constant to the requisite
is
'-
places for a given value of
x.
hence
of decimal
However, two exceptional cases
will
arise.
x be such that f'(x)
very small, then the difference

f(x + h) f(x) may vanish, to the order in the tables the difference
f(x 4- It) f(x) is then said to be insensible, and in that case two
If
(1)
is
more consecutive tabulated values of f(x) may be the same.

If x is such that R is large compared with f'(x), the
(2)
term h-R may not be small compared with hf'{x); in this case
the difference f(x + h) f(x) is not proportional to h, and is said
or
to be irregular:
In either of these cases (1)
fails,
and
(2) the
method of proportions
but we shall shew how by special devices the
difficulties are
obviated.
The student who

formula given above
is
acquainted with Taylor's theorem will see that the

the special case of Taylor's theorem
is really
/ (A + /,) =/ (.r) + hf (x) + Wf" (x + e/i),

and 1, thus R=\f" (x+6h), and the error made in
where 6 is between
assuming / (x + h) -f(x) = hf (x) lies between the greatest and least values
which hh-f"{z) assumes between the limits z=x and z=x + h.
-
= sin x,
sin (x + h) = sin x cos h + cos x sin h,
then
or sin (x + h) sin x = cos x (k
+ .) sin x (^ h" 5 T + .)
= h cos x ^h sin x + higher powers of h
in this c&sef'(x) = cos x, and the approximate value of R is ^ sin x
thus
sin (x + h) sin x = h cos x h h sin x
(1)
First let f(x)
113.
}.Jt
/i
is
the approximate difference equation.
Similarly
it
may be shewn
that, approximately,
cos x = Asin x
cos(# + h)
.
Aram
tan (x
+ h) 7
tan x
Â'-'cosa;
(2).
sin h
cos x cos (x
pit
h
cos 2 x
or,
h sin x cos x
'
approximately,
tan (x
h)
tan x = h
sec 2 x
h2 sec2 x tan x
(o).
149
1KIGONOMETRICAL TABLES
,
+ h)
sin (x
h)-L sin x = log
Also
or
= log(l -/r + Acot#),

L sin (x + h) L sin x = h cot x \ h" cosec x
L cos (x + h) L cos x = h tan x-^h- sec2 a;
sin (x
Sill
\Aj
Similarly
2h
-.
(5),
,2 cos 2a-
L tan ( + /<) - L tan # = sm cos x

v
(4).
sin-
,.
9
z
.(o).
In each case we have found only the approximate value of R,

that is to say, we have left out the terms involving cubes and
from these six equations that
higher powers of h. It appears
differences
the
are, for values of x which
if h is small enough,
a right angle, proportional
to
nor
are neither small
nearly equal
The
to h.
(1)
is
is
following exceptional cases arise.
The
difference sin (x
+ h) -
h cos
insensible
is
when x
x.
(2)
small
(3)
The
it is
difference cos (x + h)
then also irregular.
The
difference
tan (x
(4)
is
cos x
insensible
is
+ h) tan x
is
when x
irregular
is
when x
h2 sec2 x tan x may then become
nearly a right angle, for

comparable with h sec- x.
is
sin
hcosx is very small; it

nearly a right angle, for in that case
2
then also irregular, for ^k sinx may become comparable with
difference L sin (x + h)- L sin x is irregular when

and both insensible and irregular when x is nearly
The
small,
a right angle.
The difference L cos (x + h) L cos x is insensible and

when x is nearly a
irregular when x is small, and irregular
(5)
right angle.
The difference L tan (x + h) L tan

either small or nearly a right angle.
(6)
is
It should be noticed that a difference

also irregular,
is
which
irregular
when
insensible
is
is
but that the converse does not hold.
In order to investigate the degree of approximation to which the principle

of proportional parts is in any case true, it is the simplest way to consider the
true value of It ; in the case of sin(# + /i!)-sin.r the true value of the second
term
is
^/^sin (x + 6h), where
is
intervals of 10", the greatest value of
between
$A
is
and
( GOx
1;
Jx
if
180
the table
V or
is for
M' 00005 )^
150
this gives
no error
in
the
first
places of decimals
eight
in the case
of
tan (x + h) tan x the error is (OOOO5) 2 sec 2 (.r + 0A)tan (x + 6h) hence when
tan x + tan 3 # = 40, the error will begin to appear in the seventh place of
;
In the case of
decimals.
decimals
114.
if
Lsinx
there
is
no error in the seventh place of
x>b
When
the differences for a function are insensible to the
number
of decimal places of the tables, the tables will give the

function when the angle is known, but we cannot employ the
tables to find
thus
any intermediate angle by means of
we cannot determine x from
angles, or from the value of
the value of
L sin x,
this function
L cos x,
for small
for angles nearly equal to
a right angle. When the differences for a function are irregular

without being insensible, the approximate method of proportional
parts is not sufficient for the determination of the angle by means
of the function, nor the function by
approximation is inadmissible for
L cos x, when x
is
means
of the angle
L sin x, when x
nearly a right angle, and for
is
L tan x
thus the
small, for
in either
case.
In these cases of irregularity without insensibility, the following

to effect the purpose of finding the angle
means may be used
corresponding to a given value of the function, or of the function

corresponding to a given angle.
We may
(1)
use tables of
L sin x, L tan x
few
for the first
degrees calculated for angles at intervals of one second, and for

L cos x, L tan x for the few degrees near 90, calculated for each
second
Callet gives such a table in his trigonometrical tables
can then use the principle of proportional parts

are not extremely near zero or a right angle.
(2)
for all angles
we
which
Delambres method.
This method consists of splitting L sin x or L tan x into the

of two terms, the differences for one of which are insensible
sum
for values of x near those at which the irregularity takes place,

and the differences for the other one are regular; the difference
for the first of these terms is irregular, but this is of no consequence, owing to its being also insensible. Thus if x be the
circular measure of n" a small angle,
,
,.
/.
.Lsinw =(log
sin
h La.
\
J
log n,
151
where a
is
tana;
/.
..
L tan n =
the circular measure of
Now
+ h) -
log (n
hence the differences
log n
r.
log n,
1".
Also the differences for log
n.
Laj
log
(l
n are regular,
for log
,.^
with
flog
sin a;
-
+j
h be small compared
if
tan x
,
,
CC
.,
are insensible,
log
00
for
sin
log
h
r+h
(a;
-
A)
1
- log& sin x = log& sin-,(#+/;) ,
sma;
,'
/t
cot
a;
x+h
log
a?
3
*, ^
1
cosec-, a;
A
h-
a;
1\
/>(cot*~)
tan(#
and
log
h (
Vsin
each of these differences

small
when x
is
|(^-cosec^)
tana;
/<)
log^
A2 /
ttt>2
2a;
is
x cos x
{- 4 C0S 2x
2 \
x)
1_\
x2J
sin2 2a;
insensible since the coefficient of h
'
is
small.
values of log -
If tables of the
+ La,
00
log
La
are
00
few degrees of the quadrant, we may use

these tables in conjunction with the tables of natural logarithms
of numbers to find n accurately when L sin n" or L tan n" is given,
constructed for the
first
and conversely.
If Zsinrt" or
of
log-
Ztann"
then from the table

h La, either of
oo
given, find the approximate value
is
we get
sin
the value of log
r
(log sin x
Lsmn
Lr tan
.
La
which changes very slowly; then \ogn
given by the value
or
oo
,,
/i
//
/.
I
log
tan x
La)
T \
h J,a )
\-
or
00
is
152
and we
n
n accurately from the table of natural logarithms. If

sin x
given, the table gives the value of log x + La, and sin n" is
is
find
then found by the formula.

(3)
Maskelynes method.
principle of this method
a small angle, we have
The
If x
is
sin
is
the same as that of Delambre's.
/, x
=M
\$ = cos i x, approximately
=1 x-
a;
hence
log sin
when x
hence
is
it
= log # + log cos x
a small angle the differences of log cos x are insensible

If
sufficient to use an approximate value of cos a:.
;
is
we
an approximate value of x, and use that

then obtained from the above equation.
If x is given we can find logx accurately from the table of natural
logarithms, and also an approximate value of log cos x the formula
log sin
is
given
for finding log cos
find
is
log tan
is
a;
We
can shew, in a similar manner, that

= log x log cos x.
formula
the
given by
log tan x
then gives log sin
x.
Example.
Shew
that the following formula

log sin 8
is
more
than Maskelyne's
neai'ly true
= log Q - ^ log cos d + i log cos ^ Q.
Adaptation of formulae
to
logarithmic calculation.
In order to reduce an expression to a form in which the
115.
numerical values can be calculated from tables of logarithms, we

must make such substitutions as will reduce the given expression
this may be frequently
product of simple expressions
done by means of one or more subsidiary angles, as the following
examples will shew.
to the
vV + b = a? secy
6
(1)
<f>,
Va6 + b =
2 log a
L tan < =
log
where
/
thus v a
<
having
+6
where tan
= b /a
3
</>
+ f (L sec
b - log a)
+ 3 (log
<f>
hence
- 10),
;
can be calculated by means of logarithmic tables,

been found from the tables.
first
a cos a
(2)
+ 6 sin =
a cos (a
cc
<j>)
sec
<,
153
where tan
<j>
= 6/a
hence
log (a cos a
where
= log a + X cos (a
b sin a)
cf>)
L cos 0,
found from
is
L tan < =
To
+ log 6
10
log a.
numerically the roots of a quadratic

the
roots
to be real.
equation supposing
Let ax- + bx + c = be the equation, and first suppose a and c
to be both positive.
have tan- 8 2 cosec 20 tan + 1 = 0;
116.
calculate
We
now let x = y Îcja, the equation becomes y + by/'Jac + 1 = 0;

hence if sin 26=2 \lacjb, the quadratic in y will be the same as
that in tan 8, the roots of which are tan 8, cot 6 thus the
roots of the given quadratic are \/c/a tan 6, ^c/a cot 8, where
sin 28 = 2 \lacjb, and hence the roots may be calculated by means
2
of logarithmic tables.
If a and c are of opposite signs,
to
to
we may take
the quadratic
in this case put x = y *Jc/a and it

be ax? + bx c =
1=0; comparing this with the equation
y- + byj^/ac
tan 8 + 2 cot 28 tan 8 - 1 =
;
reduces
we
= 2 \lacjb,
and
<Jc/a cot 6.
see that if tan 28
are Vc/a tan 8
the roots of the quadratic in
To calculate the roots

We
supposing them all to be real.
117.
the
of
shall
cubic
x3
+ qx +
suppose q to be negative.

sin 3 8
let
x = y V
this will
4<7/3,
l sin 8
+ } sin 38 =
then the equation in
a;
be the same as the cubic in sin

sin
30
= 4?- (-
3/4g)$
becomes
8, if
2
3
(- 27r /4? ) ;
hence the values of x are

N /_ 4,/
:;
sin 0,
V- 4g/3 sin (8 + f tt), V- 4^/3 sin (0 + f tt),
the condition that sin 30
cubic are
all real.
^1
is
the condition that the roots of the
154;
We
a cubic
shall
shew
when two
in a later
of
Chapter how to calculate the roots of
them
are imaginary.
which we have solved
The processes by
the quadratic and
cubic equations shew that the two algebraical problems are really
equivalent to the geometrical problems of bisecting and trisecting
an angle respectively.
It follows that a quadratic equation can

be solved graphically by means of the ruler and compasses only,
whereas the cubic can not in general be solved graphically by
these means, since they are inadequate for solving

generally the
of
an
geometrical problem
trisecting
angle.
CHAPTER X
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES AND ANGLES
OF A TRIANGLE.
ABC
118.
If
be any triangle, we shall denote the magnitudes
of the angles BAG, ABC,
by A, B, C respectively, and the
of
the
sides
BC,
CA,
lengths
by a, b, c respectively.
ACB
AB
We
Chapter, investigate
important formulae
the
of
a
sides
c
with
the
circular functions
a,
b,
connecting
triangle
of the angles. These formulae will afford the basis of the methods
shall,
in
various
this
by which we
shall solve a triangle in the various cases in which

three parts of the triangle are given.
From the fundamental theorem in projections we see

sum of the projections of BA, AC, on BC, is equal to BC,
and that the sum of their projections on a perpendicular to BC is
zero.
Expressing these facts we have, since the positive direction
119.
that the
of
AC makes an angle C with
B + A C cos C = a,
c cos B + b cos C = a,
BA sin B - AC sin C=0, or csin B 6 sin C = 0,
BA
or
and
the positive direction of BC,
cos
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE
156
= c/sin G. These relations and the

written 6/sin
corresponding ones obtained by projecting on and perpendicular to
each of the other sides, in turn, may be written
may be
which
= b cos G + c cos B
b = c cos A + a cos C
*\
(1),
=a cos B + b cos A J
= 6/sin i? = c/sin C
a/sin A
c
(2).
The equations (2) express the fact that, in any triangle, the
sides are proportional to the sines of the opposite angles.
The
120.
relations (2)
may
also
be proved thus
Draw
the
be the length
circle circumscribing the triangle ABC, and let
to
twice
then
side
BC
is
the
radius multithe
of its radius,
equal
plied by the sine of half the angle
of the circle, that is
BC=2RsinA
a = 2R sin A
hence
BC
subtends at the centre
2R sin (180 -A),
or
similarly
b = 2RsinB, and c = 2RsinC,

a/sin A = 6/sin B = c/sin C = 2R.
hence
These relations
equations
(1) in
(2)
also be
may
deduced from
(1)
writing the
first
two
the form
a- b cos C-c cos B0,

a cos C+b-c cos .4=0,
we can determine the
ratios of a,
b,
be
we
a
cos
G cos A + cos B
~=
-
7^=
jz.
sin L'am
sin-AsinG
hence
-.
To deduce
(1)
cos
from
(2)
B cos G+ cos A
^,
sin-
-.
a = -.
sm B cos
b
.sin /j
which
M
the
is
first
relation
>
<>>-
.i
or
a/sin
A = 6/sin B= c/sin C.
(sinZ?cosC+cos.Ssin
v
G);
'*
+ -.^ cos B sin C= b cos G+c cos B,
of the relations
we eliminate
l-cos 2 C"
we have
7sin(2?+C)=
a=
sin A
sin A
hence
obtain
suit?
'
(1).
from the three equations in (1), we obtain the

+cos-'Z?-f cos 2 G+1 cosA coaBcosG = l, which holds between
a, b, c
the cosines of the angles of a triangle.
we multiply the equations

and then add, we have
If
121.
tively,
b2
a,
b,
c respec-
we may write
the sides;
by
+c -ar=2bccosA,
which gives an expression

cos B, cos
in (1)
157
an angle, in terms of
relation and the two similar ones for
for the cosine of
this
thus
a-
+ c-~ 2bc cos A

+ a -2cacosB
b-
b-=c-
(3).
We may
122.
Euclid, Bk.
we
-=a-+b'-2abcosC,
obtain these relations (3) directly by means of

If
be perpendicular to BG,
Props. 12 and 13.
AL
II.
when C
have,
is
an acute angle,
AB* = AC + BG- - 2BC

C
and when
CL,
obtuse
is
= AC- + BC + 2BC CL
2
AB-
CL = AC cos C, and in the second case

CL = AC cos (180 - C) = - AC cos G
in the first case
therefore in either case

C
To deduce the
=a
relations (2)
- 2ab cos C\
4- b-
from
(3)
we have
theref ire
2
2
+ c 2 -a2 2 ~"
_ (26c + 6 +c -a 2 (2 6c + a2 -a 2 -c2 )
A ~ 4&V-(6
46V
46V~
b
c-a
+
+ b-c
+
+
+
c)(b
(c
(a
a-b)(a
_
2
Sill ^T
2
8in
~"
01*
)
7
,m
46-<r
thus -
is
equal to the symmetrical quantity

(a
+ b+c)(b + csiii-
^ + q-6) (q + 6-c)
Bin 2
.-1
hence
a*
from which
sin 2
c1
-
o-
(2) follows.
To deduce (1) from

add them we get
(3),
divide the
first
two equations of
(3)
by
c,
and then
a2 +&2
C
= 2c + + h- <i-
2 (b cos
+ a cos
/.?),
or
c=b cos il + a cos
II.
158
We
123.
have
cosHA = |(1 + cos A )
%A = h(l- cos A),
sin2
hence
sin 2
\A =\ (1 -
cos-^ = i
26d
(1
or
(cx+^-cHo-i + c)
ms
+ b + c)(b + c-a)
46c
46c
Now
let
2s = a + b + c, then 2 (s a) = 6 + c a, and we
b)(s c)
(s
- s(s a)
cossm'U
M -V^
-'
have
therefore
i.M-f',"";'!'
(4):
formulae are more convenient than (3) as a means of

determining functions of the angles when the sides are given,
these
because
more
they are
easily
of
capable
being
to
adapted
logarithmic calculation.
4
B = sin G
sin
ofeince
;
b
n*
124.
sin
sin
sin
C_b +
4
6
we have
c
c
01
+ c _~ cos \ (B cos ( +
a
( + G) cos
cos
we obtain by
^{B
C ) ~_
(i>'
G)
~a~
"sin 1(5
c)coshA
= (b
^___
-^
sin \
G)
(B
c,
c
'
+ 6')'
,.
(5),
v
G)
-0 = 1^ cot %A
(5').
A and radius AB
AC in 1) and E; draw DF parallel to BE, then
DC= c - b, DEB = hA, DBF= C+$A - 90 = C-%B. We have
CD = sin DBF
b-c _ sin h{B-C)
these formulae geometrically, with centre
describe a circle cutting
CE= b +
division the formula
tan %{B
To prove
G) cos ^
6-c_ sin|CB-C)
C)
)'
c)sin^yl
y-,
a= (6 + r-fg
or
2 sin
2 sin
CB
ain
CDB'
cos|4
'
159
b + c_CE_EB_
BDcotÂ
cot^
Z^b~'CD~"DF~ B D tan (C-B)~ tan h(C-B)''
also
t&
hence
b-c
uh(B-C) = h + c cothA.
The area of a
triangle.
The area of a triangle is half that of a parallelogram on

125.
the same base and with the same altitude; if the side a is the
base, the altitude is b sin C or c sin B, we have thus the expressions
C and ^ ac sin B
\ ah sin
the area of a triangle
for the area of the
triangle
half the product of
any two sides multiplied by the sine of the
is
therefore
included angle.
Using the expression for sin A. found in Art. 122,
^j-
we have
V(a +
+ c) (b + c a)
for the area of
V(a
or
(c
+ a b) (a + b c),
a triangle the expression
+ b + c) (6 + c - a) (c + a - b) (a + b Vs (s - a) (s - 6) (s - c)
c),
(G);
formula was obtained by Hero of Alexandria (about 125

The formula (6) may also be written
1
this
3 s
V26 c
1
2c 2a*
+ 2a?b -
See Ball's Hixtory of Mathematics,
of the
formula
is
given.
p. 82,
a*
- b* -
B.C.).
4
.
where the original geometrical proof
KELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE
160
Variations in the sides and angles of a triangle.
We
126.
now
shall
the
investigate
which hold
relations
between small positive or negative increments in the values of

the sides and angles of a triangle.
Suppose three of the parts of
a triangle to have been measured, of which one at least is a side,
the other three parts will be determined by means of the formulae
of this Chapter the relations between the increments of the parts
will enable us to find the effect in producing errors in the values
;
of the latter three parts of small inaccuracies in the measurement

shall suppose that the increments are so
of the former parts.
We
small that their squares and products may be neglected.

Suppose A, B, 0, a, b, c to be the values of the angles and
sides of a triangle, as ascertained by the measurement of one side
and two angles, two sides and one angle, or the three sides, the
other three values being connected with the three measured ones
by means of the formulae given above. If the three parts have
been measured inaccurately, there
be consequent inaccuracies
by the formulae
will
in the values of the other three parts as found

let
A + 8A, B + 8B, C+8C,
+ 8a,
we
values of the angles and sides

the six errors 8A, SB, 80, 8a,
;
+ 8b,
+ 8c
be the accurate
shall obtain relations
between
be convenient to
It will
8b, 8c.
suppose the increments of the angles to be measured in circular

measure; they can however of course be at once reduced to
seconds.
We
have
(c
since,
sin
we
8c) sin
when the
sinB
(B + 8B)
squares of 8B,
(b
8C
(B + 8B) = sin B + 8B cos B,
have, (c
hence
if
we
6 sin
8b) sin
c cos
8B +
sin
8c
(0
sin
(0 + 80)
8c,
8B,
b cos
= sin
8b) (sin
8b, 80,
+ 8C cos C,
C + 80 cos C) =
we have
C .80 -sin
This, with the two corresponding equations,
+ 8G) =
are neglected,
+ 8c) (sin B+8B cos B) - (b +

neglect the products
0,
.8b
may be
0.
written
8c = c cos B 8B - b cos
80
sin A. 8c- sin
8a = a cos
80 - c cos A 8 A \.
sin B 8a sin A 8b = b cos A 8 A a cos B 8B
J
sin
8b
sin
. .
.(7).
8A+8B8C = Q
Also
161
(8),
in virtue of the relations
A +B+C=
A + 8A + B + 8B + C+8C =
7T,
The equations (7) are not independent, as

writing them in the form
7r.
may be
seen by
^-- = otB.8B-cotC.8C,
-- = cot C 8C - cot A 8A,
C
r =
cot
A cot B
which shews that any one of the equations
SB,
may be deduced from
the other two.
The system
equation (8)
consisting of two of the equations (7) and the

to determine any three of the six errors
is sufficient
when the other three are given, except that one

three given errors must belong to a side.
at least of the
eliminating 8B, 8C, between (7) and (8), we obtain an

equation giving 8a in terms of 8b, 8c, and 8A; this may however be
found directly from the formula a2 = b 2 + c 2 26c cos A we obtain
By
a8a = (b
c cos ^L) 8b + (c b cos A)
8c
+ be sin A8A,
which, with the two corresponding formulae, becomes, in virtue

of (1),
= a cos C 8b + a cos B
=
b8b
6 cos A 8c + b cos C
c8c = c cos B .8a + c cos A
a8a
+ be sin A 8A\
8a + ca sin B 8B>
8b + ab sin G 8G)
8c
(9).
Relations between the sides and angles of polygons.
a 2 a 3 ...a n denote the lengths of the sides, taken

any plane closed polygon, and let a 1} a2 ...<xn denote the
measured positively all in the same direction, which these
127.
Let
O],
in order, of
angles,
sides make
with any fixed straight line in the plane of the

in projections in
polygon; then from the fundamental theorem
fixed
the
Art. ]7, we have, projecting on
straight line and
perpendicular to
it,
the two relations
+ cos a,+
ajsiri a, + a 2 sin a,,+
a cos
}
1!.
T.
cr,
a.,
+ an cos a n =
+an 8in a a =
11
DELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE
162
Now
we
if
the line on which the projection is made be the side a n

denote by ft the external angle between a n and a 1} by ft the
let
external angle between a x and a 2 &c, then

,
= &, a*=A+&,
i
&c, n =
= ft + ft + ft,
2ir,
we have then
+ ft) + a
+ ft + ft) +
+ a n = 0\
a x cos ft
+a
a, sin
+ a, sin (ft + ft) + a sin (ft + ft + ft) +

+ an_, sin (ft + ft + + ft,_i) =
ft
cos (ft
cos (ft
. . .
. . .
(10),
'
. . .
the two fundamental relations between the sides and angles of a

If there are only three sides, these relations reduce to
polygon.
(1)
and
(2) respectively,
In the
128.
remembering that ft
= it A
2,
= ir A
ft
+ ft+... + ft)cos(ft + ft+... + ft)

+ sin (ft + ft + + ft.) sin (ft + ft +
cos (ft+i + ft. +2 +
+ ft)
. . .
or
this is the cosine of the angle
of the sides a r
2
an
= i + a +
2
which
n
and a s
. . .
equation in (10), take a n over to the other
first
side of the equation, then square both sides of each equation

add ; in the result the coefficient of 2a r as is
cos(ft
we thus
+ a_r +
rs
and
+ ft),
between the positive directions
obtain the formula
2a a 2 cos 6 12 +
1
. . .
+ 2a r a
cos 6rs +
(1 1 ),
analogous to the formulae (3), to which it reduces when

In the formula (11), r and s are each less than n and are
is
3.
unequal.
The area of a polygon.

129.
The area
of a polygon
\ (a&z sin
12
. . .
is
given by the expression
+ ar a
sin 6rs
...)
(12),
the summation being taken

s is always the greater of the two
quantities r and s, the angle 6rs is, as in the last Article, the
sum of the external angles ft. +1 + ft+ 2 + +ft. To prove this
or
^%a r a s sin
rs
of r and s; if
formula,
we
for all different values
we suppose
shall
first
shew that
in the case
of a triangle
it
reduces to the expression %a 2 a3 sin A lt and shall then shew that

1 sides, it also holds for one of
if it holds for a
polygon of n
sides.
We
A
A,
have in the case of
=a
the
which
V2
= tt A
= 7rA
ia
hence in this case ^,a r a s sin
rs ie
#i3
2tt
Ao A
thus the formula holds
when n
equal to
^(axaosinAo + aâssinAs 0^3 sin -4 1)
Now
in
AyAÂ^,
triangle
163
or â 2 a 3
s'mA u
3.
suppose the formula true for a polygon of sides

&i j
Cf 2
^ n
>
1 >
so that the area of the polygon is
%Xa r a s sin
where r and
by two sides
s are
rs
+ \a' n _^ta r sin
each less than
_!, a, thus
n -i,r,
n 1. Now replace the
side a'n-!
of n sides;
making a polygon
we have
add ^dnân sin n-i,n\ the area of the polygon of n sides

then
L
^ 2a r a8 sin rs + a' n _!Stt,. sin 0' n - hr + i ci n -â n sin n ^ ltn
to
is
Now we
have,
by projecting the
side
dn -
on a r
= -i sin #,.,_! + a n sin
a' n _! sin 0' r<n -i
#,.,
hence the above expression becomes
^Sa r a s sin
rg
+ ^Sa r (a n ^ sin
or
^5<a,.a s sin#,.s
where r and
r
<
have
all
sm
#-,
n)
+ 2 a -i a sin #_!,,
different values
from
up
to n,
such that
s.
The formula
is
r>n-i+fln
shewn to be true when n = S, and

and
therefore holds generally.
&c,
(12) has been
therefore true for
= 4,
It should be observed that in the formula (12) the coefficient

of O] vanishes, in virtue of the second equation in (10); the
formula therefore becomes ^Sa,.a g sin 0,- iS where r and s have

values from 2 up to n, s being always greater than r.
,
112
all
CHAPTEK X
EXAMPLES.
104
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
Prove the following relations in Examples
X,
a triangle
11, for
1.
asm(B-C) + bsin(C-A)+csm(A-B) = 0.
2.
a 3 cos
A + b 3 cos B+c 3 cos C=abc (1+4 cos A
3.
a* cos
C+ c
4.
a cos
5.
a 2 cos
G.
a 3 cos(.5-C) + & 3 cos(C-^) + c 3 cos(.i-jB) = 3a&c.
7.
c3
8.
(cot
cos
4=
{6
+ (c - a) 2
cos
ABC.
B cos C).
}.
A cos 2.4 + 6 cos B cos 2.5 + c cos Ccos 2C

+ 4 cos 4. cos B cos C (a cos A + 6 cos 5 + ccos C)=0.
2
(5
- C) = b- cos 25 + c2 cos 2C+ 26c cos (5 - C).
=a 3 cos35+3a 2 6cos(25-^l)+3a6 2 cos(5-2/l) + 6 3 cos3J.

J4
- tan I B - tan C)4 +
(cot
i 5 - tan i C - tan 4 ) *
+ (cot0-tan.4-tan.B)4 = (cot4+coUiB + cotCA

9.
62
+ c2 -26ccos(4+60) = c 2 + a 2 -2cacos(5 + 60)

= a2 + 6 2 -2a&cos(C+60);
interpret this result geometrically.

10.
cos\Bsm{\B+C) cos|Csin(iC+Z>)
11.
(a +
12.
Prove that,
a + c: a + b.
::
&)sin5=26sin(5 + |C)cosiC.
if
the sides of a triangle be in
a. p.,
the cotangents of
its
semi-angles are in a. p.
13.
If the squares of the sides of a triangle are in a.

its angles are in h.p.
p.,
shew that the
tangents of
14.
If
sinC are
15.
1-cosJ, 1-cosj3, 1 cosC
If
b~a = mc,
prove that
.
and
1 7.
A=cos~ 1 (m cos ^C) ^C,
1
,
N
(B
-A)=
.
cot
16.
are in h.p., shew that sin A, sin B,
in h.p.
+ m cos B
m sin B^p-.
Prove that, in a triangle, cos .4 + cos.S + cos
C>\
and .
Prove that, in a triangle, tan 2 1 B tan 2 \ C+ tan 2 1 C tan 2 h A + tan 2 h A

if one angle
approaches indefinitely near to two right
tan 2 5<l, and that
angles, the least value of the expression is
18
Prove that a triangle
is
equilateral
if
;}.
cot
zl
+ cot 2? + cot C=J3.
CHAPTER X
EXAMPLES.
If in
19.
a triangle,
cosec A cosec
B cosec C+ 4 cot A cot 5 cot C

= seciJ sec|Z?sec JC4-4tani J tan^/Jtan^C,
prove that one angle
is 60.
20.
If in a triangle, cos
21.
If 5 be
A = cos B cos C,
_.
g)
sin 5
= (a + 6),_
is
= 64- 1 ,
If c
23.
cos
V6
j=.
csin#
2
V6
a point inside an equilateral triangle, prove that

cos
that
prove that
...
and
B cot C \.
h(A + B) =
If
prove that cot
an angle determined from cos0 =
cosi(^22.
lGi
B0 2 + CO*-A0 2
2BO.CO
(BOC- 60):
and
^C is
so that
divided in
BO OC
3,
prove
angles o with the base of a triaDgle

c 26 sin A cot a.
ABC,
::
<L/lC0=2z.4(;a
24.
If CD,
shew that area
If
25.
CE make equal
ABC area CED
4i3 be divided in
other point, prove that sin
AC=CD=DB,
C, Z), so that
and
if
be any
APD sin BPC= 4 sin A PC sin BP D.
If the sides of a parallelogram be a, b, and the angle between them

2
2 2 4a 2 6 2 cos 2 top.
prove that the product of the diagonals is {(a 4- 6 )
26.
be
a>,
If
27.
L CA D =
D is the middle point

shew that cot 8 - cot
(f),
BC of
= cot B - cot C.
of the side
cf>
a triangle, and
LBAD = 6,
C of a triangle into segments a, /3,

and the side c into segments x, y, and is inclined to this side at an angle 6
=
prove that .rcota- ?/cot/3=ycot A -.rcot B (x+y)cot6.
28.
straight line divides the angle
If the sides of a triangle are in a.
29.
and
p.,
the greatest angle exceeds
if
the least by 90, prove that the sides are as sl" + \
\/7
a cos
= 6 cos (C -0) 4- c cos (Z? 4-0), 6 being any angle.

CD of any plane quadrilateral,
denote the sides AB, BC,
If a, 6, c
B <?)_.
a sin
+
B)
ccos(AB C)
acoaA-bcos{AA -6 sin (A - B) 4- c sin (A
31.
ABC
BC
/',
is
.'ire
BD
BAD
BC
one-third of BC, prove that
points
show that
be such that it is possible to draw a straight line

If a triangle
is
is one-third of L BAC, and also
in D, so that L
meeting
32.
1.
Prove geometrically, that in any triangle
30.
AD
*J7
a*//-'
= (6 -c 2 )(6
2
4-8c
).
on the perpendicular bisector of BC, two

taken, equidistant from the centre of the square; BP, CQ are
a side of a square
joined and cut in
prove that
tan
in
(tan
the triangle
B- tan C')
ABC,
4-8=0.
CHAPTER X
EXAMPLES.
1G6
2 2
=
tyz cos a a?\
y +z
If
33.
z?+x2 -2zxcos@ = b 2 >
and
a+/3+y=27r,
x +y 2xy cos y = c2 J
2
prove that
(yz sin a
+ zx sin /3 + .ry sin y) 2 = J
If A, B,
34.
2b 2 c2 + 2c 2 a2 + 2 2 b 2
are angles of a triangle, and x, y,
-a*-^- c
4
).
are real quantities
satisfying the equation
zsmAxsmC
# sin C-zsinB
xycosC zcosB
then
y zcosAxcosC"
sin .4
sini*
sinC*
will
Prove that the area of the greatest rectangle that can be inscribed in
35.
a sector of a circle of radius R is R 2 tanâ, where 2a is the angle of the
sector.
36.
Shew how
to construct the right-angled triangle of
minimum
area
on three given parallel straight lines and if a, b are the

distances of the middle line from the other two, shew that the hypothenuse
which has
its vertices
makes with the
parallel lines
an angle cot ~ 1
If the angles of a triangle computed from slightly erroneous

37.
measurements of the lengths of the sides be A, B, C, prove that if a, j8, y be
the approximate errors of lengths, the consequent errors of the cotangents of
the angles are proportional to

cosec
A (j3 cos C+y cos B - a),

cosec
cosec
B (y cos A + a cos C -
/3),
C (a cos B + /3 cos A-y).
Prove that, if in measuring the three sides of a triangle, small errors

made
in two of them a, b, the error in the angle C is
be
y
38.
x,
-f- cot 5+^ cot A

and
),
find the errors in the other angles.
The area of a triangle is determined by measuring the lengths of the

and the limit of error possible either in excess or defect in measuring
any length is n times the length, where n is a small quantity. Prove that in
the case of a triangle of sides 110, 81, 59, the limit of error possible in its
39.
sides,
area
is
40.
about 3*1433% times the area.

Prove that the cosines cx , c2
c3 , c 4 of
the four angles of a quadri-
lateral satisfy the relation
(c^
+ ^+C^ + C^-Zic^C^ + CiW^^W + CiW + CiW + CiW)

+ 4(o 2 C32 c4 2 + C32 f42 c 2 + c42 c 2 c 22 +c 2 c,-'ca )
- Ci2 - c2 2 - c32 - c42 = 0.
1 Cj c c3 c
(2
2
-I-
CHAPTER
XT.
THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES.
We
shall now proceed to apply the formulae obtained

130.
the preceding Chapter to the solution of triangles, that is,
when the magnitudes of three of the six parts are given, to find
in
the magnitude of the remaining three parts; one at least of the

three given parts must be a side.
We shall generally select such
formulae as can be used for numerical computation by means of

logarithms, as these formulae only are of use in practice.
The solution of triangles is made to depend upon a knowledge

of the numerical values of circular functions of the angles, hence
since such circular functions are the ratios of the sides of rightangled triangles, it is seen that the solution of all triangles is
performed by dividing up the triangles into right-angled
really
ones.
The solution of right-angled
triangles.
131.
Suppose the angle C of a triangle to be 90, then this
one of the given parts, and we can solve the triangle in the
various cases in which there are two other parts given, one at
is
least
being a
(1)
side.
Suppose the two sides
a, b to
be given; then the angle

A = a/b, and B is then
can be determined from the formula tan
found as the complement of A; also c = acosec<4, which determines c, when A has been found; the logarithmic formulae for
solving the triangle are then
A = 10 + log a log b,
B=90-A,
= log a L sin A + 10.
log c
tan
THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES
1GS
Suppose the hypothenuse c and one side a to be given

A is determined by means of the formula
=
is
found as the complement of A, and b is found
B
A
sin
a/c,
2
2
6 = ccos^l, or from b' = c a
formula
from the
(2)
then the angle
The logarithmic formulae are

L sin A = 10 + log a
=
and
log b
or
log b
log
c,
90 -.4,
log c
+L
cos
A 10
= log (c + a) + \
- a).
log (c
Suppose the hypothenuse c and one angle

found at once as the complement of A
from a = csinA, and b as in the last case.
(3)
then
is
The formulae
are given,
is
found
are
= log c + L s'mA 10,

B = 90 -A,
= log c + L cos .A 10
log b
log a
or
log b
=|
log (c
a)
+ log (c -
Suppose one side a and one angle

c is acosec.4, and b is found as
(4)
90 ^.,
in
a).
be given, then
to
in the last
two cases;
the formulae are

log c
log a
L sin A +
10,
=90 -.4,
= log c + L cos .4 1
log b
= \ log (c + a) + | log (c a).
log b
or
In certain cases, the formulae of the
132.
last Article are
is
the angle
nearly 90,
it cannot be
A = a/c,
from
the
sin
determined
equation
conveniently
since the differences for consecutive sines are in this case in-
inconvenient, for example in case (2)
sensible,
we
of Chap. x.
Q
tan2 J5=-
if
therefore use another formula; from the theorem (4)

we obtain b tan ^B = c a, bcot^B = c + a, hence
ft
-, thus
we have tan(45 %A)=
/
(
ft
\ 2
)
and
this
formula, being free from the objection, may be used to determine A.

is inAgain, in cases (3) and (4), the formula b = c cos
convenient
b
=c
c sin
if
tan \A.
is
very small
we may then use the formula
169
Various approximate formulae may be found for the solution of

Let us denote by a, /3 the circular measures of the
133.
right-angled triangles.
angles A,
respectively.
approximate form of the formula a = c cos
An
(1)
is
a = c(l-*/3 2 + oV/3 4 ),
which
obtained by taking the
is
three terms of the expansion of cos

in
this formula may then be used for
first
powers of the circular measure of

approximate calculation of a, when c
and
are given, provided
/3
is
not
too large.
Since sin^4
(2)
a/c,
we have as a
second approximation a = -
+^
a= +
c
a
which
may
have a Ja3 + T <ja5 = a/c, approximately; to

first approximation a=a/c, and as a
= a/c, we
obtain a in terms of
la
6\c
1
be used to calculate
the third approximation
/a\
(!=?)*
Usin?
(4)'
v
an angle
(see Ex. 32,
a.
formula
ihifi
>
* nus
we can obtain
p. 138), in
2 (2
s gi yeu
the approximate
for the circular
<A = r-TTr-
+ cos-tttci
2(f))'
which the approximate error
2$=#, we then obtain the formula ff=

5
-m\z)
h - \ (*) + \ (=-Y)
Snellius'
/a\ 5
3 faV>
3
\
6{c)\
/a\ 3
formula
is
and the error
is
measure of
is ^g</) 5 ,
put
approximately
m degrees by the approximate equation
B=.
x57-2957.
2c + a
The solution of oblique-angled
134.
To
solve
a triangle when
the
triangles.
three
sides
are given;
any one of the formulae

.
s-b)(s-c))*
(s(s-a))'-
Amm H-b)(.-oy*
s(s
a)
with the corresponding formulae for the other angles, may be

I:
these formulae are adapted for logarithmic calculation.
170
Example.
The
sides
of a triangle are proportional
to 4, 7,
find the angles, having
given
log 2 =-301030,
Ltan 12 36' = 9-349329,

L tan 24 5' = 9-650281,
diff.
for 1'= 000393,
diff.
for
1'
= -000339.
We find s = 10, s-a = 6, s 6 = 3, s c = l, and hence tani.4 = \/l/20,

tan=V27T0, thus Z tan iJ = 10-1(1 + -301030) = 9349485
Z tan * = 10 + 1 (-301030- 1) = 9-650515.
and
To find A, we have 9"349485- 9-349329 = "000156, and gg 60" = 15"8
.
approximately, hence 1,4
= 12 36'
15" -8, or
.4
= 25
12'31"-6.
To find B, we have 9-650515 -9-650281 =-000234 and f. 60"=41"-4

=
approximately, hence IB = 24 5'41"-4, or Z 48 ll'22"-8; also
C= 180 - .4 - Z= 106 36' 5"6
thus we have found the approximate values of the angles.
To
135.
a triangle ivhen two sides and
solve
the
included
angle are given.
Suppose b, c, and A are the given parts, then

be determined from the formula
tan i (B -C)
and G may-
|p-
cot
\A,
+ C=180 A; the logarithmic formula

L tan h (B - C) = log (b - c) - log (6 + c) + L cot 4.
together with
Z?
Having found
and
C, the side
is
a may be found from any one
of the three formulae
log a
= log c + L sin A i sin C,
+ Z cos (5 C) = log (6 + c) + Z sin \ A,

C) = log (6 - c) + Z cos h A.
log a + Z sin |( /?
log a
We may
also
determine a thus:
Since
a?
we have
a2 =
hence a
= (6 + c) cos 0,
+ c) - 46c cos \A,

2
(6
where
.
sin
<f>
<f>
is
given by
A
= 2 \/bc cos k-
=
+c
= 62 + c - tbc cos ^1
2

thus
we may
first find
171
by the logarithmic formulae
cf>
L sin < = log 2 + h log b + log c + L cos \A log (b + c),

and then determine a by the formula
= log (6 + c) + L cos
log a
</>
10.
Example.
B = 29
If a=123, c = 321,
find A, C,
16',
b,
having given
=
log 2220 3-3463530,
= 9-6891978,
Zsml542' = 9-4323285,
L cot 14 38' = 10-5831901,
Zto59 39' = 10-2324552,
log
99 = 1-9956352,
log
123 = 2-0899051,
We
2221 =3-3465486,
29
si'k.
Ztan* (0-4)=Zcot
have
1 6'
14 38'
cliff,
for 1" = 74-87,
cliff,
for l" = 48-27.
+ log 99 -log 222
= 10-5831901 + 1-9956352 - 2-3463530

= 10-2324723.
10-2324723- 10-2324552 = -00001 71, and
Now
hence
|(C-^) = 59 39' 3"-5,
also
|(C+^) = 7522',
171
7^=3-5
therefore
approximately,
.1
= 15 42' 56" -5,
C'=135l'3"-5.
= 9-6891978 + 2-0899051 -Zsin'l542' 56"-5,

and
56-5 x 74-87 = 4230-155, hence Zsin 1542'56"-5=9-4327515,
= 2-3463514, so that 6 = 222 -1^=221 -992.
therefore
log b
log 6
Again
To
136.
solve
triangle
when two
sides
and
the angle opposite
one of them are given.
This
is
usually
Suppose
a,
c,
known
and
as the
ambiguous
case.
are the given parts, then sin
mined from the equation
sin
C = - sin A; when
a
sin
C is
is
deter-
thus found,
there are in general, if csinA ^ a, two values of C less than 180,

the one acute and the other obtuse, whose sine has the value
determined
we must
> a,
(1) if csin
indicates that there is
(2)
If
A<
if c sin
A = a,
90, there is
consider three different cases
and there
we have sin C > 1, which is impossible, and

no triangle with the given parts;
then sin
(7
= 1, and
tho only value of
is 1)0.
one triangle with the given parts, and that one
a right-angled triangle.
missible,
exists
If
A > 90,
the value
C= 90
no triangle with the given
is
inad-
parts.
172
A < a,
if c sin
(3)
then sin
G<
and there are two values
1,
ot C,
one acute, the other obtuse

if
(a)
c<a, we must have G < A, hence G must be
thus there
acute,
only one triangle with the given parts;
is
the angle G is not restricted to being acute, and

(/3) if c> a,
both values are admissible, provided A < 90; but if A > 90
neither value is admissible since C > A. There are two triangles
or none with the given parts according as
=A
A<
90 or
A > 90;
180 - A
for the latter value of C

or
;
a, then G
(7) if c
sides of the triangle are coincident, the first then gives the
of finite area, but
only value of G for which there is a triangle
two
this
only admissible
is
We may
when
A<
90.
state the above results thus
c sin
c sin
A > a,
A = a,
csin A =
csin
A<
A<
one solution
90,
a,
A > 90,
a,
< a,
one solution
A < 90,
A > 90,
A < 90,
A > 90,
a,
lc=a,
c > a,
j
\c
>a,
no solution
one solution
no solution
two solutions
no solution
cannot be conveniently determined by means of

When C nearly
sine; in that case we may use one of the formulae
90, it
is
its
no solution
csinA
tan
0=
V( + csin^)(a-csin/l)
tan (45
1/Y
/a + csmA
* /
+*C)=
"
V
a-camA7
.
It is instructive to investigate geometrically the different

137.
cases considered in the last Article.
From
BD = c sin A
BD perpendicular to the side b, then

with centre B and radius a, describe a circle
draw
;
than csin A, this circle will not cut the side AG

and no triangle with the given parts can be drawn, but if
a > csin A, the circle will cut AG in two points, 6\ and G2
In
the case a<c and A < 90, both G and C2 are, as in Fig. (1), on
then
if
is less
ABG
the same side of A, and the two triangles

X and ABC* have
each the given parts, the angles A O, B,
2 Bhe'mg supplementary.
AG
When
with
a<
c,
and
>
90,
the given parts exists.
will
If
be beyond
1}
and no triangle
are on
a>c, then G and C2

x
173
opposite sides of A, and only the triangle
The
parts.
triangle
ABC
not equal to A, but to 180

the given conditions.
If
.4,
a = c sin A, the
triangle
ADB
A < 90.
We remark
is
ABC
has the given
in this latter case, has the angle at
and therefore does not
satisfy
AC
at D, and the right-angled

circle touches
the one triangle with the given parts, provided
that since, in Fig.
AD = c cos A,
and
(1),
0^ = 0,0= Va
-c
sin 2 ;i,
the two values of b are

c cos
A + Va 2
c-
sin 2
and
c cos
A Va c- sin A
2
these values being both positive when there are two solutions;
we may also obtain these values of b as the roots of the quadratic
equation in
6,
a*
= b- + c--2uccosA.
174
To
138.
a triangle when one side and two angles are given.

side, and A, C the given angles, then B
solve
Suppose a the given
is
b,
determined from the equation B = 180 A

c will be determined by means of the formulae
C,
and the sides
= log a + L sin B L sin A.

L sin A.
log c = log a + L sin C
log b
Example.
7/"a=10,
A = 5130'40", B=76,
= 4-0932816,
log 12396
find
= 4-0933166,
log 12397
b,
having given
Zi?i76=9'9869041,
Lsin 51
30'
= 9-8935444,
Lsin 51 31' =9-8936448.
= 9-9869041 + 1 - Z sin 51 30' 40"

Z sin 51 30' 40" = 9-8935444 + fg x -0001004
= 9-8936113,
AVe have
log b
and
hence
log b
= 1 -0932928,
therefore b
= 12-396 + J|Jx '001,
6=12-3963 approximately.
or
The expression ccos A â' cPaioPA
139.
let sind>
logarithmic calculation;
= -sinJ,
a
for b
may
be adapted to
b=-
then
-,
thus
sin
d>
^
having been determined from the equation Zsin< = Zsin.4 +logc log a, we
can determine b from log& = loga + Zsin (cj>A) Zsin.4.
Denoting by a, 0, y the circular measures of the angles A,B, C, respectively,
and by a, ', y the complements of , 0, y, we obtain the following approximate formulae for the solution of triangles.
Suppose A,
(1)
C,
a are
sin
sin
given,
we
C not
being large; then from the formula
get the approximate formula
= a cosec A {y- ^y^ + ilcJ5)both not large, we have

c
Also
A and C
if
are
hence
c is
_ (y-^y +T^y5 -.-)

3
a-a + T l 5 a 5 -....
given approximately by
C
which
(2)
'
may
=c^{i
be used for calculating
+ i( a*-y-')},
c.
Suppose, as in the last case, that A, C, a are given
nearly 90, then
c=~
^J
.sin
therefore
'
to determine c
approximately.
also suppose
4
c=-^
(1- W*+JW
may
J
z
a *'
sin J
A
'
)
'
is
be used

A and C
If both
we have
are nearly 90,
2
_a(l~hy' + ...)
_acosy'
therefore
= a {1 - (/
175
- a' 2 )}
gives c approximate!}'.
We
140.
when instead
and angles there are other
data.
Suppose the three perpendiculars from the angles on the opposite

denote them by p u p2 p 3 we have then ap l = bp 2 = cp3 = 2 area
(1)
sides given
of triangle.
since
s (s
we have
1
Now
mV
cos
1 a =
hA
a)
~bc~~
- p-i
( -ptPa+PsPi
+P1P2)
+P1P2)
/(P2P3+P
3P1
L
}JiPz
+PsP\
5
A also^ 2 = csm A,
which determines
hence
c is
determined when
is
Suppose the perimeter and the angles of the triangle given.
(2)
hence
few examples of the solution of triangles,
shall give a
of sides
is
= R (sin ^4 + sin B+ sin C),
determined, and the sides are then
"=
or
2RsmC,
2RsmB,
2RsinA,
known.
We have
2s sin
sinA+smB + sin(J
ssin^M
with similar values for b and c; this value of a reduces to

cos /> cos ^l O
calculation.
which is adapted to logarithmic
at the base
Suppose the base, height, and difference of the angles
Let a be the base, p the height and B-C=2a the given difference
then since B + C=180-A, we have B = 90 + a-hA, C=Q0-a-Â, also
(3)
given.
a =p (cot B + cot C) =p {tan ($A-a) + tan ($A
therefore -
cos
4+ cos 2a
hence cos
a2 (cos A
or
cos
(a
the solution of which
given by the quadratic
is
+ cos 2a} 2 = 4p 2
+ 4p +
2
+ a)},
- cos2 .4 )
A = 4p 2 - a 2 cos2 2a,
2a cos 2a cos
.
is
A = -W^4j2
a2 cos 2a
2p (4p
^
+ a 2 si n 2 2a) ~
!
a+4p
these are two values of cos A corresponding to two solutions
Solve the triangle with the following data:
(4)
C,
c,
a-fb.
(5)
B,
a,
b + c.
(6)
The area and
(7)
C, c + a, c
(8)
The angles and
the angles.
+ b.
the height.
of the problem.
176
The
solution of polygons.
The relations between the sides and angles of polygons,

141.
and the methods of solving a polygon when a certain number of
sides and angles are given, have been considered by Carnot 1
The two fundamental equations
L'Huilier 2 Lexell 3 and others.
in this so-called Polygonometry have been given in Art. 127.
In order that a polygon of n sides may be determinate, In 3
,
must be given, and of these at least n 2 must

To prove this, suppose the polygon divided, by means of
a diagonal, into a triangle and a polygon of n 1 sides if the sides
and angles of the latter polygon were determined, we should only
require to know two parts of the triangle in order to determine
of its In parts
be
sides.
the figure completely, since one side of the triangle is already

determined as a side of the polygon, hence to determine a
polygon
we
require to know two more parts than for a polygon

1 sides
since therefore for a triangle three parts must be
of n sides
of n
given, one of which is a side, for a polygon of n sides we must

have 3 + 2 (n 3), that is 2n 3 parts given. If of these In 3
parts, only
n - 3 were
sides,
we should have n angles given
angles are given, the nth
independent parts would be

parts must be sides.
but
if
also given, so that only In

4
at least n
thus
2 of the given
given,
is
In some cases, a polygon can be conveniently solved by dividing

by means of diagonals into triangles, taking the diagonals for
parts to be determined this method is however not always con-
it
may be seen, for example, by considering the case of a

quadrilateral when two opposite sides and three angles are given.
venient, as
142.
To
solve
a polygon of n
sides,
when n
1 sides
and n
(ingles are given.
to
fix,
(1)
Suppose the angles to be found are adjacent to the side
be found. We shall, as in Art. 127, use the external angles
/3 2 .../3 n
between the
1
2
3
sides, instead
of the internal angles;
Carnot, Geometrie der Stellung.

L'Huilier, Pohjqonometrie.
Lexell, Nov.
Comm.
Geneva, 1789.
Petrop., Vols. xix. xx.
177
suppose a n the side to be found, then from the second equation (10)
of Art. 127, we have
+ a.
cos ft
+a
cos (ft
= - cos ft {a
sin ft
+a
sin
sin ft
{(*!
+ ft) +...+ a n-i cos (/3. +

+ a n_! sin (ft +
(ft + ft) +
2
. . .
. . .
+ /?_,)}
+ /?_,)',
hence
Oj
. . .
. . .
sin (ft
ff .,
& in terms of the
determines
this
+ ft) +
cos ft + a 3 cos (ft + ft) +
q 2 sin ft
the given sides a 2
a3
...
a n _!
+ a w -i sin (ft +
+ a^ cos (ft +
+ /3n ^ )
. . .
+ ft_i)
'
given angles ft, ft... ft^ and

should be noticed that this
it
equation is found by projecting the sides on a perpendicular to

the unknown side the remaining angle /ft is then determined
;
from the relation ft + ft +

+ ft = -ttfound
and
we can determine a n from the
ft
/ft,
Having
. . .
equation obtained by projecting the sides on a n

>i
= {i cos ft + a
cos (ft
+ ft) +
. .
2
by means of the equation (11) of Art. 128, which gives a n in
terms of the squares and products of the other sides and of the
cosines of the angles between the sides.
or
(2)
Suppose the angles to be found are adjacent to one
another but not to the side which is to be found. We shall take
an as the side to be found, and ft., ft. +1 the angles to be found,
then
ft.
thus ft
+ ft +1 = 2tt - (ft + ft +
+ ft +1
is
known;
...
+ ft_, + ft +2 + ... + /3 n
also from the second equation (10)
+ ft) = - Oj sin ft - a
- a r_j sin (ft + ft + + ft._,) - ar+
a r sin (ft
+ ft +
+ ft)-..
sin (ft +
+ ft. +1 ) -an_ sin(ft + ...+ft
...
. . .
sin (ft
. .
+ ft +
hence ft
The
...
side a is
),
+ft can be determined, and therefore

then determined as in the last case.
. . .
i),
ft..
In the case in which the two unknown angles are not

(3)
be the angular points at which
adjacent to one another, let H,
the angles are unknown join HK, then the
polygon is divided
into two polygons, in one of which all the sides
except one are
known, and
to
determining
II.
all
the angles except the two which are adjacent

We can solve this polygon as in (1),
unknown side
the
t.
UK
and the angles
//"
and K.
12
178
In the other polygon we now have
all the sides

except one
the angles except two adjacent ones; this polygon
can therefore be solved as in (2) we have then all the sides of
given, and
all
and
the given polygon determined, and the angles at
are
the
two
into
which
were
determined by adding
divided
parts
they
by UK, and which have been separately found.
To
143.
solve
a polygon of n
sides,
when n
2 sides
and n
angles are given.
We
determine the remaining angle at once from the condition
& + &+ ...+=
2tt.
To determine an unknown side a r use the equation

,
Oa sin
&+
a 2 sin (ft
+ /8 ) +
2
n -i sin
(& + #,+
...+
/3 n
^) =
(),
obtained by projecting perpendicularly to the other unknown side

an
We can then determine a n in a similar manner, or use the
other fundamental equation.
.
To
144.
solve
a polygon of n
sides,
when
the
sides
and n 3
angles are given.
Let P,
Q,
be the angular points at which the angles are not
PQ, QR, RP, then the polygon
given; join
parts, one of which
is
a triangle.
is
divided into four
In each of the parts except
all the sides except one are given, and all the angles
except
those adjacent to those sides; we can therefore determine PQ, QR,
can then find the angles of
RP, and the angles at P, Q, R.
PQR.
We
the triangle PQR, of which the sides have been determined.

We
obtain now by addition the angles at P, Q, R, of the given
polygon.
Heights and distances.
We
shall now give some examples of the application

145.
of the solution of triangles to the determination of heights and
For fuller information on this subject, as for the dedistances.
measuring angles, we must refer to

The angle which the distance from any
an object makes with the horizon is
scription of instruments for

treatises
point
on surveying.
of observation
to
lulled the elevation or the depression of that object, according

as the object is above or below the horizontal plane through
the point of observation.

To find
146.
the height of
an
179
inaccessible point above
a hori-
zontal plane.
Let
be the inaccessible point and
horizontal plane, let PC =
It,
and suppose any
its
projection on the
line
AB = a, measured
if possible so that ABC is a straight line

P at A and B be measured, denote them by
a = AC BC=h (cot a cot/3), therefore
on the horizontal plane,

let
the elevations of
a and
/3
then
h
which determines
line directly
let
If
h.
towards C,
and
therefore h
PBA = B,
To find
147.
is
impracticable to measure the base
be measured in any other direction

be measured at A, and also the angles
then
+ ^,
= a?
sin (7
it
let it
the elevations a of
PAB = y,
/3
= a sin a sin
sin (/3 a)
PA = AB Sm 5 ^
+ o)
.
and /i=^lPsina,
sm(Y
thus h
is
determined,
o)
the distance between
two inaccessible points.
and Q be the two objects, and let any base line AB = a

be measured, the points A, B being so chosen that P and Q are
Let
122
180
At
both visible from each of them.
measure the three angles
PAQ = a, QAB = fi, PAB = y; it should be observed that the

in the same plane.
At B
angles PAQ, QAB are in general not
measure the angles PBA = 8, and QBA = e.
From the two triangles ABP, ABQ, we have
AP = a sin
.
-.
(7
AO* = a-=,
sin
and
sin(/8
r.
e)
Thus AP,
Kv
6)
AQ^
are determined
by
J the
formulae
log
AP = log a + L sin S L sin (7 + S),
log
AQ log a + L sin e L sin ((3 +
In the triangle
PAQ
a,
we
e).
PAQ, we now know AP, AQ, and the angle

APQ, AQP by means of the
find then the angles
formulae
Ltan$(APQ-AQP) = Lcot$CL + log(AQ-AP)-\og(AQ + AP),

APQ + AQP = 180 -a.
We then find PQ by means of the formula
= log AP + Lsma-L sin A QP.
log PQ
Pothenot's Problem.
148.
To determine a point
in the plane
of a triangle at which the sides of the triangle subtend given

angles.
,G
Let
a,
/3
hv the angles subtended by the sides AC,
CB
of a
triangle ABC at the point P, and let x, y denote the angles

'AC, PBC respectively; the position of P is found when the
angles x and y are determined, for the distances PA and PB
I
can be found by solving the triangles
PAG, PBC.
We
have
+ y = 2ir a /3 G.
b sin
a sin y
Also
sin a
Assume
(f>
to
<f>
x = tand>, hence
sin
therefore
sin
sin
tan h (x
or
Tyn
be an auxiliary angle such that

tan
,,
181
a sin a
'
b sin 13
x sin -y
wC
.,
= tan( 45)

= tan (45 - tan \ (a + + G)
<f>)
thus
#y
x and
can be found, and since #
is
?/
known,
can find
Ave
y.
Examples.
149.
It is observed that the elevation of the top of a mountain at each of the

angular points A, B, C, of a plane horizontal triangle ABC, is a; shew that
height is \& tan a cosec A. Shew also, that if there be a small error n" in the
sinri'\
cosC
latoa/.
+ ^
(1)
three
the
i
elevation at
Let
(J,
j.-l
i
j
i
the true height is very nearly Zi
Sill/
A.
SVYL
-Ti.
St It
-\
-L>
(l /
olll 9
be the projection of the top of the mountain on the plane ABC, we

if A is the height of the mountain, A=:0.4tana = O.Stana=OCtana,
have then,
thus
is
the centre of the circle round
h\a tan a cosec A.

let
at
When
ABC, hence
OA=\a cosec A,
the measurement of the elevation at
is
or
+ n",
0' be the projection of the top of the mountain, then since the elevations
are equal, 00' is perpendicular to AB; let h + x now be the
A and B
We find geometrically,
=
O'A OA + 00' cos C, 0'C= 0C- 00' cos (A - B)
height of the mountain.
182
when 00'
is
so small that its square
may
be neglected, hence
h+x= O'A tan a = O'Ctan (a + n")

= (0A + 00' cos C) tan a = {0C- 00' cos (4 - B)} tan (a + "),
x=00'
hence
cos C.
tana= -00' cos (A - B) tan a+ OC sec 2 a
+ n") = tan a + sec
since tan (a
.rcos(^l
2xsinA
...
7%e
s?'a*es o/"
that there is
can be determined
6+x
Let
BOC sec a cos Csinrc",

.la tan a (
cos C
is -
2
sin
therefore the true height h + x
(2)
Aj-
2 sin
toith the greatest
the
sin n" \
sini?' sin 2a/
b = 4,
= 6,
but
it is
measurement of c; examine which angle
accuracy.
be the true value of the side c;
let
A + 8A, B + 8B, C+8C be
the
8C depending on x; we suppose x
so
have
cos{A+6A)-
-48(1 + 1^)-^^
24{6 + x)
approximately, hence sin

25
Also cos(B+8B) =
j
,n *
and
cos (C+8C) =
+ sin
in J
= 5,
triangle are observed to be a
a small error in
angles of the triangle, the parts 8 A, 8B,

small that its square may be neglected.
We
sinw",
approximately; eliminating 00', we
?i",
- B) tan a = cos Ctana(0Csec 2 a sin" a;),
hence
known
sin
8A
^-
25 + 16-(6+x-)
v
y
=
1(1
=-
/,
1
^^ hence sin B.8B=-a
12a?\
A " sin B
24. SJ
so that
16
sin
A1S
Thus 85
5%#.
^l
+ ^^ **;-(! +m*)i
sin
x,
I"'
=40. 8B= -15.
numerically smaller than

determined with the greatest accuracy.
is
hence
&^
sm C 8C=
fQ x.
.
8A and
SC.
SC, hence the angle
B can
be
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER XL
1.
The
sides of a triangle are
8, 7,
find the least angle,
having given
log 112 = 2-0492180,
Zcosl96' = 9 9754083,
2.
If in a triangle a = 65, 6
= 16,
diff.
for 60"
C=60,
= '0000437.
find the other angles,
given
Ztan
46 20'= 100202203,
log 3
=4771213,
log 7
= -8450980, L tan 46 21' = 10-0204731.
having
CHAPTER XI
EXAMPLES.
The
3.
sides of a triangle are 3, 5, 7 feet
183
find the angles, having given
= 1-1303338,
log 14 = 1-1461280,
Z cos 10 53' = 9-9921 175, Z cos 10 54' =9-9920932.
log 13-5
If
4.
= 45,
C=10, a = 200ft.,
log 2 = -3010300,
Z sin 55 = 99133645,
If in a triangle 6
5.
= 2 25
given
log 2
find
log
ft.,
= 2-2371414,
17265 =2'2371666.
c=T75
having given
b,
log 172-64
.1=54, find
ft.,
and
having
Z cot 27 = 10-292834,
= -301030,
Ztanl347' = 9-389724,
Ztan
1348' = 9-390270.
If the ratio of the lengths of two sides of a triangle is 9

is 47 25', find the other angles, having given
6.
C,
and the
included angle
= -3010300, Z tan 66 17' 30" = 10-3573942,

=
diff. for l' = 4797.
Ztan 15 53' 9-4541479,
log 2
An
7.
20
angle of a triangle
find the
is 60,
the area
remaining angles and the
sides,
is
10v'3 and the perimeter
is
having given
= -3010300, Z sin 49 6' = 98784376,

= -8450980, Z sin 49 7' = 9-8785470.
log 7
log 2
In a triangle ABC, it is given that a=10 ft., 6 = 9 ft., C=tan _1 (^);

If errors not greater than 1 in. each are made in measuring a and b,
and an error not greater than 1 in measuring C, shew that the error in
the calculated value of c will be less than 2 7 in.
8.
find
c.
In the ambiguous case,
9.
a, b,
values of the third side, shew that
c2
being given, where a>b, if

2cc'cos2# + c' 2 = 4& 2 cos 2 Z.
c,
d be the
are given, if one angle of one

In the ambiguous case in which a, b,
10.
triangle be twice the corresponding angle of the other triangle, shew that
a\/3 = 26sinJ,
or
4& 3 sin 2 ^4= a 2 (a + 36).
The base of a triangle is equal to its altitude, and the two other
known length determine the remaining parts of the triangle
by formulae adapted to logarithmic calculation. Shew that the ratio of the
given sides must lie between i(\/5 1) and -i(\/5 + l).

11.
sides are of
A triangular piece of ground is 90 yards in its longest side, and

12.
100 yards in the sum of the other two sides, and one of its angles is 46.
Determine the other angles, having given
Z tan 23 = 9-62785 19,
Ztan
1
3.
\fb-l
An
;
13 15'
= 9-3719333, Ztan
angle of a triangle
solve the triangle.
is 36,
13 16'
= 9-3724992.
the opposite side
is 4,
and the altitude
CHAPTER XI
EXAMPLES.
184
14.
Shew that it is impossible to construct a triangle out of the
perpendiculars from the angles of a triangle on the sides if any side is
and it is certainly possible to construct such a
J (3- V5) x perimeter
<
triangle
if
each side
> i perimeter.
is
If a triangle be solved
15.
from the parts C= 75, b = 2, c-JQ, shew that

C would cause an error of about 3" -44 in the
an error of 10" in the value of

calculated value of B.
16.
Having given the mean side of a triangle whose sides are in a.p., and
the angle opposite it, investigate formulae for solving the triangle, and find
the greatest possible value of the given angle. Solve the triangle when the
mean
side is 542 feet,
and the opposite angle
is
59 59' 59".
Solve a triangle, having given the length of the bisector of a

17.
and the angles into which this divides the vertical angle.
Solve a triangle, having given one side, the angle opposite
18.
perpendicular from that angle on the side.
it,
side,
and the
If the values of
triangle is solved from the given parts a, b, A.
by small errors x, y respectively, find the consequent error in
the value of the perpendicular from A on the opposite side, and prove that
19.
a, b are affected
this error is zero if

20.
x sin'2 B cos
lighthouse
is
Cy (sin 2 B- sin 2 C).
seen N. 20
E. from a vessel sailing S. 25 E. and

its distance at the last
.
appears due N. Determine

observation correctl} to a yard, having given
a mile further on
it
r
= -3010300,
log 207 = 2-315900.
L sin 20 =9-534052
log 2
= 2-313867,
log 206
21.
cliff
with a tower on
its
edge
is
observed from a boat at sea, the
elevation of the top of the tower is 30 ; after rowing towards the shore a
distance of 500 yards in the plane of the first observation, the elevations of
the top and bottom of the tower are 60 and 45 respectively; find the
heights of the
cliff
and tower.
A is the foot of a vertical pole, B and C are due east of A, and D is

22.
due south of C. The elevation of the pole at B is double that at C, and the
1
angle subtended by AB at D is tan" 1 also BC=20 ft., CZ>=30 ft. find the
;
height of the pole.

23.
From
the north-east
a certain station the angular elevation of a mountain peak in

is observed to be a.
hill in the east-south-east whose height
above the station
is
known
to be
/;,
is
then ascended, and the mountain peak
now seen in the north at an elevation /3. Prove that the height
summit above the first station is /i sin a cos /3 cosec (a /3).
is
24.
train travelling
of its
on one of two straight intersecting railways sub-
tends at a certain station on the other line an angle
a,
when the
front of
CHAPTER XI
EXAMPLES.
the
first
185
and an angle a when the end of the last, reaches the

Prove that the two lines are inclined to each other at an angle 8
carriage,
junction.
determined by 2 cot 8 = cot a ~ cot a.
A cylindrical tower stands on a horizontal plain an eye in the plain

25.
views the visible arc of the rim of the upper end of the tower. If a, a, a" be
the angular elevations of either end of such arc above the plain, when the
eye
;
is
at distances
e, c',
26.
afterwards
prove that
c" respectively,
- c" 2
(c"-
cot-'
a + (c"
- c2
cot 2
a'
+ (c 2 - c' 2
cot 2 a"
= 0.
balloon was observed in the N.E. at an elevation a; ten minutes

it was found to be due N. at an elevation
The rate at which
/3.
the balloon was descending was afterwards ascertained to be six miles an

hour; shew that its horizontal motion, supposed uniform, was at the rate of
V2
tin a-tan/3
miles an hour, the wind at the time being in the East.
I observe the angular elevation of the summits of two

27.
spires which
appear in a straight line to be a, and the angular depressions of their reflexions in still water to be /3 and y.
If the height of my eye above the level
of the water be
c,
then the horizontal distance between the spires

2
2c cos a sin
sin (/3-a)sin
The angular
28.
is
y)
(/3
(y-a)'
elevation of a tower at a place A due south of it is 30,

A and at a distance a from it, the elevation is
and at a place B, due west of

18
c
;
shew that the height of the tower
is
V2V5+2
tower 51 feet high has a mark at a height of 25 feet from the

what distance the two parts subtend equal angles to an eye
at the height of 5 feet from the ground.
29.
ground
30.
spire,
find at
person on a level plain, on which stands a tower surmounted by a

observes that when he is a feet distant from the foot of the tower its
From a point b feet further from

top is in a line with that of a mountain.
the tower he finds that the spire subtends at his eye the same angle as before,
and has its top in a line with that of the mountain; shew that if the height
of the tower above the horizontal plane through the observer's eye be c feet,
the height of the mountain above that plane will be
-5
feet.
A man, 5 feet high, standing at the base of a pyramid whose base is

sees
the sun disappear over one of the edges, hall'- way along it. Shew
square,
that if a and b are the distances of the man from the two nearest corners,
31.
and 8
is
the altitude of the sun, the height of the pyramid

1
(J
+ tan
(60
- 2afe + b'-)
feet.
is
32.
CHAPTER XI
EXAMPLES.
1S6
From
the top of a
hill
the depression of a point on the plain below
is
and from a spot three-quarters of the way down, the depression of the
same point is 15 find within 1' the inclination of the hill.
30,
33.
A BCD is the rectangular floor of a room whose length AB is a feet.
Find its height, which at C subtends at A an angle a, and at B an angle 1
If a = 48 ft., a = 18, 0=30, prove that the height is 18 ft. 10 in. nearly.
is situated on a horizontal plane at a distance a from the

whose inclination is a. A person on the hill, looking over the
Shew
tower, can just see a pond, the distance of which from the tower is b.
that, if the distance of the observer from the foot of the hill be c, the height
34.
base of a
tower
hill
be sin a
of the tower is
a + b + c cos a'
35.
person standing between two towers observes that they subtend
angles each equal to a, and on walking a feet along a straight path inclined at
an angle y to the line joining the towers, he finds that they subtend angles
each equal to ; prove the following equations for determining the heights of
the towers, hh' (cot 2 /3 cot 2 a) = a 2,
- h) (cot 2 /3 cot 2 a) = 2a cot a cos
(h'
y.
From a hill-top the angles of depression (a, /3) of two piers of a bridge
36.
are observed, and the distance a between the piers subtends an angle 8 at the
point of observation prove that the height of the hill is
;
\a cot
where
cos
= 2 cos 1 8
<
(j)
sec
a sin
\8 vsin
Vsin o sin
/3
/3,
(sin a
+ sin /3) ~
l
,
A man on a hill observes that three towers on a horizontal plane

37.
subtend equal angles at his eye, and that the angles of depression of their
bases are
a,
a, a"
prove that,
sin (a - a")
c sin a
c,
c"
c',
sin (a"
being the heights of the towers,
a)
sin a
sin (a a')
c" sin a"
A gun is fired from a fort, and the intervals between seeing the flash
38.
and hearing the report at two stations B, C are t, t' respectively D is a point
in the same straight line with BC, at a known distance a from A
prove that
;
if
BD = b,
the case
and
CD = c,
the velocity
J of sound
is
bc'-ct
-!
when a 2 = bc.
\}
7,
2
-\
Examine
39.
From a point on a hill-side of constant inclination, the angle of
elevation of the top of an obelisk on its summit is observed to be a, and a feet
nearer to the top of the hill to be /3
shew that, if h be the height of the
;
obelisk, the inclination of the hill to the horizon will
(a
cos
sin a sin
be
/3)
'
j/i'sTnGS-a)/
40.
On
the top of a spherical dome stands a cross at a certain point the

is observed to be a, and that of the dome to be /3
at a
elevation of the cross
CHAPTER XI
EXAMPLES.
dome
distance a nearer the

elevation
observed to be y
is
,.
,,
above the "round
is
is
seen just above the dome, when
prove that the height of the centre of the

sin a cos y cos a sin 3
- asiny',-.
;
sin (y
At noon on a
41.
the cross
;
cos
a)
certain
187
- cos 3
day the sun's altitude
its
dome
A man
is a.
observes a
circular opening in a cloud which is vertically above a place at a distance a

due south of him ; he finds that the opening subtends an angle 2d at his eye,
and that the bright spot on the ground subtends an angle
is
2(p.
Shew
that
if
the height of the cloud
- tan 2 8) - 2ax cot a tan 2 < + a 1 (tan 2 cb - tan 2 6) = 0.
x* (cot 2 a tan 2
42.
From a point on the sloping face of a hill two straight paths are
drawn, one in a vertical plane due South, the other in a vertical plane at right
angles to the former, due East; these paths make with one another an angle
a, and their lengths measured to the horizontal road at the foot of the hill are
and b. Shew that the

/a i + b 2 -2abcosa\%
=
(
\ ao sin a tan a )
respectively a
.
angle
,
sin -1
hill is
inclined to the horizontal at an
-.
The breadth of a straight river is calculated by measuring a base of

a
along one side of the river and observing the angles made with this
length
If the
base by lines joining its extremities to a mark on the opposite bank.
instrument by which the angles are measured gives each a value which is
(1 + n) times the true value, n being very small, shew that the error in the
43.
computed breadth
circular
is
nearly equal to na
a,
8 being the
measures of the above angles.

.-,
44.
An observer from the deck of a ship, 20 feet above the sea, can just
see the top of a distant lighthouse, and on ascending to the mast-head, where
he is 80 feet above deck, he sees the door which he knows to be one-fourth
of the height of the lighthouse above the level of the sea find his distance
from the lighthouse, and its height, assuming the earth to be a sphere of
4000 miles radius.
;
45.
Three
vertical posts are placed at intervals of
one mile along a
straight canal, each rising to the same height above the surface of the water.
The visual line joining the tops of the two extreme posts cuts the middle
post at a point eight inches below the top;

radius of the earth.
find to the nearest mile tho
4G.
Borings are made at three points A, B, C in a horizontal plane, and
the depths at which gault is found are a, b, c respectively; also AB=h
BC=k, ABC=a. If the upper surface of the gault be a plane, shew that its
>
inclination
cf)
to the horizon is given
by
(a-b)(c-b) COS a Ac-bn

aj = V
[{a-bf
v
2
3
1
- - 2
tan 2 <i
-h
,
;-,
r^ Y cosec a.
^
k* J
hk
k2
[
CHAPTER XI
EXAMPLES.
188
The angular elevation of a column as viewed from a station due north

being o, and as viewed from a station due east of the former station and
at a distance c from it being /3, prove that the height of the tower is
47.
of
it
c sin a sin
|3
'
{sin (a -j8) sin (a+)}4
A lighthouse
48.
stands 9 miles due N. of a port from which a yacht sails

N.W. of her, when she tacks
in a direction E. X. E., until the lighthouse is
sails towards the lighthouse until the port is S.W. of her, when she tacks
again and sails into port. Shew that the length of the cruise is 16 miles
and
nearly.
A circular pond
of radius a
is surrounded by a gravel walk of uniform

enclosed by a fence of height d. A person of
height h stands just inside the fence. Shew that the portion of the fence
49.
width
and the whole
b,
is
whose highest points can be seen by reflection from the water

1
= 2- COS -1
.
h+d
7=
\fb*+2ab)
}
+6 J
;
\2y/Ad
> l+
h<d(l + 2a/b), and
provided
is
-th, where
d
2o/6"
of a croquet-hoop, the thickness of its wires, and the

diameter of a ball are given; the ball being in a given position, shew how to
find the conditions that it may just be possible for it to go through the hoop
50.
The width
(1) straight, (2)
by hitting one
the angle of incidence

51.
is
wire, (3)
by hitting both wires
assuming that
equal to the angle of reflection.
Three mountain peaks, A, B,
C,
straight line, when he stands at each of

horizontal line; the angle subtended by
appear to an observer to be in a
two places P and Q, in the same
AB
and
BC
at each place is
o,
and
the angles A QP, CPQ are 4> and \^ respectively.

Prove that the heights of the mountains are as
cot 2a + cot
and that
if
QB
\}r
cut
-i-
(cot a
A C in
D,
+ cot 0) tan a cot 2a + cot <,

AG= CD sin 2a (cot f + cot 2a).
+ cot
\|/-)
(cot a
52.
man standing at a distance c from a straight line of railway sees a
train standing upon the line, having its nearer end at a distance a from the
He observes the angle a, which the train
point in the railway nearest him.
If in observing the angle a
subtends, and thence calculates its length.

makes a small error 6, prove that the error
train has to its true length a ratio
he
in the calculated length of the
c6
a sm a)r
:
sin a (c cos a
53.
The height h of a mountain, whose summit is A, is to be determined
from the observed values of a horizontal base line BC (a), the angles ABC,
ACB, and the angle (z) which AB makes with the vertical. Shew that
h~
a cos
z sin
C
'
ain{B+C)
CHAPTER XI
EXAMPLES.
189
If h be known approximately, shew that the best direction of EC in order

that an error in measuring C may have least effect on the accuracy of the
above value
by
J
of/;, is 6
given
jS
= 2tan -1
r ).
\a cos z + h)
54.
Three vertical flag-staffs stand on a horizontal plane.. At each of the
and C in the horizontal plane, the tops of two of them are seen in
points A,
the same straight line, and these straight lines make angles o, 8, y with the
horizon.
The plane containing the tops makes an angle 6 with the horizon.
Prove that their lengths are BC/(\/cot2

similar expressions.
55.
tower
Explain how
AB
/3
- cot2
+ Vcot2 y - cot2 6),
and two
the signs of the roots must be taken.
stands on a horizontal plane and supports a spire BC.

mountain, whose side may be treated as an
ona
An
observer at a place
inclined plane, observes that
AB, BC each subtend an angle a at his eye;

he then moves to a place F, measuring the distance EF(=2a), and observes
that AB, BC again subtend angles a at his eye he then measures the angles
;
AFE( = B)
and
CFE = y). Shew

(
that
if
x and y
are the heights of
AB,
BC
respectively,
COS
8 cos y cos 2 a
"la
cos^03 + y)cos i(/3- 7 )J

2
is the point on the line of

Also if G is the middle point of EF, and
subtend an angle 8, and
is
greatest slope through G, at which A B,
measured ( b), prove that the inclination 6 of the mountain to the horizon is
GH
BC
given by
f
/a2 +62 \ 2 )i
.r'V
\(x-y)
2b
a2 + 6 2
2b
xy (a?+y)sin28
x-+y* -2.it/cos2S
CHAPTER
XII.
PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES AND QUADRILATERALS.

In this Chapter we shall for the most part assume
150.
without proof the theorems in Euclidean Geometry which are
necessary for our purpose, referring to works on pure Geometry
for
the investigation of those theorems.
The circumscribed
151.
We
circle
of a triangle.
have already, in Art. 120, obtained the formula

for the radius of the circle
circumscribing a
= \a cosec A,
triangle,
or as
This formula
it
may
is
also
now
frequently
called,
be obtained as follows:
the circum-circle.
PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES AMD QUADRILATERALS

Let
side
be the circum-centre
BC
ABC,
of the triangle
OD
draw
then
191
is
perpendicular to the
the middle point of BC,
BOD = A.
BD = OB sin BOD we have
â = RsmA, or R = â cosec A
and the angle

Since
If
denote the area of the triangle
S = \bc sin A,
(1).
ABC, we have
thus we have the expression Râbc/^S.
..(2).
OD = OB cos A = R cos A.
Also
The inscribed and escribed
We know
152.
circles
of a triangle.
that four circles can be
three sides of a triangle
the inscribed
drawn touching the
circle, or in-circle,
touches
each side internally, let / be its centre the escribed circles each
touch one side of the triangle and the other two sides produced,
;
Ilf
let
I?,
Is be the
centres of these circles
we know that IA, IB,
A, B, 0, respectively, and that IA bisects

the angle A, and I B liG bisect the angles B, 0, externally; it
follows therefore that AIU BI, CI3 are the perpendiculars from
/], I2 I3 on the opposite sides of the triangle I I2 I3 and that /
10
bisect the angles

l
is
>
the orthocentre of the triangle 7,/2 /3

The circum-circle of the triangle
ABC is
the nine-point circle

of the triangle I^LJ^, and therefore passes through the middle
points of the sides I2 I3 I3 I\, I\Iz, and also through the middle
,
points of
Hi, Hz,
Hi
.PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES
192
Let H, K,
153.
be the points of contact of the
ABC, with
of the triangle
AND QUADRILATERALS
the sides BG,
CA, AB,
in-circle
respectively.
A IBC + A ICA + AIAB = S.

Now AlBC = IH.BC=\ra, AlCA = \rb, AlAB=%rc,
Then
where r denotes the radius of the
%r(a +
+ c) = S, whence we
in-circle,
hence
have the formula r = S/s.
.(3),
for the radius of the in-circle.
Also
= BH+HC = r{cot%B+cot%C),
r=a sin h B sin A C sec I A
hence
(4),
another expression for r, which might of course be deduced from (3).

Combining the formulae (1) and (4) we have the symmetrical
expression
Again
r^^RainÂsm^Bsm^G
since
we have
we
BH = BL = s
= CK = s c,
r = AK tan \ A = BH tan \ B = CK tan \ G,
and similarly
hence since
(5).
AK + BC=$(BC+ CA + A B),
AK=AL = s a,
b,
CII
obtain the expressions

r
which
= (s- a) tan \ A = (s b) tan \ B = (s -
may
also
be deduced from (3) or
(4).
c)
tan ^ G
(6),
PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES AND QUADRILATERALS

154.
Expressions corresponding to those of the last Article

for the radii r r2 ?*3 of the escribed circles.
L be the points of contact of the circle whose
x
may be found
centre
H K
Let
is
I1}
with the sides of the triangle
Al AB + Al AG-AI BC = S,
l
thus
193
therefore
ABC.
Then
^(b + c-a) = S,
we have the formulae
r,=
s
a'
S
=
s
s_
?*,=
(7),
for the radii of the escribed circles.
Also
therefore
= BH, + H,G = r, (tan \ B + tan \ G),

r = acos \ B cos \ G sec \A
x
(8),
whence we obtain the formula

r,
= 4/2 sin
cos ^ J? cos
with corresponding expressions for r2 and ra
\G
(9),
Again, since
BH, = BL U and
wefind
thus
BII^s-c,
GH = GK
X
X ,
and
AK, = AL
ly
GH^s-b, AKÂL^s,
we obtain the formulae

r,
II.
T.
= stan4 = (s-c)cot \ B = (s - b)
cot
{G
(10).
13
19*
Examples.
+ r2 + r3 r = 4R,
r 2 r3 + r 3 \\ + r r 2 = S 2/ra
r1 1 +r2 1 +r3 1 =r- 1
Prove that
(1)
'
Prove the following formulae for the sides and angles of a triangle,
(2)
in terms of the radii of the escribed circles:
a=
(a)
(3)
Prove that
(4)
Prove that
-iA= 7
=4h
V +r
03)
(rx
16R 2 rr1 r2 r3 =a2 b 2 c 2
Prove that
(6)
If the escribed
:,
)
which touches a
circle
+ r3
\
2R
2R+r-r
=
cos A =
a
2 ) (rx
^KWlfo + r^
fo +
(o)
v
'
is
equal to the circum-circle,
A = cosB + cosG.
prove that cos

(7)
Prove that
(8)
If
r, (r 2 -f
r 3 ) cosec
from A, and p
(a)
(b)
(c)
Shew
A=r
(r3
is
x)
cosec
B = r3 (\\ + r2) cosec C.
the perpendicular from
= 4R2 p 2
=16R 2
cP + aJ + a^+aJ
2
a- + ar 2 + a 2 + a 3 2 = 4p- 2
or
and
A on BC, prove that
aaia 2 a s
that the area of the triangle
escribed circles is -=
+r
a3 are the distances of the centres of the inscribed
a, ai, a-2,
escribed circles
(9)
V r2 r3 + r3 r, + r, r2
8R
cos
formed by joining
the centres of the
\ A cos ^B cos \C
Shew that the radius of the circle round any of the four triangles
(10)
formed by joining the centres of the inscribed and escribed circles is double o/R.
(11)
r,
ri,
Prove that the areas
r2 , r3
(12)
(13)
1
Prove that
If di, d 2
1
triangle, shew that
(14)
contact
If a.',
b', c'
H 1} H H 3
2
Ii I2T3,
I 2 I 3 I,
I3I1
(a)
WWW
(b)
r3
r2 r3
r3 r!
.II .I[ 2 .II 3 =

1
d 3 be the distances of
dx d2 d3
ab c
rx r2
1,
IiL2 I are inversely as
= 8 5,
r
IA 2 .IB 2 .IC 2
from, the
angular points of a
r
a
are the sides of the triangle formed by joining the points of

2 2
a 2 a' 2
b 2 - b"2
= c c' .
7
of the escribed circles, shew that

Prove that the sides of the triangle formed by joining
(15)
circles
BOC, COA,
AOB are as sin 2A
sin
2B
195
the centres
of the
sin 2C.
Prove that the circum-circles of the two triangles in the ambiguous

a, b, B are given, are equal in magnitude ; shew also that the
(16)
when,
case,
distance between their centres
In
(17)
the
is
2
2
(b cosec
ambiguous case of
B a2 )^.
a
the solution of
triangle, prove that the
distance of the points of contact of the inscribed circles with the greater of the
two given sides is equal to half the difference of the values of the third side.
(18) If p\, p 2 pi be the radii of the circles described about IBC, ICA, IAB,
3 R (p{2 +p22 +p 3 2 )- pip-zP3 = 0prove that 4R
,
Prove that the radii of the escribed

x3 - x 2 (4R + r) + xs 2 - rs 2 = 0.
(19)
of a triangle are the roots
circles
of the cubic
The medians.
155.
The
lines
AD, BE, CF,
joining the angular points of a
triangle to the middle points of the opposite sides, are called the
AD
The length of
metrical theorem AB' + ACmedians.
is
L
given by the well-known geo2
2
the squares
), thus
= 2(AD + BD
of their lengths are

given by
J
= lb + c - 1 a\
2
m = i c + a - ^ b\
2
= â + z b --lc
n
m.;-
Let
A/j
denote the angle

cot
where
AL
is
il/,
ADC,
(11).
then
= DL/AL = \{BL- CL)/AL,
perpendicular to BO, therefore

coti/, =
(cot
B-cot
G)
is
given by
(12).
132
196
The point
where the medians intersect one another,
G,
known
It is well
the centroid of the triangle.
2
in
the
ratio
1.
of the medians
that
is
called
divides each
Examples.
(1
Prove that
If
(2)
a, ft
cot
AGF + cot BGD + cot CGE = cot A + cot B + cot C.
y are the centres of the
the areas of the triangles
If Rj,
(3)
(4)
BCF
If
are a,
R2 R3
a(3y,
circles
BGC, CGA, AGB, and
2
2
2 2
prove that 48AA' = (a +b + c )
be the radii of the circles
a2 (b 2 -c 2 )
b 2 (c 2 -a2 )
IV
R 22
the angles
ft,
ABC,
BAD, CBE, ACF
are
A, A' are
BGC, CGA, AGB, prove
c 2 (a 2
-b
that
2
)
R.3 2
a,
ft y,
and
the angles
CAD, ABE,
y, prove that
cot a
+ cot /3 + cot y cot a + cot ft + cot y.
The
Let a and
bisectors
of the angles.
be the points in which the internal and

external bisectors of the angle A meet the opposite side BO.
Let
156.
/, g,
e^
h be the lengths of the internal bisectors
A a,
B/3, Cy,
and
Aa l} Bft lt Cy^ To
BaJCa = BA/GA =Ba /Ca
/', g', h' the lengths of the external bisectors
find the positions of a
and a1} we have
whence
ac
Ba =
b
To
+ c'
find the
lengths /, /',
ac
ab
Ca =
b
+ c'
ab
Ba,= c-b'
Ca,
we have
&ABa + AACa = S = AA B-AAa

1
hence
f(b
+ c) sin
c-b'
%A =f'(c -
b) cos
C,
%A = 2S,
PROPERTIES OF TRIANOLES AND QUADRILATERALS

therefore
/ and /'
are given
197
by
=
rSinJ-4
f
J
c-b
f=jcosÂ,
b + c
(13).
v
'
Examples.
(1)
If a, j3, y are the angles that Aa,
shew that a, sin 2 + b sin 2/3 + c.m2y = 0.
(2)
If fu
gj, h, are the lengths
B/3,
Cy make
with the sides
a, b, c,
of the bisectors of the angles, produced
to
meet the circum-circle, shew that
f- 1 cos i A + g~! cos h
and
fx cos
(3)
Prove that
|A + g
a;3 cuts
Cy
B + h"
cos
^B + hj
The
triangle
LMN
iC = a- + l>-' +C"
1
cos
in the ratio 2c
The pedal
157.
cos
1
,
|C = a + b + c.
a
+ b.
triangle.
formed by joining the feet of the

B, C, on the opposite sides,
AL, BM, GN, from A,
perpendiculars
is called the
pedal triangle of A, B, G.
of the triangle
ABG, then
a circle whose diameter

is
equal
segment
to
MN,
circum-circle,
that
PA
or
is
since
PA
multiplied
2R
be the orthocentre
PMA, PNA
are right angles,
circumscribes
by the
MN=PA sin A;
sine
now
if
PMAN,
of the
is
hence
MN
the
angle
the centre of the
in
OD is perpendicular to BG, it is well known

and we have shewn in Art. 151 that this is
= 2R sin A cos A = a cos A. Also
hence
cos A
and
AP = 2UD,
equal to
Let
MN
198
PLM, PLN are each the complement of A, or

2A the sides and angles of the pedal triangle are
the angles
MLN =
7r
therefore respectively
a cos A,
b cos B,
7T-2A,
7T-2B,
The pedal
triangle of
ABC, and
so on.
We
G)
ir-'ic]
''
ABC is
remarked that
It should be
c cos
LMN is
the pedal triangle of Ji/2 /3

called the second pedal triangle of
.
have assumed that the triangle is acute-angled if the angle A is

it can be easily shewn that the angles of the pedal triangle are
acos^l, bcosB, ccosC.
2B, 2C, and that the sides are
;
obtuse,
2A ir,
Examples.
2R
(1)
Prove that
cos
A cos B cos C.
(2)
If
a,
y are
/3,
the diameters
be
(3)
circles
(4)
Prove that if
r',
i\', r-/,
r3
of the pedal triangle, then
BM,
If AL,
LMN
the radius of the circle inscribed in the

triangle
CN
of the
ca
'
circles
MPN, NPL, LPM,
are the radii of the inscribed
~- =
BM'
shew that
ab
L-,-
and
escribed
3
.
meet the circum-circle in
AL'
is
L',
M', X', shew that
CN' _
AL + BM + CN
The distances between special

Let
158.
circle,
0, G,
be the orthocentre,
the centre of the circum-
of the in-circle, /j of one of the escribed circles,
and
the
the centre of the nine-point circle of the triangle

According to Euler's well-known theorem, the three points
lie on a straight line, and
is also
20G the point
centroid,
ABC.
points.
on OP, at
PG=
its
to^^C);
middle point. Each of the angles IA0,

also A0 = B, AP=2BcosA,
IAP
is
equal
AI = r cosec ^4 = 4i2 sin \B sin \ G, AI = \R cos h B cos G.

We can now find expressions for the distances of the points
0, I, P, Iu U from one another.
|-
To find 01 = 8.
(1)
Wo
have
= A 0- + A I- - 2A
199
AI cos OAI,
hence
5-
=R
(I
16 sin 2 sin 2
\C - 8 sin J3 sin (7cos B-U)
(1-8 sin i4sini.fi sin
or
8*
we thus obtain
Euler's formula
.ft
82
(2)
2
8,
To find 01,
= P- (1 +
16 cos 2
2
or
= 8,
S,
=P
(15).
have
\B cos (?- 8 cos J 5 cos \ Ocos 2^77)

2
+ 8 sin 4
(1
S1
= i2
we have
triangle 0^1
cos
P cos J C),
H-2i2r1
OP = OJ + 4P - 204. 4P cos 0/1/'

OP- = R (1 + 4 cos 4 - 4 cos 4 cos B - C),
0F = i2 (1-8 cos A cos 5 cos C)
gives
(16).
which
....
To find OV.
From the
or
We
which gives
(3)
= R -2Rr
(7),
(IV).
200
(4)
To find IF.
IP*-
= 4R- cos
We have
A + 16R- sin %B sin \G
2
- 16P cos A sin sin ^Ccos (5 - C),

7P = 4E {cos A + (1 - cos 5) (1 - cos G) - cos A sin B sin C
cos A (1 - cos 5) (1 cos (7)},
IP- = 4<R {(1 - cos A) (1 - cos B) (1 - cos C)
cos A cos i? cos C)
(18),
2
hence
or
IP- = 2r--4<R- cos A
or
(5)
We
7o./tdIU.
B cos C.
have
= i/P + i/0 -iOP 2

IU* = r* + hR"-Rr- \R" = {\R -rf;
7f7
hence
hence
cos
IU^^R r;
hence the
manner it can be shewn that

now ^ R is the radius of the nine-point circle,
expressions we have obtained for IV, IÛ shew that
I U = i R + 1\
1
the inscribed
in a similar
and
escribed circles touch the nine-point circle.
We
have then a trigonometrical proof of Feuerbach's theorem, of

which a considerable number of geometrical proofs have been
given.
Examples.
(1)
i/ tj, t 2 t3 are the lengths of the tangents
escribed circles to the circum- circle, prove that
,
111
_a
+
~
t?
(2)
(3)
t?
~~+
t?
the centres of the
b+c
abc~*
Prove that the area of the triangle 10P is

- 2R 2 sin |(B - C) sin \ (C - A) sin (A - B).
Prove that
GP = \p R
2
2
{2 sin \ B sin C
& 2 sin
A}
GI + 4Rr = Hbc + ca + ab)-i(a'- + b + c 2 ).
and
(4)
from
Proved
QP* = ^(a'-iy-e').
(4b)-
annul, i,-
If a, ft, y be the distances of the centre of the nine-point circle from the
points, and g its distance from the orthocentre, shew that
a2
triangle
+ + y 2 + g = 3R
2
2
.
Prove that the nine-point circle does not cut the circum-circle zmless the
and in that case they cut at an angle
is obtuse,
cos' 1
(1+2
cos
A cos B cos C).

Shav
(7)
circum-circle
that, if the distance between the orthocentre
\&, the triangle
is
the centime
is
(8)
If
(9)
If OIP
is
right-angled, or else
of the nine-point
circle,
and
201
the centre of the
tanBta/iC = 0.
shew that
(Ql 2 -Ql 3 )(Qii-Ql)=b--c2.
If
(10)
an
is
equilateral triangle, shew that cos
A + cos B + cos C =
f?
the centre of the in-circle be equidistant from the centre of the

and the orthocentre, prove that one angle of the triangle is 60.
circum-circle
Expressions for the area, of a triangle.
very large number of expressions for the area of a

of various lines and angles connected with the
in
terms
triangle,
have
been
triangle,
given.
Large collections of such formulae
159.
be
will
found
in
Mathematics, Vol.
Mathesis,
I.
No.
Vol.
and
III.
in
the
Annals of
6.
V\c give here a few of these expressions, heaving the verification of

as an exercise for the student.
Vn-i^^si
(1)
(2)
s/iRpxPzPz,
| V<r (<r uii)
(3)
2<r = m + m 2 + m 3
where
them
(o m2) (om3)
s2
fcos%(B-C)+gcosh(C-A)+hcosh(A-B)
{)
(o)
1
1
1
Scoter'
2{f- cos$A+g- cos%B+A- cos$C)
2
2
r cot A A cot h B cot \ C,
r coU 4 + 2#r sin A,
(6)
(7)
ra r8 tan i J,
(8)
(9)
m^,
(10)
^VîvH^
'
'
yariows properties of triangles.

160.
If
be any point in the plane of the triangle
have the identical relation
ABC, we
AQBC + AQGA + AQAB = A ABC,
the areas of the triangles with vertex
being taken with the
example,
negative when Q and A are
on opposite sides of BC. By taking Q in various positions, we
obtain various well-known relations between the angles of a
AQBC
proper signs; for
is
triangle.
(1)
Let
be at 0, the above relation becomes
sin 2.1
<
the angles
+sin 2B + Bm
BOC, C0A,
2C= 4 sin A
AOB
sin //sin C,
are 24, 2B, 26' respectively.
202
Let Q be at
(2)
sin
\A
sin \
we
obtain the relation
(B + G) + sin hB sin \ (G + A )
Let Q be at U,
(3)
sin
/,
A cos(B-C)
-\-
Ave
+ sin | C sin ( Jl + 5)
= 2 cos ^ J. cos ^ jB cos 1 0.
get
B cos (C A) + sin C cos (A B)
sin
= 4 sin .4
The
161.
which
relation
identical
holds
sin
B sin C
between the
of any four points A, B, G, Q, in a plane,

expressed in various forms.
distances
six
be
may
(1)
Using the equation A QBG + A QGA + A QAB = A ABC,
and expressing each of the four triangles in terms of its sides, we
have the required relation in a form involving four
To obtain the same
(2)
the angles
a + ft + <y =
1
relation in a rationalised form, denote
BQG, GQA, AQB by

2tt, we have
cos
cos
ft
radicals.
a, ft,
respectively; then since
<y
+ 2 cos o cos ft cos 7 = 0.

value (QB + QC* - BC )j2QB QG
cos 2 7
Now
2
substituting for cos a its
with the corresponding expressions for cos
ft,
cos 7,
we have the
required relation.
162.
Taking any general
between the sides and

may be deduced, by recorresponding sides and
relation
angles of a triangle, another relation

placing the sides and angles by the
angles of the pedal triangle.
triangle are given in (14), and
in the
The sides and angles of

we may therefore replace a,
this
b,
c,
given relation, by a cos A, bcosB, ccosC, and the angles
C by 7T-2A, tt-2B, tt-2G.

As an example of this transformation, we obtain from the
known relation a2 = b 2 + c 26c cos A, the new relation
A, B,
a2 cos 2 A
=b
cos2
B+c
cos 2
C+
2bc cos
B cos G cos 2 A
This method of transformation may be extended, by taking

the nth pedal triangle, of which the sides are
(- 1)"
_1
(- 1)"(-
I)'
"
a cos A cos 2 A cos 4 A

6 cos
c cos
cos 2 n_1 A,
B cos 2B cos 4>B ... cos 2"C cos
2G.
cos
2'
1"
C,
B,
203
and the angles are

$(2 + 1)tt-2M,
when n is odd, and
n
-i('2 -l)7r
when n
is
i(2
+l)7r-2
$(2 + l)w-20,
B,
-4(2"-l)7r +
>
+ 2"A, -i(2' -l)77 + 2i>

l
2C,
even.
Thus, in any relation between the sides and angles of a triangle,

n~
n_1
o cos A cos 2A
A -(2 M - 1)tt for
we
are entitled to write (- 1 )

and ^(2 n +l)7r-2"^l or 2 n
odd or even, with corresponding

and angles.
is
we may
substitute
cos 2
for a,
A, according as n
expressions for the other sides
any general relation between the
In
163.
of a triangle,
...
sines
and cosines of the angles
pA + qB + rC, qA +rB+pC, rA+pB + qC
for
is of
A, B, C respectively, where p, q, r are any numbers such that
is
a
n
where
6n
forms
6+
of
the
one
positive integer, provided that
2,
1,
is of the form 6m 1, the signs of all the sines are changed, and
when
p+q+r
p+q+r
when p+q + r
is
of the
form
6?t
+ 2,
the signs of
all
the cosines are changed.

first case the sum of the
This theorem follows from the facts that in the

angles
and
2?m -(pA + qB + rC),
in the latter case the
2nir
sum
-(qA+rB+pC), 2nrr-(rA+pB+qC)
is
n,
of the three angles
(2+l) n -(pA+qB+rC),
(2n + l)
tt
-(qA + rB+pC),
(2n +
l)7r-(rA+pB + qC),
is
jr.
Properties of quadrilaterals.
164.
Let
AB, BG, CD,
A BCD be a convex quadrilateral

DA by a, b, d respectively, and
c,
denote the sides
the diagonals
AC,
201-
BB
let
hy x, y respectively; also
angle between the diagonals.
We
in
an expression
shall find
terms of
a, b,
y"-
and
d,
c,
for the area
We
a.
A + G=
let
be the
<j>
of the quadrilateral
have
+ d? - 2ad cos A = b + c- - 2k cos G,

ad cos A be cos C=^(a2 + d b c ),
a"-
therefore
and
2a,
ad sin A
also
+ be sin C = 2S
we get
square and add the corresponding sides of these equations,
- 2abed cos 2a = 4 + 1 (a2 + d -b 2 -
c )
+b c
=
4 (ad + be)
hence 1 6S
c )
16abcd cos a,
(a + d -b
or US = {(a + d)
(b
d) - Wabcd cos a
c)
(a
{(b + c)
hence
S = (s a) (s b)(s c) (s -d) abed cos a
(19),
2
a d
2 2
where
= a + b + c + d.
2s
In the case of a quadrilateral inscribable in a

7r, thus
circle
we have
2a =
S = (s-a)(s-b)(s-c){s-d)
2
(20).
The expression (19) shews that the quadrilateral of which the sides are
given has its area greatest when a = hn, that is, when the quadrilateral can
be inscribed in a circle.
The theorem
was discovered by Brahmegupta, a Hindoo Mathema-
(20)
tician of the sixth century.
165.
Expressions for the area of a quadrilateral can be found,
which involve the lengths of the diagonals and the angle between
them.
The area of the quadrilateral is the sum of the areas of the

four triangles into which the diagonals divide it; the area of each
of these triangles is half the product of the two segments of the
diagonals which are sides of
addition we have
aS'
it,
multiplied by sin
= \xy sin

).
Also
OB cos = OA + OB - a 20G OB cos = OC +OB - c\

20 A OB cos = d - OA - OB 20B 00 cos = b -OB - OC
-a -c
hence
(22),
2xy cos $ = b + d
- a - e tan c
therefore
6' = | (6 + d
(23),
2(L4
cf>
cf>
cf>
and eliminating
<f>,
205
we obtain Bretschneider's formula
S=l
[4*?tf
- (6 2 + d- -a-- c-y-}?
(24),
which expresses the area in terms of the diagonals and the
sides.
we have a + c = b + d,
become S = | (ac - bd) tan <p, and
If a circle can be inscribed in the quadrilateral,
hence the formulae
(23), (24)
An expression may be found for the product of the

166.
diagonals of a quadrilateral, in terms of the sides and the cosine
of the sum of two opposite angles.
Through B and G draw straight lines meeting in E, so that
CBE, BCE may be equal to the
The triangles ECB, ABB are
respectively.
the angles
angles
similar,
ABB, ABB,
hence
AD _BD ~ AB
CE~ GB BE'
AB.GB = BD.CE. Also since the angles CBD, ABE

BD BG, the triangles ABE and CBD
equal, and AB BE
= BB.AE.
AB.GD
similar, therefore
A C = A E* + EG -2AE. EG cos (A + C),
Since
thus
::
are
are
multiplying by BD", we have
xhf =
a?c%
b*d9
- "labcd
cos 2a
(25).
206
= 7r, we
If 2a
= ac + bd,
have Ptolemy's theorem xy
for a quadri-
lateral inscribed in a circle.
If 2a
^7r,
we have
= a?c +
2
x-y-
which the sum of two opposite angles
a quadrilateral in
for
b-d' ,
a right angle.
is
In the case of a quadrilateral inscribed in a
167.
circle,
the
lengths of the diagonals x, y, and of the third diagonal, formed by

joining the point of intersections of the sides a and c to that of
b
and
d,
may be found
FG be the
BD, FG by x,
Let
AC,
and
in terms of the sides.
third diagonal, and denote the

have
y, z respectively.
a*
= a- + b
x-
K ab
and similarly
it
ab
cd
may be shewn
= (ac +
y-
+ b*
a-
x2 = (ac + bd)(ad
hence
We
+ d 2cd cos D,
1\
hence
c-
+d
cd
2
*
+ bc)/(ab + cd)
(20),
that
bd) (ab
+ cd)j(ad + be).
have also
FA -AD sin
lengths
We
- 2ab cos B
dx
Sin7)
(A + D)
y cos
D + x cos A
'
of
hence
by
FB
and similarly
D + x cos A
y cos
FA
FB
dx
by
FB-FA
by
by
f M- J
dxf
(by
it
may be shewn
FG
tangents from F and G to ihe

p. 92), hence Ave have
z>
{(by
Now
sum
circle (see
of the squares of the
McDowell's Geometry,
b 2 ac
a-bd
= xy
-,
y,.
- ex)*
equal to the
is
dx)
from the values found above,
(ay
ex)-}
x and
for
y-,
ay ex
~~
b (a - c )
2
therefore substituting in the expression for z 2
c <*>
we have
dx
x
by
y
ad + bc~ ab + cd~ a (6- - d")
* - * + k >
'
h2aCx
(ay
the square on
dx
manner that
in a similar
GC.GB = 7
Now
'
dx
FA.FB =
hence
207
'
we obtain
fe^w + <^y
(2?).
Examples.
If the quadrilateral
(1)
circle is
is
inscribed in a circle, shew that the radius of the
i
1 f(a b+cd) (ac + bd) (ad +
bc)]
4 |(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)(s-d)j
'
Sheio that the distance between the centre of a circle, of radius

of the diagonals of an inscribed quadrilateral is
r,
and
the intersection
(ab+odKad+bc)
(3)
.
Shev) that the diagonals of

2
_.(a2+ c2)~(b2 + d )
an angle
*
cos
(4)
+Vjx
rr-r
2 (ac
,
product
M+bd>
oj
the segments
If S
is the
a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle meet at

.
.
_.
..
f (s-b)(s-d ))*
or 2tan _,l {)
and #that, the
r-7
'J,
l(s-a)(s-c)J
abed (ac + bd)
bd)
j-
f ("-*" &-*#
,-
of a diagonal
is
area of a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle, shew that the

middle points of the opposite sides meet at an angle
straight lines joining the
IS
(
,
\(b
~d2)(a2 ~c*)'
(ad
+ bc)(ab + ud) )
ac + bd
J*
208
(5)
If E, F,
lateral inscribed in
are the intersections of pairs of the diagonals of a quadricircle, sheic that the area of the triangle EFG is to that of
the quadrilateral in the ratio

(6)
inscribed
a2 b 2 c 2 d 2
2
:
(a
b2 ~
c 2 d 2 ) (a 2 d 2
~ b 2 c 2 ).
Prove that the area of a quadrilateral in which a circle can be

shew also that *J&d sin \ A = v be sin h C.
is Vabcd sin |(A + C)
;
With four given straight lines, three distinct quadrilaterals can be

(7)
constructed, each of which is inscribable in a circle; their areas are equal; the
six diagonals \ohich intersect within the circle are equal in pairs; and if a, /3, y
the radius of the circle,
be the lengths of these lines, S the common area, and
R = a/3-y/4S.
sheiv that
The difference of the areas of the triangles whose bases are the sides
(8)
d of a quadrilateral, and ivhose vertices coincide with the intersection of the
2 2 2
2 b2 - d 2) 2
(x + y
diagonals, is | V4a c
b,
(9)
// a quadrilateral be such that all rectangles described about
2
2
2
2
similar, shew that a + c = b + d
it
are
(10)
quadrilateral
is
such that one circle can be described about
another inscribed in it; shew that the radius of

J the latter
(11)
area
If the
area
AOB
diagonals
of a
ABCD = area ABC
quadrilateral
area ABD.
is
intersect
a+b+c+d
in
0,
it,
and
shew
that
Properties of regular polygons.
Let
be the centre of the circles circumscribed about
168.
and inscribed in a regular polygon of n sides. Let R, r be the
radii of the former and the latter circles, and let a be the length
of a side of the polygon.

If
AB
be a side of the polygon, and
A OB
is
with the inscribed
A OD
is
ir/n
circle,
the angle
209
point of contact
2tt/ii, and the angle
its
we have
a
= 2i?sin- =
2rtan -
(28),
thus the radii of the circles are determined, when the side a
The area of the triangle OAB is
given.
1 75,
2tt
~ R- sin
TT
or - ar,
2
hence the area of the polygon
is
nL
?-tan
or
is
'I
2
sin--^nR
2
n
nr8
or
tan-
f20).
be observed that the problem of inscribing or circum-
It should
scribing a regular polygon of n sides in, or about a circle, is

reduced to the determination of the circular functions of the
angle
irfn.
Examples.
169.
(1)
Circles are described on the sides a, b, c of
that the diameter
a triangle as diameters, prove
of a circle which touches the three externally
is
such that
La
If D, E,
are the middle points of the sides of the given triangle, and
the centre of circle whose diameter is D, we have
0D=h(D-a\ OE=\(D-b), OF=\{D-c):
also \a, hb,
\c are the sides of the triangle
BEF,
the triangles in the relation A OEF+ A OFD+

the sides, we obtain the required relation.
(2)
From a
of a triangle
point P, perpendiculars PL, PM, PN are drawn

shexo that the area of the triangle
is
is
the distance of
Produce
OP
to
V from
sin
A sin B sin C,
the centre
of the circum-ci/cle.
meet the circum-circle
drawn perpendicular
to the sides
LMN
ABC;
2
d2)
\ (R
where d
thus expressing the areas of

in terms of
A ODE= A DEF,
in
to the sides, their feet
/'',
lie
and
on a
let /''/,',
l''M\ I'W" be
.straight line called the
pedal line of P' with respect to the triangle. The perpendicular from a point
on the side of a triangle is reckoned as positive or negative according as the
point is on the earne Bide or the opposite side of that side as the opposite
angle of the triangle.
II.
t.
14
210
m
We have
PL -OB = OP = d
p L _ 0D 0P' R'
with similar expressions for

2
PM, PJY; now
A L MX = PM PN sin J + PX PL sin B + PL
.
=(R- d)
Dr = , D , cos A +
PL
{R-d)
-^P L\
2 sin
cos i? cos
C+ ^ 2 P'i/'
Pi/sin
.
P'/F sin
y,'-
>
+ ^(A -d)2P'Z'sinvi;
also \~2.P'M'
P'N' sin A
SP'Z'sin 4
and
is
= -V, 2a
2 sin
hence
the area of the triangle L'M'X', which
cos
73
P'Z' = i 2
cos
is zero,
and
A P'C = \ A JPC,
C= sin A sin 73 sin C
A LMX=(R - df sin .4 sin B sin C+ 2d (R - d) sin J

= (R1 - d 2 ) sin ,4 sin B sin C
sin
B sin C
(3)
If A, B,
6e
any
centre is O, shew that
and P any pomtf <m a

2
P on
for all positions of
three fixed points,
AP 2 A BOC + BP 2 A COA + CT A AOB

.
circle
is
whose
constant
the circle.
Denote the angles BOC, CO A, AOB by a, (3, y, then a + + y = 27r, and let
POA be 8. We have AP 2 = OP 2 + OA 2 -20A OPcos6, and similar
32 CP 2 hence the
expressions for Z?/
expression above is equal to
the angle
OP
2
.
A ABC+2 OA 2 A BOC- 20PZ OA A BOC. cos

.

the
the
211
two terms in this expression are independent of the position of

circle, and the coefficient of 2 OP in the last term is
first
hOA. OB.
0(7 {cos
which
is
zero
+ cos (0 + y) sin /3 + cos (3-0) sin y}
sin a
iOA. OB. 00 cos
or
thus the theorem
P on
(sin a
-|-
sin
3 cos y + cos 3 sin y)
is
proved.
Particular cases of this theorem are the following;:
;
PA 2 sin 2A+ PB 2 sin 25 + PC 2 sin 20
(a)
circum-circle
PA sm A +PB
2
(b)
constant
is
if
lies
on the
sin
B + PC 2 shiC
is
constant
if
lies
on
the
in -circle.
PA 2 sin A cos (B-C) + PB 2 sin B cos (C-A) + PC 2 sin

constant if P lies on the nine-point circle.
(c)
is
Shew
(4)
0cos (A - B)
that the length of the side of the least equilateral triangle that
its angular points on the sides of a given
is
triangle
ABC
can be drawn with
2A
v/2
Va 2 +b s + c s + 4 V3a'
where
Let
cut
area of
the
is
DEF be
such an equilateral triangle, and
BC and A C in
thus FG,
We
H and G respectively
let
the angles
ave in fixed directions; also the angle
FH
have,
ABC.
if
DEF
FHB are each 60
the circle round
FGA,
HFG
is
120
C.
F be denoted by x,
FG = xsin 4/sin60, FH = {c-x) sin 5/sin 60,
A
hence
HO = cosec2 60 {x2 sin 2 A+(c- x)

-
Now
when
the radius of the circle
HO
is least.
The
is
n
-
sin 2
B - 2x (c - x) sin A
ETG/2 sin (120
least value of
C),
sin
B cos (120 - C)}.
hence the
a quadratic expression
circle is least
X.'--r2^.v-(-i',
142
212
in
which X
H)
is positive, is
2+
-X
^-
We
c Sin
[
which
is
v- y-,
i
+ c si n J sin D cos 1 20 - Cf
+ sin 2 B + 2 sin A sinB cos (120 -C)J
sin
A +sin B+
2
sin
Now
'
B sin (1 20 - C)
2 sin
.4
sin
sin
B cos (120 - <7)}2L
>
sin (120- C)
CV a + 6 + c + 4 V3 A
2
the side of the equilateral triangle
the least value of the side
form
V2 c2 sin J
or
in the
HG sin 60,
2
(c sin ff
sin 2 A
c sin
{sin
\x2 + 2px + v may be written
find therefore for the least value of
equal to
2
for
is
is
ZTCsin 60/sin(120-
C),
thus
Va 2 + 6 2 + c 2 + 4\/3A
Describe three circles mutually in contact, each of which touches two
(5)
sides of
Let
hence
a given
px, p 2 , p3
triangle.
be the radii of the
with similar equations for b and
Let
circles,
then
MN=2 \/p2/>3>
a = BM+ CN+ MN=p 2 cot | B + p 3 cot \
x = px cot \A,
2
C+ 2 vWJJ,
c.
2
y = p 2 cot\B,
s2
= p3 cot|C,
Vtani-fitan|C= -cosa, Vtan ^ Ctan .4 = -cos/3, \ft&n\A tan \B= cosy

find sin 2 a = l - tan^Z?tauC=a/s, and similarly sin 2 /3 = 6/s, sin 2 y = c/s,
hence we have the equations
we
2
2
y + 2 - 2^2 cos a _
sin 2 a
22
+ x - 2ix- cos & _x2 + y 2 - 2xy cos y _

1
sin 2
/3
sin 2 y
'

these have been considered in Art. 68, Ex. (12)
there found, we have
X = */s COS
(or
a),
y=\Js
where
2o-
COS ((T-/3),
adopting the
z=\/s cos
(<r
213
first
solution
y),
= a + + y,
/3
hence
p!
= stani^
cos 2
(<r
a),
2
p 2 = stan iZ?cos (o--/3),
= staniC
/3 3
cos 2 ((r-y)
The other solutions give the radii of

are the required radii of the circles.
three sets of circles which are such that two in each set touch two sides
of the triangle produced
s
tan ^ A cos 2 s,
of one such set, the radii are
tan h B cos 2
There are altogether eight sets of
(s
- y),
circles
stan|Ccos
which
(s
/3).
satisfy the conditions of
the problem.
This solution
Annates, Vol.
v.
is
founded on that of Lechmiitz given in the Nouvelles

solution of this problem, which is known as
A geometrical
"
A history of
Malfatti's Problem," will be found in Casey's Sequel to Euclid.
the problem will be found in the Bulletin de I'Acade'mie Royale de Belgique
for 1874, by M. Simons.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
1.
If 6 be the angle
XII.
between the diagonals of a parallelogram whose sides
an angle
a to each other, shew that tan
a, b are inclined at
= 52 j^.
2
a
If a, ,3, y be the distances, from the angular points of a triangle, to

2.
the points of contact of the inscribed circle with the sides, shew that
a + fS + y
The area of a regular inscribed polygon

polygon, of the same number of sides, as 3 4
3.
is
to that of the circumscribed
find the
number
of sides.
is drawn making the same

an adjacent side, taken always in the
same order shew that these lines will form another parallelogram similar to
the original one, if a 2 ~ b- = 2ab cos B, where a, b are the sides, and B is an
4.
From each
angle of a parallelogram a line
angle, towards the
same
parts, with
angle of the parallelogram.

5.
The straight lines which bisect the angles A, C of a triangle meet the
circumference of the circum-circle in the points , y shew that the straight
line ay is divided by CB, HA into three parts which arc in the ratio
;
sin2
$J 2sinylsinZJsiniC: sinHC.
:
6.
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
214
If
I be the centre
XII
of the in-circle of a triangle, la, lb, Ic perpendiculars

radii of circles inscribed in the quadrilaterals
sides, p 1? p 2 , ps the
on the
Able, Bo la, Calb, prove that
7.
Pi
Pi
r~pi
r po
_a+b + c
P3
2r
r-p 3
Prove that the line joining the centres of the circum-circle and the
iu-circle of
a triangle makes with
BC
an angle cot -1
5~sin C
sin
cosi>'
+ cos(7-
8.
If, in a triangle, the feet of the perpendiculars from two angles, on the
opposite sides, be equally distant from the middle points of those sides, shew
that the other angle is 60, or 120, or else the triangle is isosceles.
9.
ABC
If
be a triangle having a right-angle at

AC produced in E,
perpendicularly to A B meet BC,

that ta,nCED = t&T)?BAC, and
C,
and AE,
BD
drawn
respectively, prove
AECD = &ACB.
If a point be taken within an equilateral triangle, such that its

10.
distances from the angular points are proportional to the sides a, b, c of
another triangle, shew that the angles between these distances will be
in + A,
The points
11.
in + B,
Jjr
+a
of contact of each of the four circles touching the three
sides of a triangle are joined; prove that, if the area of the triangle thus
formed from the inscribed circle be subtracted from the sum of the areas of
those formed from the escribed circles, the remainder will be double of the
area of the original triangle.
If
12.
A A PC
ABCD
cot
is
a parallelogram and
is any point within it,
prove that
cot
is independent of the position of P.
A PC- A BPD
BPD
13.
Three circles touching each other externally are all touched by a
fourth circle including them all. If a, b, c be the radii of the three internal
circles, and a, /3, y the distances of their centres from that of the external
prove that
circle respectively,
ca
\bc
14.
-p~
P, Q,
=Q =
R are
a2
ah)
b2
points in the sides BC, CA,
shew that
j,-j-,
AP +BQ + CR
2
c2
AB
is least,
of a triangle, such that
when P,
Q,
bisect the
sides.
15.
On
the sides
a, b, c
of a triangle are described segments of circles
angles a, 0, y respectively, where

a+/3 + y = 7r, and a triangle is formed by joining the centres of these circles;
shew that the angles of this triangle are a, /3, y.
external
to
the
triangle,
containing
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
XII
21
">
Through the middle points of the sides of a triangle, straight linos

drawn perpendicular to the bisectors of the opposite angles, and form
16.
are
another triangle prove that its area is a quarter of the rectangle contained
by the perimeter of the former triangle and the radius of the circle described
;
about
it.
is a point in the plane of a triangle ABC, and L,

17.
of the perpendiculars from
on the sides prove that if
constant and equal to I, the least value of
PA*+PB*+PC*
is
At,
axe.
the feet
MN+JYL + LM be
iy(a\n*A
+ sin 2 .5 + sin* C).
Lines B'C, C'A', A'B' are drawn parallel to the sides BC, CA,
18.
AB
of a triangle, at distances rx r2 r3 respectively; find the area of the triangle

,
A'B'C.
If eight triangles be so formed, the
ABC, but
perimeter of the triangle
the
mean of their perimeters is equal to the

mean of their areas exceeds its area by
(or l+6f^+^f^)/4A.
19.
On the sides of a scalene triangle A/>C, as bases, similar isosceles
triangles are described, either all externally or all internally, and their vertices
are joined so as to form a new triangle A'B'C prove that if A'B'C be equiand that
lateral, the angles at the base of the isosceles triangles are each 30
;
if
the triangle
A'B'C be
tan
where A
is
D C
/Y
is
.
the tangents at A, b,
shew that the area
and passes at
formed by
of the triangle
BC.CA.AB
.
is the centre of the nine-point circle of a triangle

are the middle points of the sides, prove that
If
21.
D, E,
a2 + &2 + c2>
line cuts three concentric circles in A, B, C,
from their centre
angles are each
ABC.
the area of
A straight
20.
a distance
ABC, the
4A
-l
similar to
ABC, and
BC cos NBC+ CA cos NEA + A B cos NFB = 0.

22.
AD
On
the circle round

23.
BA
the side
are bisected in
If A', B',
BEF
of a triangle
and
is
F E
;
and
24.
triangle
CA A'B=4R A A'B'C.
.
If x, y, z denote the distances of the centre of the in-circle of
from the angular points, shew that
a*x* + 6
25.
be any points on the sides of the triangle ABC, prove

.
triangle
equal to AC BC &nd
shew that the radius of
BD
F are joined
BC cosec \ A
AB' .BC CA' + B'C.
that
measured
is
V +c*2*+ (a+ 6+
c)
x2 y2 z 2 = 2
D, E,
Fare
ABC
meet the opposite sides;
(6
Vy V + cV^
+ cPbWy*).
the points where the bisectors of the angles of the

if x,
y, z arc tho perpendiculars
EXAMPLES.
216
CHAPTER
XII
drawn from A, B, C, respectively, to the opposite sides of DEF, p u p2 p 3

those drawn from A, B, C, respectively, to the opposite sides of ABC, prove
that
ft !
j,2
M 2
,
ZL +
or
P\+Pl-=Il+8sm$Asm$Bsm$a
zy
26.
Shew that the distances of the orthocentre of a triangle from the
angular points are the roots of the equation
x3 -
2
2
2
2
(R + r) x + (r -4R +s )x-2R
(*-+2.ft)
{s
= 0.
5,
If each side of a triangle bears to the perimeter a ratio less than

its sides equal to the radii of the
28.
ABC is
27.
a triangle can be formed, having

escribed circles.
2
of BC, a line is
a triangle inscribed in a circle, and from D, the middle point

drawn at right angles to BC, meeting the circumference in
If triangles be described in the same way by
are joined.
AE, AF
bisecting AB, AC, shew
and
as
sin
Three
29.
circles,
that the areas of the three triangles thus formed are
(B-C):
whose
sin
(C-A):
radii are a, b,
sin {A
c,
B).
touch each other externally
prove that the radii of the two circles which can be drawn to touch the three
are
abc
(bc
ABC
30.
+ ca + ab)2 V'abc (a + b + c)
a triangle; on its sides equilateral triangles A'BC, B'CA,

without the triangle; prove that (1) AA\ BB', CC meet
0A'=--0B + 0C,
is
CAB are described

in a point 0, (2)
(3)
AA'B'C' = ÂABC+^{BC 2 +CA 2 + AB 2 ).

8
31.
are
A', B' are the middle points of the sides a, b of a triangle
D,
the feet of the perpendiculars from A, B on the opposite sides A'D, B'E are
bisected in P, Q prove that PQ = $ \/ a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos 3C.
;
32.
triangle
The perpendiculars from the angular points of an acute-angled

meet in P, and PA, PB, PC are taken for sides of a new triangle.
Find the condition that this

of the
new
triangle,
cos a
1 H
cos
33.
is
Two
is possible,
and
if it is,
and
a, ft,
y are the angles
prove that
points A,
A7
-{
cos/3
f.
cos
cos 7
wh- sec
cos 6
,
-\
n
A sec B sec C.
.
are taken within a circle of radius
r,
whose centre
Prove that the diameters of the circles which can be drawn through
and B to touch the given circle are the roots of the equation
C.
x2 (r2 c2 - a2 b 2 sin 2 C) - 2xrc2 (r2 - ab cos C) + c 2 (r4 - 2r 2 ab cos C+ a2 b 2 ) = 0,

where the symbols
refer to the parts of the triangle
ABC.
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
217
XII
If a triangle be cut out in paper, and doubled over so that the crease
34.
passes through the centre of the circumscribed circle and one of the angles A
shew that the area of the doubled portion is
,
C gos C cosec (2C-B) sec (C-B), where C>B.
$b*- sin*
From the feet of the perpendiculars from the angular points A, B, C

35.
of a triangle, on the opposite sides, perpendiculars are drawn to the adjacent
shew that the feet of these six perpendiculars lie on a circle whose
sides
radius is
;
Prove that
36.
circles of the
will
^^^
c+s{n2 A
sin2
B s[n2 gfi
P be a point from which tangents to the three escribed

ABC are equal, the distance of P from the side BC
if
triangle
be
\
(6
+ c)
sec \
B sin \ C.
sin \
If x, y, z be the sides of the squares inscribed in the triangle
37.
-+-+-=+
a
z
on the sides BC, CA, AB, shew that

x
A A',
38.
BB',
CC are
ABC
sides of the triangle
_
o
+_
c
ABC,
+ r_.
the perpendiculars from A, B, C on the opposite

3 are the orthocentres of the triangles
U 2
BC'A', CA'B'. Prove (1) that the triangles O x 2 3 A'B'C are

2 =
i?a ^(,^
where Ra Bb Rc are the radii of the
equal, and (2) that 2? i/2
and r x is the radius of the circle inscribed in
circles
3 B'Oi, OiC0 2
2 A'03
ABC,
<;
A'B'C.
of the circle about
A'B'C, and b\
If x, y, z are the distances of the centres of the escribed circles of
39.
triangle,
circle,
from the centre of the
and d
in-circle,
shew that
xyz + d(x* + if + z' )
i
40.
The
lines
41.
A B C
l
is
r (cos
= 4d 3
^4+ cos I B + cos iC).

be increased by the same small quantity
If each side of a triangle
shew that the area
the diameter of the circum-
joining the centre of the in-circle of a triangle, to the

that the area of the
circle in A x ,
lt C1 ; prove
meet that
angular points,
triangle
is
is
Rx (cos A + cos B+ cos C),
increased by
x,
nearly.
are the feet of the

AA', BB', CC are diameters of a circle, D, E,
AB
on
from
BC,
CA,
respectively;
prove that AD,
A',
B',
perpendiculars
BE, CF meet in a point, and that the areas ABC, DEF are in the ratio
42.
43.
If
ID, IE,
2 cos
IF arc drawn
cos
B cos C.
from the
in- centre
/ of a triangle, perpen-
dicular to the sides, find the radii of the circles inscribed in
IDCE;
if
they are denoted by p
{ ,
p2
i>s
respectively,
r-2,H ) (r-2p 2 ) (r- 2p-s ) = r -4p 1/

i
)../. 3
IEAF, IFBD,
shew that
.
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
218
that the radii of the circle which touches externally each of

b, c which touch each other externally, is
Shew
44.
XII
three given circles, of radii a,
given by
\Ulbc(b + c + Ii)
+ sjRca{c + a-\-R) + \f Rab(a + b + R) = \J abc (a + b + c).
BB
AA
ABC
CCX to the plane of a triangle

45.
Perpendiculars
l
X,
erected at its angular points, and their respective lengths are a, b, c
and A l 1 C\, then
that if A and A x be the areas of
,
are
shew
ABC
A 2 -tf = i{a?{x-y){x-z) + V(y-z){y-x) + c2 (z- X )(z-y)}

= t (i 2 x - y) (* - z + &i 2 (y - z )(y-x)+ ( - *0 (* - #)}
Three
4G.
circles are described,
each touching two sides of a triangle, and
Shew
that the area of the triangle having their

centres for angular points bears to the area of the given triangle the ratio
also the inscribed circle.
4 sin \ A sin
\B sin \C (sin \A-\- sin ^.fi-f sin^C)

:
cos^.4 cos
Tf.fi
cos \C{cq\A
+ cos^B+cos^C).
If the lines bisecting the angles of a triangle meet the opposite sides
is
prove that the area of the triangle
47.
DEF
in D, E, F,
2
2r cos
\A cos \ B cos iC/cos \{B-C) cos \ (C- A) cos \ {A - B),
and that
(a +
2
2
by(a + cyEF + (b + c)Hb + a)*F>* + (c + aY(c + byi)E =16AZR(UR + 2r),
where A
is
48.
is
49.
ABC.
the centre of the circum-circle of a triangle,

is the orthothe circle in P and /", and the pedal lines of
and P'
2
prove that OQ OQ' = 2R cos A cos B cos C.
OK meets
and
Q and Q
centre,
in
the area of
is
is
^p (s'm2A
the centre of the nine-point circle of a triangle D,

are the
CB and CA prove that the area of the quadrilateral iVBCE
;
middle points of
-t-sin2fi
+ 2sin2C), where
p is the radius of the nine-point circle.
50.
triangle is formed by joining the centres of the escribed circles, a
third from this, and so on ; shew that the sides of the ?ith triangle are
acosec
cosec
7T-A
2
+A
3ir
cosec
cosec
(2-2_i)
i
7r
+ (_i)n-2^
o-i
and similar expressions.

If JV is the centre of the nine-point circle of
51.
in
ABC, and
AN meets BC
shew that
7),
DN :DA:: cos (B - C)
and that the area of
BNC is
J It sin
cos
4 sin
(B-
B sin C,
C).
52.
Shew that the radius of the circle which touches the three circles
DCE, EA F, FBD, where Z), E, F are the feet of the perpendiculars from
A, B,
on the opposite
sides, is
2R sin A sin B sin CcosA cos B cos C(sin A sin fi+sin C)

am 1 A sin 2 i? sin 2 C- 2 sin 2 A cos 2 .4 + 2 cos A cos ^ cos C2 sin fi sin C"
-I-
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
If from
53.
sides
If
54.
parts,
b,
any point
AB
BC, CA,
0, perpendiculars
XII
219
OF are
OD, OE,
cotADC+cot BEA
of a triangle, prove that
drawn
-;-cot
to the
CFB=0.
c,
are given, and there are two triangles with these

given
their inscribed circles touch, if
shew that
c2 (cos 2
B + 2 cos B - 3) + 26c (1 - cos B) + 6 2 = 0.
55.
If t x t 2 t3 be the lengths of the tangents drawn from the centres of
the escribed circles of a triangle to the nine-point circle, shew that
,
h
_
+ + =r+7R,
2
t>
ri
t3
r2
U*-tf
l
- 2- + tf-tf
r -r 2
r 2 -r 3
and
rz
-UL2
U 2 --
r3
-r
=2r+11R.
56.
Prove that the sum of the squares of the distances of the centre of
the nine-point circle of a triangle, from the angular points, is
Y- + 2 cos
cos
B cos
C).
Four similar triangles are described about a given

areas are A, Aj, A 2 A 3 shew that
57.
circle,
and their
(a)
an angle of the triangles
(b)
A^
(c)
- A^ + A
5
2
2cot~ 2
is
-)
+ A 3 *,
is
(AAiA 2 A 3 ) v
Through the angles A, B, C of a triangle, straight lines are drawn

making angles 8, (p, \js with the opposite sides of the triangle, in the same
sense.
Prove that the diameter of the circle circumscribing the triangle
formed by these lines is
58.
sin
(2A
The
59.
+ //
sides of a triangle subtend angles
(1)
cosJa + cos|/3 + cosiy = 4cos|
(2)
OA=
60.
/3,
y at a point
bcsm(a-A)
V be sin o sin (a A ) + ca sin ft sin (fi B) + ab sin y sin
d2 d3
lateral triangle
prove that
If di,
a,
03 + y)cos|(y + a)cos|(a-|-/3),
(y
C)
be the distances of any point in the plane of an equiis a, from the angular points, prove that
whose side
d22 d32 + d32 d, 2 + d
2
x
d.?
Hence shew that the sum
+a
(d^ 4- tf2
+ rf32 = a4 + df + d-/ + d3 \
)
two equilateral triangles, each of which has

its vertices at three given distances from a fixed point, is
equal to the sum of
the equilateral triangles described on the distances.
of
61.
If
be any point within a triangle
circum-centres of the triangles BPC, CPA,
the circum-radius of 0\0 2 3 shew that
ABC, and
APB
if
are the
respectively, then if p be
4p sin 8 sin
where
x, y, z are
CPA, APB.
(]>
sin \^
= xsm 6+y sin
the lengths PA, PB, PC, and
(/>
+ csin
6, cp,
\|/-,
are the angles
BPC,
If a,
62.
and
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
220
XII
be the radii of three circles touching each other externally,

two circles that can be drawn to touch these
b, c
of the
>\, r2 be the radii
three,
112
=-+
shew that
r2
7\
+ -c
t
o
If the bisectors of the angles B, C, of a triangle,
63.
sides in E, F, prove that
EF
(a
/ be the centre
I2 that
If
meet the opposite
an angle
(bc) sin A
tan _j
64.
BC
makes with
+ b)
cos
0+ (a + c) cos B
'
A BC, Ix that of the circle

Ix BC, and so on shew
of the circle inscribed in
of the circle inscribed in
inscribed in IBC,
that as n indefinitely increases,

measures of the angles C and B.
In In _ l
BC
divides
in the ratio
of the
Points D, E,
are taken on the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle, and
65.
are drawn straight lines B'C, C'A', A'B', equally inclined to
through D, E,
BC, CA, AB respectively, so as to form a triangle A'B'C similar to ABC.
Prove that the radius of the circumscribed circle of A'B'C is
{EF cos a + FD cos /3 + BE cos y)/4 sin A

where
a,
y are the inclinations of
/3,
A A',
sin
CC
BB',
B sin
C,
to BC,
CA,
AB
re-
spectively.
If
be a point on the circum-circle whose pedal line passes through
66.
the centroid, and if the line joining P to the orthocentre cuts the pedal line
at right angles, prove that
P^ + P C 2 + PC = 4fl (l-2cos^cos
2
BcosC).
the circles inscribed in

is a point in the side BC of a triangle
67.
in the same point, prove that
is the
the triangles ABD, A CD touch
but if the radii of the
point of contact of the in-circle of ABC with BC
if
AD
circles
be equal, then
CD BD
:
From a
68.
lengths r
x ,
r,
pair is 2irjS
cosec
D + cosec C
cosec
D + cosec B.
point within a circle of radius r, three radii vectores of

drawn to the circle, and the angle contained by any
r3 are
shew that
3r (r 2 r3 + r3 rx
+ r, r2 f = (r 2 + r, r3 + r32
2
2
)
(r 3
+ r3 r + r?) (r, 2 + r, r2 + r2 2
x
and that the distance of the point from which the

centre of the circle, is d, where
2
(r
69.
where
- d 2 ) (r2 r3 + r3 rt + r
r2 )
=r
r 2 r3 (^
radii are
+ r2 + r3
),
drawn, from the
).
D EF D EF D EF
Circles are inscribed in the triangles

l
l
l
2
2
2
3
3
3,
are the points of contact of the circle escribed to the side
t
E,,
,
BC; shew
that
if
p 1? p 2
p 3 be the radii of these circles
- = 1 - tan xA:\- tan I B

:
p\
pi
/>:;
- tan
1 C.
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
221
XII
are the centres of the circles described

In a triangle ABC, A', B',
70.
each touching two sides and the inscribed circle shew that the area of the
;
triangle
tan
A'B'C is
J (r A) tan
(n
- B)
{cosec
tan | (n
-A)
{it
- C)
cosec J (n
- B)
- C) +
4}
cosec \ (n
r2
The three tangents to the in-circle of a triangle which are parallel to

71.
the sides are drawn shew that the radii of the circles inscribed in the three
;
triangles so cut off from the corners are given
s^v3
- rs 2 x 2 - J r2
{a
by the equation
+ b + c2 - 26c - 2ca - 2ab) x - r6 = 0.

2
The perpendiculars from the angular points of a triangle on the

72.
straight line joining the orthocentre and the centre of the in-circle are p, q, r;
prove that
rsinC
q s in
psinA
sec
B sec C
sec
C sec A
sec
a convention being made as to the signs of p,
73.
q, r.
taken within an equilateral triangle, and
is
point
A - sec B'
its
distances
from the angular points are a, (3, y. The internal bisectors of the angles
between (/3, y), (y, a), (a, ) meet the corresponding sides of the triangle in
shew that the area of PQR is to that of the equilateral
P, Q, R respectively
;
in the ratio
triangle
&*
2a/3y:(/3
If
74.
m, u are the distances of any point in the plane of a triangle

angular points, and d the distance from the circum-centre,
I,
ABC, from
+ y)( y + a)(a+/3).
its
prove that
I
cot
where
sin 2 A
If
75.
and
is
+m
sin
2B + n2
sin
2(7=4 (R 2 +d 2 )
sin
sin
B sin
C.
the centroid of a triangle, shew that
GAB + cot GBC+cot GCA =3 cot = cot ABG + cot BCG + cot CAG,
cot AGB + cot BGC+ cot CGA + cot a = 0,
cot w = cot ^4+cot jB + cot C.
 + f tan co = 0.
that the angles
of three circles, within the area of a triangle, touches the other

if a be the distance between the
two, touching also two sides of the triangle
and /3, y be like distances on the other
points of contact of one of the sides,
that the area of the triangle of which the centres of the
two
Each
76.
sides,
circles are
prove
angular points
If a,
77.
b, c,
diagonals
is
(fi
+ y 2 a2 + or ji-
'.
d be the perpendiculars from the angles of a quadrilateral

d d2 shew that the sine of the angle between the
upon the diagonals

,.
is
equal to
((a
+ c)(b + d)\!s
-j-j
j-
222
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
XII
BCD
78.
If A
be a quadrilateral, prove, in any manner, that the line
and C with the
joining the intersection of the bisectors of the angles
and
makes with
an angle equal to
intersection of the angles
_,(
|1
ABCDE
79.
sin
AD
A - sin
D + sin (A +B)
"1
+cos A +cos i^+cos (A +B)j
a plane pentagon; having given that the areas of the
is
triangles EAB, ABC, BCD, CDE, DEA are equal to a, b, c, d, e respectively,

shew that the area A of the polygon may be found from the equation
A 2 -(a + b + c + d + e)A + (ab + bc + cd+de + ea)=0.
Shew that if a quadrilateral whose sides, taken in order, are a, b, c, d

80.
be such that a circle can be inscribed in it, the circle is the greatest when the
in a circle, and that then the
square on the
quadrilateral can be inscribed
abed
radius of the inscribed circle
81.
is
(o+c)(6 + rf)'
polygon of 2n sides, n of which are equal to

shew that the radius of the circle
inscribed in a circle;
2 \
a 2 +2ab cos
+ b2
n
cosec
a,
and n
to b, is
is
82.
quadrilateral whose sides are a, b, c, d can be inscribed in a circle ;
external angles are bisected prove that the diagonals of the quadrilateral
formed by these bisecting lines are at right angles, and that the area of this
its
.,
s 2 (ab
is
quadrilateral
(b
+ d)
where
2s
83.
+ cd)(ad+bc)
.
2{a + c)
A BCD
= a + b+c + d.
EF
inscribed in a circle, and

is its third
A prove that if the perpendiculars
meet the circles described on AD,
respectively as
quadrilateral
diagonal, which
from A on BC,
>J(s-a) {s-b) (s-c) (s-d)
is
opposite to the vertex
is
CD
AB
diameters, in P, then
PQ sin D = EF (sin A - sin

2
D).
The power of two circles with regard to one another, is defined to be

84.
the excess of the square of the distance between their centres, over the sum
Prove that for a triangle ABC, the power of the
of the squares of the radii.
2
2
inscribed circle, and that escribed circle which is opposite A, is \ {a + (b-c)' s
and hence verify that if the escribed circle touches an escribed circle, the
'
must be
triangle
'o'
The
85.
are
a,
b,
a4 - x 2 s
where 2s
is
sides,
d, e
c,
isosceles.
{\
2a2
the
taken in order, of a pentagon circumscribed to a

its area is a root of the equation
circle
prove that
- c - d - 2a3 + 2acd}
(b + e
+ (s - a e) (s - b - d) (s - c e)
sum
of the sides.
(s
-d-
a)
($
c - b) s 3 = 0,
EXAMPLES.
223
XII
d be the distances of any point on the circumference of a

four consecutive angular points of an inscribed regular
from
r,
the relation between a, b, c, and d, and prove that
If a, b,
86.
CHAPTER
c,
circle of radius
polygon, find
(lib
-'=
'(a +
- cd)
(be
- ad)
(ca
bd)
+ c-a-d)(c+a-b-d)(a + b + c + d)'
of a convex pentagon ABODE, inscribed

and the sum of the angles at E and B, at A and C,
shew that
[3,
The perimeter and area
87.
circle,
b-c-d)
are 2s
and
are denoted by
a,
88.
ABC'D
is
circle at
+ si n2e) + -2S (sin a +
f)
= 0.
is
(so-
(<t
is
+ sin
a convex quadrilateral of which the sides touch one circle,

lie on another; tangents are drawn to the circumscribed
D so as to form another convex quadrilateral prove that
A, B, C,
the area of the latter
where r
s-(sin2a +
while the vertices
in
S,
2abcd)
bed) ((Tcda)
(abed)
dab)
(a-
A BCD,
2s
a-
(cr
abc)'
= a + b + c-\-d,
2a = bed + cda + dab + aba.
and
CHAPTER
XIII.
COMPLEX NUMBERS.
In works on Algebra, numbers of the form x + iy, called
and the application to them of
complex numbers, are considered,
170.
We shall,
the ordinary laws of algebraical operations is justified.
such
which
in
mode
the
complex numbers
in this Chapter, consider
the results of
which
in
and
may be geometrically represented,
numbers
of
such
may be exhibited.
additions and multiplications
themselves
that circular functions present
naturally
It will
appear
and indeed that such functions must be
in this connection,
intro-
duced in order to give conciseness to the results of the multiplication

and division of complex numbers.
The geometrical representation of a complex number.

171.
or negative real number x is represented

laying off on a fixed infinite straight line A'OA,
positive
geometrically by
= x
a length
OM
to scale, measured from any specified point

in one direction or the other, according as x is positive or negative
we may then consider that the number x is represented either by
\
the position of the point M, or by the straight line OM. In order

to represent a purely imaginary number iy, take a fixed straight
any fixed plane containing A'OA, perpendicular to

a length 0N=\y\, in the
the latter line, then measure from
direction OB or OB', according as y is positive or negative, then
line
B'OB,
in
shall consider that the imaginary number iy is represented by

circle of radius
the point N, or also by the straight line ON.
which
A'
A
and
B'B
in
cuts
the
represent the
points
unity
numbers 1, + i respectively. In order to represent the
we
COMPLEX NUMBERS
complex number x
225
+ iy,
complete the rectangle OMPN, then we

P, or also the straight line OP, rethus suppose that the result of the addition
shall consider that the point
We
presents x + iy.
of the two numbers x and iy is represented geometrically by the
diagonal of the parallelogram of which the two straight lines OM,
ON, which
figure,
represent x and iy respectively, are sides. In the

represents a number x} + iy Y in which both xt and yx
are positive,
positive,
and
negative.
P
P
a number x2
a number xz
A'OA
is
+ iy, in which x
+ iy in which x
a
called the real axis,
is
negative and y2
is
is
positive and y3
is
and B'OB the imaginary
axis.
172.
which
OP
Let r denote the absolute length of OP, and 6 the angle

makes with OA. measured counter-clockwise from OA,
then
x = r cos
0,
y = r si n
where
The
6,
and
\/x 2
+y
essentially positive
is called the
H. T.
= x + iy = r (cos 6 + i sin 8),

6
number
and the angle 6
_^-J
= tan
x
= \/x + y2
is
called the
argument of the complex
mud a fits,
number
15
COMPLEX NUMBERS
226
x+
iy.
the plane
length,
straight line
is
OP
measured in any direction from

in
its two
qualities of absolute
thus capable in virtue of
and of
direction,
of completely representing a
complex
The number x +
number.
iy may also be represented by any

straight line in the plane, drawn parallel to OP, and of equal
length, since such a straight line represents both the modulus
and the argument of x + iy.
173.
Suppose a point P to describe a circle with centre 0,
and any radius r, commencing from A' and moving in the counterclockwise direction, then the modulus of the complex number
represented by P remains constant and equal to r, whilst the
argument increases algebraically continually from it. We may

suppose the point P to make any number of complete revolutions
in the circle, then at
every passage through any fixed position P
the number x + iy has the same value, or an addition of a multiple
of 27r to the argument leaves x + iy unaltered.
In other words, a
l
variable
cc
+ iy = r (cos
considered as a function of
its
+ i sin
6),
modulus r and
its
argument
0, is
periodic with respect to the argument.

For any number x + iy, that value of 6 which lies between
tt and tr may be called the principal value of the

and
we shall in general, in speaking of the argument
argument;
of such a number, mean the principal value.
the values
It should be observed that the principal value of the
is
not necessarily the principal value of tan -1 -
Art. 38
for
a given
number x +
iy,
argument
as defined in
both cos 6 and sin
given values, therefore 6 has only one value between
it
have
and tt
In this sense, the argument of a positive real number is 0, that of a

number is \n, and of a negative imaginary number In.
positive imaginary
principal value of the argument of a negative real number is, as defined

- n we shall however consider it to be it.
above, ambiguous, being either ir or
The conjugate numbers x + iy, x-iy have the same modulus, but their arguments are 6 and -6. The modulus of x+iy is frequently denoted by
The
mod. (x + iy), or also by \x+iy\.

174.
It is of
fundamental importance to observe that whilst a
can, whilst increasing continuously from x x to x,,

only pass through one set of values, this is not the case with a
complex variable x + iy. There are an infinite number of ways in
real variable
COMPLEX NUMBERS
227
which such a variable
may change continuously from x + iy to

even
iy.2
supposing that both x and y continually increase, for
the continuous increase of x from x to x2 is entirely independent
x2 +
of the increase of y from y x to y2

This is essentially involved in
the fact that two distinct unities are implied in a complex number,
.
and
is
represented geometrically by the fact that two points
in the
diagram may be joined in an
infinite
number
and
of ways,
the representative point moving along any arbitrary curve joining

If a real variable is to increase from # x to x2 always
2
Pj and
remaining
in the
real,
x axis
the representative point is restricted to remain

if the variable is not restricted to have its inter-
real, the representative point may describe any

drawn joining the two points on the x axis.
curve
arbitrary
We may express this point by saying that a purely real or a
mediate values
purely imaginary number is essentially one-dimensional, whereas

a complex number is two-dimensional, and requires a two-dimensional space for its geometrical representation.
The method
of representing
complex numbers geometrically was given
in a tract published in 1806, but an earlier attempt at their

representation had been made by Kiilni in 1750. The theory founded on
by Argand
this
method
and
others,
of representation was developed by Cauchy, Gauss, Kiemann,

and forms the foundation of the modern theory of functions.
The addition of complex numbers.
Suppose two complex numbers oot + iy1} ms2 + iy2 are represented by the points P, Q complete the parallelogram OPRQ,
then the projection of OR on either axis is the sum of the pro175.
jections of
OP, PR,
represents the
numbers.
We
or of
sum
(a?,
OP, OQ, on that
+ x2 )
i (>/i
see therefore that the
+y
2)
sum
axis;
hence the point
of the two given complex

of two complex numbers
obtained geometrically by adding the straight lines, which

represent those numbers, according to the parallelogram law. We
have supposed that equal and parallel straight lines of the same
is
and in the same direction, represent the same number,

drawn from P parallel and equal to OQ represents
Length,
thus
PR
x2 + iy2
We may therefore express the rule of addition thus:
draw from
the straight line OP to represent #, + ///,, and then
from P draw Pit to represent,
join OR, then (J li or the
.
./._.
point R, represents the
sum
{'a
-|-
///_.,
+ x.,) +
i(y
+y
2 ).
L5
228
COMPLEX NUMBERS
A"
COMPLEX NUMBERS
The mode of extension of the
is now obvious.
176.
set of
229
rule for addition, to
any
numbers,
Draw 0P
in the second
figure
on page 228 to represent xx
///,,
draw P P 2 to represent x, + iy2 from P2 draw P2 P

to represent x8 + iy3> and so on; then
join 0Pn the sum of the
n numbers x1 + iy x2 + iy,, ... x n + iy n is represented
by the
then from
:t
1 ,
0P n
straight line
Pn
or by the point
0Pn cannot be greater than the sum of the lengths

PxPy, ... Pn -\P,n it follows that the modulus of the sum of a set of
complex nuriabers is less than, or equal to, the sum of their moduli.
Since the length
0P
In order to subtract x2 + iy2 from x

177.
must be drawn from P to represent (x, + iy2 ),
to PR, and in the opposite direction
then the
0R
sented by
or
by the point i^
+ iy
ly
a line
this will
difference
The multiplication of complex numbers.
The product
178.
x +
l
and
if
we
iy x
of the two
x2 + iy 2
is
numbers
{: >\x,
- //,</,) + % (tfj y + cc.,y,),

2
replace the expressions by

?-!
(cos 0,
+ i sin
#i),
r2 (cos 62
sin
(I,),
PR
be equal
is
repre-
COMPLEX NUMBERS
230
their
may be
product
written
rxr% {cos
+ 0. ) 4-
(0^
?'
sin (#,
2 )}
>
shews that the modulus of a product is equal to the

product of the moduli, and the argument of the product is equal to
the sum of the arguments of the two numbers.
this expression
It should however be observed that if 6 X 6 2 are the principal values of the

arguments of xl + h/ 1 xt -\-iy^ then 6 1 + 8 2 is not necessarily the principal
value of the argument of the product.
,
We
of
#i
to
can
now
obtain a geometrical construction for the product
two numbers; let A, P, Q represent the three numbers +1,

+ *2/i> x2 + ^2 join AP, on OQ describe a triangle QOR similar
';
A OP,
and
ROA = +
OR is equal
1
that the
so
and
also
angle
QOR
equal to +0 1} then
hence the length ol
is
OR: OQ:: OP :0A
product of the lengths of OP and OQ it

follows that the point
represents the product (x + iy ) (a?2 + iy*)to the
If
we now introduce a
third factor
x3 + iy3 = r3 (cos
+ i sin 6
3 ).
we have
Oi +
+ iy ) O3 + iys)
r. r
{cos (0, +
= r r r {cos (0, +
tyi) (#2
=r
+ i sin
+ i sin (0 4{cos
i
sin
+ )+
(0 + 0+ 8)|,
2)
0.,)}
3]
and we obtain, in a similar manner, the product of four or more
COMPLEX NUMBERS
231
In the case of n such numbers, we obtain the
complex numbers.
formula
+ iy,) O, + iya) (x n + iy n )
= r,r ... rn {cos (0 + 6 + +
{x\
Or
modulus of
the
the
product
the
sum of
metrically
+ i sin
n)
(0,
0,
n)}
.(1).
of any
of complex numbers
and
the
moduli,
argument of their product
the product
of their
set
is
is
The product may be obtained geoa

by
repeated application of the construction we have
their arguments.
given for the product of two numbers.

Division of one complex number by another.
179.
{x
1
1 x.,
The quotient
(x t
+ iy^ (x + iy )
2
+ y,y,-i{x y -x. y ))
1
is
equal to
r
or
thus the modulus of the quotient

and the argument of the quotient
is
is
{cos(0,-02 )
+ i8in(0,-0 )};
a
the quotient of the moduli,

the difference of the argu-
ments of the two numbers.
To
construct
the
quotient geometrically, join the point
COMPLEX NUMBERS
232
+ iy 2 ) to the point A (+1), and draw a triangle

similar to
d2
the triangle OAQ, the angle
measured
being
equal to
- d2 and OR = OP/0 Q, therefore the
then the angle
is
1
represents the quotient.
point
ORP
(x2
ROP
ROA
The powers of complex numbers.
we put
If in equation (1),
180.
hand
all
the factors on the
left-
side of the equation equal to x

iy, we obtain the formula
n
n
ii9
r
+ i sin nd)
(cos
(x
iy)
thus the modulus of the nth power of a complex number is the

nth power of the modulus, and the argument is n times that of the
given number. The number n here denotes any positive integer.
To
construct such a power geometrically, let

be
x (x + iy)
on 0P X draw the triangle OPjPo similar to
(+ 1)
joined to
0AP
and
on
0P
draw
OP P
similar
so on; then the lengths of
lt
respectively,
therefore the
+ iy),
(x
+ iy)",
same
the
. . .
1}
...
In the particular case r =
(x
1,
+ iy)
triangle,
0P n are r,r ... r n

Pn 0A are 0, 26, ... nd,
2
...
P 0A,
P. ,...Pn
points P
respectively, and the angles Pfi A,
numbers (x
to
0P OP
represent
the
n
.
we have
+ i sin 6) n = cos nd + i sin nd,

cos d + i sin d, then the points Qi,Q ,...Q n
different powers of cos d + i sin d, are all on
(cos 6
and if Q represents
which represent the
x
the circle of radius unity, and so that the ai'c between any two
consecutive points of the series subtends an angle d at the
centre 0.
181.
In accordance with the theory of indices, supposing n to

i
be a positive integer, the expression (x + iy) n denotes a number

of which the nth. power is x + iy.
Now since the ?ith power
of the modulus of a number is the modulus of its nth power,
and since the modulus of any number

modulus of (x + iy) n
is
y/r,
where y/r
is
is
and
real
positive, the
the real positive nth root

i
Suppose that y/r (cos

we have
of
r.
r (cos
$+i
<j>
+ * sin 0) is a value
sin $) n
= r (cos d + i sin
of (x
d),
+ iy) n
then
COMPLEX NUMBERS
or cos
sin
+ i sin
= sin 6, or
ncf)
n(f>
233
cos 6 + i sin 6 therefore cos n(f> = cos 6, and

= 6 + 2stt. where s is any positive or negative
nfi
;
ii(j>
integer including zero; hence a value of

l
(x
.
yV
v V
IS
<
6
cos
power of
n
iy)
+ 2S7T
since the ??th
sin
+ 2STr)
n
>
x+
this expression is equal to
above reasoning shews that every value of (x
The
iy.
+ iy) n must be of this
form.
If
we give
the values
cos
0, 1, 2, ...
0+2S7T
1-
sin
the expression
1,
+ 2STT
n
has a different value for each of these values of

it
equal values for two values su
may have
cos
0+2^ = cos d + 2s,7r
whence
is
case if sx
no more values of (cosO +is'm0) n
s,
1,
we
be such a
=s
is
the same as for
+ iy) n
s= s
are given
by the
n numbers
6
0\
+ ism -J,
where %/r
is real
and
{/rfcos
?/r\cos
is,
for if
always possible to find a number s lying between

such that s s., is a multiple of n, and therefore
1,
{/r (cos-
182.
nk,
and
it is
s,
see then that all the values of (x
series of
s =
st
all different.
the value of the expression for s
We
or
d+2s,7r
,
sin
shall obtain
and n
we must have
give s other values not lying between
we
value of
s,
some positive or negative integer this cannot be the

and s2 are both less than n, and unequal, therefore the
values are
If
sin
for in order that
s,
of
+ 2s l7r =
and
= 2A-7T =
where k
,
,
s.2
2tt
hi sin
+ 2(w-lW
v
-^
n
.
+ isin-
+ 2(n-l)'rr)>
positive.
If 6 be the principal value of the
that value of the
+ 2tt>
.
.
argument which
lies
argument of x + iy, that

between it and it, we
COMPLEX NUMBERS
234
may
We may
cos -
i sin
as the principal value of (x
+ iy) n
consider
+ % sin -n
.
-+
cos
regard y/r
+ 27T-
cos -
<9
sin
+ 2tt
0+4tt
+
n
cos
sin
4tT
as the principal values of the nth roots of
cos#+tsin0, cos(0+27r)+tsin(0+27r), cos(0+47r)+tsin (0 + 47r)

i
The
respectively.
different
values
of
(w
+ iy)n
then the
are
when
principal values of the corresponding expression in r and
are taken, the principal value
n different values of the argument
i
of (x
+ iy) n
being considered as that expression in which
has
principal value.
its
The two
a2
of
values
where
is
v'a(cosO + isinO) and Ja(cos ir+tsin it),
real
positive
quantity,
are
and >Ja, where s 'a is

the positive square root of a. The values of (-a) 2 in which case 6 = tt,
are â (cos \v+i sin \ir\ *Ja (cos ir+i sin ir), or i s !a, -i s !a.
The
2
2
principal value of a is *Ja, and of (-a) is i^/a.
that
is
Ja
The nth
183.
in Art. 181
roots of unity are obtained from the expressions

= 1, 0=0; they are therefore
putting r
by
27T
cos
1.
27T
h * sin
4-7T
cos
we denote by
J
roots are given
&>
the root cos
by the
series 1,
sin
2(n-l)7r
cos
If
to,
+
-
to
,
'
h i sin
2(w-
1)tt
.
f)
sin
n
4-7T
\-
...
the whole of the
-1 .
to"
Since
0+2r<7r
cos
1-
^4-2r7r
sin
?i
/i
cos -
+i
0\ f
sin -
n!
2rir
cos - -
+ t sin
2nr
n
l
\/x +
iy denote the principal value of (x

then all the values are given by the series
it
follows that, if
\/x + iy,
to
Vx + iy,
to
Vx +
iy,
Examples.
(1)
Find
all the values
(2)
Find
the values
of
of
(
1)*
and of ( 1).
+ V - 1 )*
to"
-1 *Jx
+ iy.
iy)'
COMPLEX NUMBERS
We
184.
nth
shall
of
roots
now shew how
235
to represent geometrically the
complex number;
the
method
will
give
an
intuitive proof of the existence of n different values of the ?ith

Without any loss of generality we may take the modulus
root.
to be unity, so that
we have
to represent the values of

1
+ i sin 0)n
(cos
Let a point
describe the circle
= 0,
from A, at which
angle
POA
of radius
sin 0.
OP
is
6,
the point
Let another point p
unity starting
the
P for which
P represents
then in any position of
described by
expression cos
start
from
the
at
the same time as P, and let its angular velocity be always equal
to 1/n of that of P, so that the angle pOA is always equal
to 0/n,
position
then
for
represents cos-
the
first
+i sin-.
time, let
p be
When P
at
reaches any
pls then the angle
therefore Pj represents the >/tli

power of the number represented by p or conversely />, repreNow let P move round the
sents an ??th root of cos 0, +isin 0,.
P,OA
is
n times the angle
circle until it
6
it
+
7
2tt,
then
proceeds
p OA,
x
it has described the angle

again reaches P so that
is
OA
where
will
be
at
a
equal to (0, + 2w)/n
p
/>,,
p
to
make another complete
revolution,
when
it
again
COMPLEX NUMBERS
236
p will be at p 3 where p3 OA = (0 + 4nr)/n,

The points p p ...p n are the angular points of a
reaches the position
and so
on.
lf
When makes
regular polygon of n sides inscribed in the circle.
more than n complete revolutions round 0, the point p will again
reach the positions
p 1} p2 ,.... Each of
the points
,p.2 ,
...p n repre-
i_
sents a value of (cos 6 l
4- i
sin 6,) 71
since
the nth power of the
expressions represented by any one of these points is the expression

The point p represents the value
represented by the point P.
x
smallest
the
for
n values of (cos
argument
l
is'm
We
6^.
d^ and we
1
different values of cos -^
have thus obtained the
see that these values are the
4-t'sin-
ii
-,
when s = 0,
1,2,...
1.
To obtain graphically the ?ith roots of any number

x + iy, we must be able (1) to divide an angle into n equal parts,
and (2) to inscribe a regular polygon of n sides in a circle, and (3)
in order to construct the modulus, we must be able to construct a
185.
straight line whose length
is
In order to obtain
the
nth.
the
root of the length of a given
nth. roots of
unity, it is only
of
these
the
second
to
solve
geometrical problems, since
necessary
The
in this case the angle to be divided into n parts is zero.
line.
all
problem of inscribing a regular polygon of n sides in a given circle

is therefore equivalent to that of obtaining the numerical values
This geometrical problem

of the roots of the equation x11 1 = 0.
a
method
can be solved by
involving the construction only of
straight lines and circles in the following cases
:
(1)
(2)
When
When
example, when
is
a power of 2
n is a prime
=
n
3, 5, 17, 257.
example n
for
number
4, 8, 16, 32.
of the form 2 m
This was proved by Gauss
for
in his
Disquisition.es arithmeticae.
(3)
When
the form 2 m +
1,
the product of different prime numbers of

and of any power of 2 for example, when n= 15,
n
is
85, 255.
The proof of Gauss' theorem would lead us too far into the
case
theory of numbers we have however considered the special
;
= \7
in
Art. 85, Ex.
involving radicals.
(4),
where
sin-7r/l7
is
found in a form
COMPLEX NUMBERS
De Moivres
For
186.
(cos
all real values
sin 0)"
is
theorem.
m0 +
of m, cos
sin
m0
known
and 181,
as
De
To
m = p/q,
when
irrational
number, and
Moivre's theorem, has been proved
two cases
in the
a positive integer.
??i
= n, and m = \jn,
a positive fraction,
when
lastly
+ i sin
It is clear that (cos
cos
-M'sin
m is any negative real number.

1
= (cos pO +
s'mp0), and one value
when
9.
<7
is
0)
Therefore the theorem holds
where
we have to consider
when m is a positive
complete the proof,
is
a value of
the cases
of this
is
This theorem,
in Arts. 180
237
a positive rational number.

It should be
remarked that
+ i sin
0)Q
a rational fraction in
its
the values of (cos
all
are given by the expression

cos
where
= 0,
p(0 + 2sir)
1, 2, ...q
1, when
p(0+2stt)
r
sin
is
p/q
lowest terms.
When m is not a rational number, it can always be denned in

an indefinite number of ways as the limit of a convergent sequence
Such a convergent sequence
of rational numbers m x m 2 ... ms ,....
is characterized by the property that, if e be an arbitrarily chosen
,
number, as small as we please, s can always be so determined that ms differs arithmetically from each of the subsequent
numbers m s+l m g+2 hy less than e. If r is any positive real
rational
>
m
number, the principal value of r is defined as the limit of the
m
m
2
convergent sequence r \ r'" ... r *, ..., when each of the numbers
w
It is known
is real and positive, r having its principal value.
that this sequence is convergent, and that it has a limit which is
independent of the particular sequence of rational numbers em,
ployed to define the irrational number m.

If z denotes the complex number r(cos
when
z"\
m is
an irrational number,
m
sequence of numbers r (cos
>
is
+ i sin
+ tsin
0),
0)
r m (cos
*
>,
+ i sin 0)'"\
For a proof of this, see the author's Theory of functions of

In Chapter i of that work, a full discussion of the theory
numbers is given.
1
p.
44.
a value of
defined as the limit of the
<i
. . .
real variable,
of irrational
COMPLEX NUMBERS
238
rm (cos
+ i sin
6)*,
rm
where
...,
has
its
value,
principal
and corresponding values for all values of s are assigned to

+ i sin 0) m In accordance with this definition, one value
(cos
.
of z m
rm
(cos
?'"
cos
the
is
m6 +
m0 +
and
r'",
functions
m + i sin m^ 0),
m
i
sin
m
Since
+
(cos
6), ....
cos m
+ i sin m 6 converges to
rm (cos
m0 + i sin mO) and

Thus De
cos m0 + i sin in0.
;
>
m, we
of
r m (cos
sequence
rm
m#, on account of the
sin
continuous
sin m.2 6),

to
converges
the
of
limit
one
cos m0, sin m0 are

one value of z m is
fact that
see
that
value
of
+ i sin
(cos
Moivre's theorem
is
is
#)"
established for
a positive irrational index.
The general values

cos
+ i sin
of (cos
0)
m are
m (0 + 2s7r) + i sin m (0 + 2stt),
where s denotes any positive or negative integer. Since m (s. s.2 )

is irrational, we see
that
can never be an integer when
+ i sin 0) m
an indefinitely great set of values.

(cos
m in accordance with
It can be shewn that the definition of z
lias
values are those of rm {cos

(0 + 2s7r)}
(0 + 2s7r) 4- i sin
such that the laws of indices applicable to real indices still hold
which
is
its
for irrational indices.
In case
m
+
have (cos
has a negative rational or irrational value k, we

m=
i sin 0)
+ i sin 0) k and one value of this
l/(cos
;
always l/(cos k0 + ?'sin k0), or cosA;# i sink0, which

Thus De Moivre's theorem holds
to cos m0 + i sin md.
is
is
equal
for
any
negative index.
The theorem
187.
(cos 0!
(cos 0. + i sin 0)
= cos (0 +0,+ ... +
+ i sin
X)
n)
(cos
+ i sin
n)
+ i sin (0 + 0,+
1
...
n ),
used in the proof of De Moivre's theorem, affords a proof of the

theorems (28), (29), (30) of Art. 49. We may write the left-hand
side of this identity in the form
cos
cos
0.2
cos
n (l
+ i tan 0^) (1
4- i
tan
0.2 ) ...
(1+i tan
n)
hence equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides of the
identity,
we have
0<+
...
+ 0)=
cos
0.2 ...
cos
n {\
t,
ti
...).
+ 0,+
...
+ $ n = cos ^cos
0.2 ...
cos
n (t 1
-t 3 +
t5
-...),
cos (0i +
sin (0t
cos
COMPLEX NUMBERS
where
ts
sum
denotes the
239
of the products of the n tangents taken s
at a time.
The theorems
obtained at once
(39), (40), (43), of Art. 51, are
+ i sin n0 = (cos + i sin
from the theorem cos nd
0)'\
by expanding
the right-hand side of the equation by the Binomial theorem, and

equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides of the
equation.
When n is a positive
and therefore also (cos 8
we have (cos# + *'sin d) n = cos nd + i sin nd,

-ism 6) = cosnd zsin n6; thence we obtain the
integer,
formulae
i sin
cos nd = h (cos d + i sin d) n + $ (cos 8

i
The
first
sin
nd=\
(cos d + i sin d)
\ (cos
6-i sin
d)
n
,
d)
of these equations is really an expression of the fact mentioned in

n
1 + xcosd-\-x-cos2d-\-...+x cosnd + ... is a recurring series of
Art. 51, that
which
2.c
2 cos
+ x2
cos 6
Denoting cos nd by u n we have
the scale of relation.
is
_! + -2 = 0; to solve this equation assume, as usual in such

n
then we obtain for k the quadratic k- - 21- cos 6 + 1 = 0, of
cases, v.=A/t
which the roots are k = cos6isin 6, hence
.
un =A
(cos
0+i sin
6)
+B (cos 6-i sin 6) n
the complete solution of the equation for ti n

Putting n = \, and n=2, we
A = B = ^, and thus obtain the expression given above for cos nd. The
expression for sin nd may be found in a similar manner.
is
find
Factorization.
in a position to resolve xn (a + ib) into
n factors linear with respect to x. The expression vanishes if x is
We
188.
now
are
equal to
the n values of this expression,
x
for since
+ ib) n
any one of the values of(a
xn
1'
(a
+ ib) =(x-
(a + ib)
vanishes
we
0,)
(x
qlt q2 ,...qn denote
if
have
shall
- q2)
. . .
(x
- qn),
when x q s = 0, x q s must be a
factor without remainder; thus we obtain n different factors and

Put a = r cos 6,b = r sin 6, then
there can obviously be no more.
n
the expression for x

(a + ib) in factors becomi is
-*- 1
=o
where
From
(
\x
pi/ cos 6 + 2.57T

\
1/r = (a
1-
sin
+ &-)'
+ 2stt\
)l
".
this result several of the factorizations already obtained in
hup. vii
may
be deduced.
COMPLEX NUMBERS
240
Let a
(1)
=
71
= 0, we
1, b
1=
*=-!/
II
o
2S7r\
sin
cos
s) 7T
(??
2S7T
=0
2.S7T
and since
then obtain
2tt,
this gives us, if n is odd,

_1
S=i
n
V a; cos 257r
11
/
iN
xn li = (xl)
*=i
= (a-l)
xn
and
if
a;
2stt
2stt\
+isin
} \
hi]
a2
2a;
s =i
xn +
1, 6
= 0,
cos +
n
-
1 ),
a2
=o
lW
;7r
+
- 2 cos
- 2a" cos + 1
6 i sin 6) (x n
(n odd),
(n even).
a~ n
.(3)
= (a,n cos
V7
0+2S7T
11
[x cos
n
V
=o
*=
= A~7
11
a >
2
then we obtain the formulae
C2s +
k
= ( + 1) s=i(-3)/
U-= - 2x cos
11
+ 1
-2a; cos
he cos
_\
2S7T
-l=(x-l)(x+l)
Let a =
(2)
2$tt\/
sin-
even.
is
*=
=*0-D/
IT
=i
2a;
cos
a;
(4)
a;,
From
xn
2n
2/
2 cos 6
therefore,
changing 6 into nd,

cos 118
(a2
II
- 2an/ cos
m we
by y
a;
x~
-1
= cos
2 cos
a;
x~ n
11(f),
II
*=o
-!
sin
= cosn(f> i sin
cos
cf>
cos
#
\
/
<,
ncf>
have
+ if j
then
2 rt_1
sides
we have
IT
=o
and
a'
cos ?i
2.S77\
hi,
= cos 9 + 1 sin 9,
n
x = cos ncf> + i sin.
Tut
+n
htsin
the last result
+ x~ n
6+2.STT
) \
and multiplying both
- 2a?'^ n cos +
2 '1
ike cos
11
or writing x/y for
+ i sin 0)
+ 2S7r\
rsm
+ 2STT
cos 6
J)
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Properties of the
241
circle.
189.
Certain well-known properties of the circle may be obtained by means of the factorization formulae of the last Article.
Let A) A.2 A 3 A n be a regular polygon of n sides inscribed in a circle
.
of radius a, and let
be any point in the plane of the circle, its

Let
distance from 0, the centre of the circle, being denoted by c.
POA
the angle POA, be denoted by 0, then the angles
2
3) ...
P0A
are 6
+ 2tt/)i,
4sir/n,
PA, PA*. PA ...PA n

2
=~U
- 2ac cos Id +
\a 2
Then
respectively.
\ +
e i
hence we have the theorem
PA
which
2
.
PA? PA,
known
is
PA, 2 = am - 2ancn cos n6 + c 2n
Be Moivre's property of the circle.

when P is on the circumference,
pAi PA p A%
case when P is on
In the
as
In the case
becomes
PAn = 2an sin i
0A we
the radius
the theorem
nft
l}
0=0, and
have
the theorem becomes
PA
Again
Q
if
= irfn,
.PA,...PA = a n ~c\
1l
on the bisector of the angle

and the theorem becomes
lies
PA .PA
i
The
(1)
...PA n
an
+ cn
ha.ve
two cases are known as Cotes properties of the
last
circle.
Examples.
190.
than
A n QA u we
m_1 i
/(
Express x
+ xn
in partial fractions,
an
being
integer less
n.
If a be a root of the equation

to the factor
xa
am-l
is
xn +
7.
~
nan l x - a
or
= 0,
the partial fraction corresponding
a m-n
xa
responding to the conjugate values of
we obtain the
- - (n m)N
2x cos 2r+l,
x 1 a2x cos
.,
'
T.
ir
2 cos
2/-+1
71.
cos-
+ -1
2?"
nis\n
1
it,
together,
fraction
or
a,
taking the two fractions cor-
2?"
cos(2r+l)
20
x^
2.r
it
cos
2r+l
it
(n
-m+
7T
+
,
)
'
tv
x con (2r-\-\)
~ r+i
n
n
10
COMPLEX NUMBERS
242
if
is
we have the
odd,
additional fraction
l) n-m
+ l)
_
-.-
hence when n
is
odd
n(.v
jii
xm-l
l+.r
and when n
is
\+x
(2)
m
Express x
(3)
Prove *Aa
ap2 -
/(x
,.m-l-
l)_____n
r=0
~1
77
#2 - 2x cos
1)
~ d7COS(2r fl)
cos
7W,
"
2r+l
_
2.r
7r
'
+1
r=n-i
x 2 _ 2x" a" cos n# + a 2n
nsB_1
r=(
it
'
+1
,
7T
&'??(/ êss
ân n
2r7r
fa
+
x-aco^
x z - 2xa
cos
^-2n
- n
of the fraction
,. ?/i
(2/v
2/-+1
+ 1) n
,_
x cos
mi partial fractions,
x-an0
The denominator
==' is
resolved into
2x a n cos 0 + a-"
and the fraction corresponding to each factor can then be determined
as in Ex.
(1).
Prove that
(4)
,
nsmn<9
n
'=*-*
1
'
si'w^
r=0
cos(2r
2 r=in ~ 1
7r
~"
even
xm-\ ~
^
n
factors,
2 f=i('^) COS(2r+1)
(_l)-m
(#+l)
cos
n# -
cos
sm n# sm n0
cos 5
sin 6
(cos
The expression on the
cos
r= _1
1
'
'
r= o
n<f>
2.
n# cos n<) 2
r=0
+ 2rn-/n)
sm (0 + 2r7r/n)
- cos (< + 2r7r/n)} 2
{cos
'
(0
'
(9
left-hand side in (a) is an algebraical function of
cos#, and can therefore be resolved into partial fractions, as in Ex. (1); the
equation (b) is obtained by differentiating both sides of (a) with respect to </3,
or what amounts to the same thing, by changing < into cf> + h and equating
the coefficients of k, on both sides of the equation.
(5)
Skew
that if
cos 6
then
and
+ cos + cos = 0, and sin 6 + sin <p + si?i ^ = 0,

cos 36+ cos 3(f) + cos 3\jr 3 cos (6 + (p + \lf)=0,
sin 3d + sin 30 + sin 3\jr 3 sin (6 + (p + \j/) = 0.
\j/
(f)
This is an example of the general method of deducing trigonometrical

theorems from algebraical ones, by substituting complex values for the
letters.
If a + b + c = 0, we have a 3 + b 3 +c 3 -3abc = 0; let a = cos 6 + i sin 6,
b = cos (f> + i sin (f>, c = cos \js + isin \^, then we have given that if
(cos #
(cos 3d + cos
+ cos
30 + cos
+ cos\|/-) +
3\^)
(sin #
+ sin <p-\- sin
+ i (sin 36+ sin 30 + sin 3\^)

- 3 {cos (0 + + ^) + i sin
\^)
(<9
= 0,
+ + ^)}=O
equating to zero the real and imaginary parts separately in each equation,
the theorem follows.
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
XIII
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
L
i
2.
xu x
Pr Vetbat
r>
(r+ sin^-
- cos
<f>
4.
^)
,.
-(W )+in(H.
,
+ i (sin 6 - sin 0)} B + {cos 6 - cos
Prove that
!^*=^
where
:cos
XIII.
Evaluate
{cos 6
3.
/l+sind> + icosd>\ n
243
r=\(n-
1)
or
|- 1,
+ta!
and
<f>
- i (sin
^^
+t
^4 is 1
- sin
#)}
n.
(,+=).
or n, according as n
is
odd or even.
Prove that
4 sin | (/3-y) sin |(y
- a)
- /3) 2
sin (a
sin (pa
+ qfi+ry)
=sin{(+l)a-03+'y)}sin(/3y)+...,
where 2 denotes the sum taken for all positive integral values of
p,
(including zero), such that p + q +r=n.
5.
If
a positive integer and
is
x p = \, and n
III
+ + +
If
If
Bn
(l+x)
prove that
7.
a'j,
x2
/3,
are the roots of the equation
...
any numerical quantity greater than unity, shew that the
is
only real value of a"

6.
a,
q,
...
tan
is
tan
nf
pv
=p +p x+p2 x +
)t
Po~P2+Pi~
=2a
P1-P3+P5-
= 2^ M sin J7T.
cos7r,
...x he the corresponding roots selected

n
2" .r
2x cos nd +
pairs of roots of the equation
r=n
f(a)= 2
/
.XV
COS
r=l
=0, and
from the conjugate
if
r7r \
(a+
n /),
\
prove that
/(ap ) = (^0"-
/(.)/(a 2 )
8.
If
y, 8, t
0,
a,
he any
five
and also the sum of their sines
+ a 2 +.
[/{^(i
is
zero,
2 sin 4a = 2 sin 2a
9.
If
fj,
t.
2V,
... t n
of their cosines
shew that
2 cos 4a = (2 cos 2a) 2 - i (2 sin 2a) 2
tan 2x, tan
..+,)}]".
sum
angles such that the
2 cos
2a.
be the .sum of the products of the n quantities tan

tan 2" -1
taken I, -2, 3, ... n together, prove that
./;,
l-t. + ti -t n +
ti-h+t:,-
...
-1"
sin
a?
2 n sin#
cos (2"-l).rcosec 2"r,

n
sin(2 -l)#cosec2
B #.
L6
-2
x,
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
344<
XIII
3
If cos(/3--y)
10.
+ cos(y-a) + cos(a-j3)= ,
cos na + cos nfi + cos ny
equal to zero unless . is a multiple of

equal to 3 cos \ n (a + [3 + y).
is
and
3,
if
a multiple of
is
it is
3,
Prove that the values of x which satisfy the equation
11.
n(n 1)
n(n 1)( 2)
-
where
#=tan (4r+l).
are
shew that
Zi
r is
any
1N i
re r
M +i)
integer.
Prove that
12.
r=n
2re
lV._iSinVaCOS
-3
(2n-\-\)x
?-a_
where
2+l
If
13.
Pr
denotes the
sum
of the products taken s together of the
quantities
tan2 7r/(2w+l), tan 2 2n7(2>i +

the quantity tan 2
/( 2 n
+ l)
A r = - l) r -
and
being omitted, and

sin 2 m/(2n + 1)
cos 2 1
'
"3
+ 1),
rirj(2n
Pr = 0,
l),
if
the summation extending to

having any value from 1 to n.
prove that 2^4 r

n,
tan 2 ?i7r/(2 +
l),
all
values of r from
to
14.
regular polygon of n sides is inscribed in a circle, and from any
point on the circumference chords are drawn to the angular points if these
chords are denoted by c 1? c2 , ... cn (beginning with the chord drawn to the
;
nearest angular point and taking the rest in order), prove that the quantity
c 1 c 2 + c 2 C3+... + c,i_ 1 c rt + c n c1 is independent of the position of the point from
which the chords are drawn.
If
15.
A A 2 ... A 2n +
X
scribed in a circle, and
are the angular points of a regular polygon inany point on the circumference between A x and
is
J 2n + prove that the sum of the

the sum of 0A 2 0A
... 0A 2n
1
0A 3
lengths OAi,
0A 2n +
...
is
equal to
If pi, p 2 ... p n are the distances of a point P in the plane of a regular

16.
polygon from the vertices, prove that
n 1
n
2 -a'
2
r~ - a r 2 " - 2r a n cos nd + a->1
!
p
,
'
11
where a is the radius of the circle round the polygon, r is the distance of P
from 0, and 6 the angle OP makes with the radius to any vertex of the
polygon.
17.
form a
Straight lines whose lengths are successively proportional to 1, 2,3... n,

whose exterior angles are each equal to 2-nr/n if a
rectilineal figure
polygon be formed by joining the extremities of the

that its area is
( + l)(2n
+ l)
24
^+
cot -
16
first
and
7T
,.77
cot - coscc- 11
last lines,
shew
CHAPTER
EXAMPLES.
XIII
24.3
The regular polygon A X A 2 A 3 ... A 2m has 2m sides; shew that the

18.
product of the perpendiculars from the centre of the circumscribed circle on
Ai A 2
A A3
X
Shew
19.
...
AiA m
that
is (|-a)" l_1
A A 2 ... A 2n
ii
Vi.
Z?i Z? 2
be two concentric and similarly
#>..
situated regular polygons of 2n sides, then
PA .PA 3 ....PA 2n .
l'A.
PA t ... PA 2n
1
where
tional
PB .PB3 ....PB, n _
PB, PBi
PB2n
x
'
...
P is anywhere on the concentric circle whose radius is a mean proporbetween the radii of the circles circumscribing the polygons.
is taken within a circle of radius a, at a distance b from

20.
point
... Pn are taken on the circumference so that
the centre, and points
x
2
P P2 2 Pz, ... n P\ subtend equal angles at
prove that
-1
1
-i
=
P P
,
0P + 0P,+
1
21.
Prove that
cos nd =
...
if
+ 0Pn (a*-V)(0Pr + 0P2

is
+ 2n sin - cos
+ ... + 0Pn
).
a positive integer
'
2- sin 2
- cos
^j-
2 3 sin 3 - cos
-+....
Shew that the number m of distinct regular polygons of n sides which

22.
can be inscribed in a given circle of radius r is equal to half the number of
integers less than n and prime to it.
Shew also that the product of their sides is equal to >"> \Jnj\/n - 2m, or
r m according as n is, or is not, the power of a prime number.
,
CHAPTER
XIV.
THE THEOKY OF INFINITE
We
SERIES.
Chapter, give some propositions concerning the convergence of infinite series in which the terms are
real or complex numbers, or variables.
Anything like a complete
191.
shall, in this
account of the theory of such series would be beyond the limits of
work
this
we
what is absolutely
and properties of
of
the
nature
discussing
purpose
shall therefore confine ourselves to
necessary for the
trigonometrical series.
The convergence of real
series.
Let rt a 2 a 3 ... a n ... be a sequence of real numbers

192.
formed according to any prescribed law, and let
:
Sn = a + a + a s +
1
If
Sn
has a definite finite limit
the infinite series

is
^+a +a +
2
S,
...
...
+ an
when n
is
is indefinitely increased,
said to be convergent, and S
said to be its limiting sum, or simply its sum.

shall, in this Chapter, use the notation LSn to denote the
We
limit of
Sn when
is
whenever that limit
indefinitely increased,
exists.
The condition that LSn = S is that, corresponding to each

arbitrarily chosen positive number e, as small as we please, a
value n of n can be determined such that the arithmetical value
of S Sn is less than e, for every value of n which is = n
e
When
series
which
the series at
a n+1 + a n+2 +
may
is
+ a2 + a3 +
. . .
+ an +
convergent, and
be denoted by
Rn
its
converges to #, the
limiting
The number
Rn
sum
is
is
S Sn
called the
remainder of the convergent series a1 + a2 +...+an + ... after

n terms, and the remainders R u R2 ... R n ... form a sequence
of numbers such that LR n = 0.
It should be observed that it is
J
THE THEORY OF INFINITE SERIES
247
only on the assumption of the convergence of the series that the
Rn
remainders
have any meaning.
The number a n+1 + a n+ , +

and the numbers R nl R t2
,
... 4-
ll>3
...
mainders of the series after n terms.
may be denoted by
a, l+m
llt ,
are called the partial reIt will be observed that
these partial remainders

n m exist as definite numbers for all
values of n and m, whether the given series is convergent or not.
The limiting sum of a convergent series a1 + aa +...an +... is
,
00
frequently denoted by
3!a.
i
193.
series
+ a, + a +
3
numbers Sn have no definite

The following cases may arise
-t
an
+
n
limit as
is
may be
such, that the
increased indefinitely.
It may happen that, corresponding to each arbitrarily

(1)
chosen positive number k, as great as we please, a value n k of n
can be determined such that all the numbers Sn 8n +1 , ... Sn +m ...
,
are of the
same
and are
numerically greater than k. In

this case Sn increases indefinitely with n, either in the positive or
in the negative direction
the series is then said to be divergent.
sign,
all
The
or
fact of the divergence is
LSn =
(2)
If,
co
as the case
then sometimes denoted by
LSn = go
be.
may
as in the last case,
Sn
increases
arithmetically in-
definitely with n, but however great nk may be chosen there are

both positive and negative numbers among Sn Sn +1 ... Sn +m ...,
,
the series
may
be said to
oscillate
indeterminancy.
It is however, in this case, usually
divergent, and
behaviour
It
(3)
is
its
may happen
may
that,
it
be denoted by
Sn
although
is
between indefinite
limits of
spoken of as
LSn =
co
has no definite limit as
possible to select a sequence of

... n
p ... so that Sn converges to
increasing values of n, say n u n.2>

a definite limit provided n is restricted to have only the values in
,
this sequence.
In this case the series
is said to be an oscillating series; but

An
sometimes
oscillating
spoken of as divergent.
n
of
in
is
lor
vdHwe
which Sn
numerically
every
oscillating series
less than some fixed positive number is said to oscillate between
series
finite limits of
It
is
are
indeterminancy.
easily seen that if the terms of a series
have
all
the same
248
with case
sign, the series is divergent in accordance

is
(1),
unless
it
convergent.
The
series
+ 2 + 3+.. .++...,
The
Sn
Sn
thus
+ ljn+...
.. .
increases indefinitely with n, and
is
1-2 + 3-4 + 5... oscillates between indefinite limits of inFor Sn = hn, when n is even, and Sn = ^(n + l), when n is
series
deterrninancy.
odd
+ 1/2 +
1/1
are both divergent, since in each case

of fixed sign.
increases in numerical value indefinitely as
increases,
and
LS= tooThe
series 1
+ 1-2 + 1 + 1-2 + 1 + 1 2 +
of indeterminancy.
3/-+1, 3r+2, or 3/-.
The
which
Sn
has the value
1, 2,
or
oscillates
between
finite limits
of the form
according as
is
sinu + sin2a + ...+sin?ia + ..., where a has any fixed value
series
neither zero nor a multiple of n, oscillates between finite limits

In this case
of indeterminancy.
is
>S
= sm (w +-l)a sin
.
It is thus seen that
Sn
cosec a- = 1
Tla
a
-
-jcos
- cos /n + -1\
less than, or equal to, -
of
(1)
.
+ &2 +... +
arbitrarily chosen positive

n,,
of
after
+cos =
cosec ]
The necessary and
the series a1
a
)
a> cosec -
does not converge to a definite limit, since cos (n +i) a

is indefinitely increased
but Sn is numericallv
has no definite limit when n
193
for every value of n.
sufficient condition for the convergence
number
r),
corresponding to each
as small as we please, a value
is that,
n can
be determined, such that all the partial remainders

terms are arithmetically less than r)
n,,
To shew
the series
is
that the condition
convergent, so that
is
necessary, let us
exists.
assume that
value n n of n can
then be determined, such that
This is an expression of the

arithmetically less than \rj.
that LSn = S, when arbitrary values of n are taken into
account.
are
all
fact
Now
(S S
+ a a +m = (S
)
nr)+m )
it
then follows that, since S
ui id
Sn S Sn +m are both
than
less
a
a
+ w +2 + +a>i v +m is numerically
\t),
numerically
ni)+1
"n v +l
+ ^+2 +
8,1,,
less
than v; and this holds for all the values 1, 2,3, ... of m.
Next, to shew that the condition is sufficient, we have recourse

to a principle
249
known
as the General Principle of Convergence in

accordance with which a sequence of numbers S1} S.2 ... Sn ... has
1
a definite
limit, provided that, corresponding to each arbitrarilychosen positive number 77, a value n v of n can be determined such
that all the numbers
To see the sufficiency of the

arithmetically less than 77.
condition we have then only to observe that Sn +m Sn is equal
to the partial remainder R,
+
+ ... + +m
m or a,
are
lrl
m = l,
we take
If
a^
a^+a
i7)+1
the condition includes that a n+1
may be
made
arbitrarily small by taking a large enough value of n

follows that a necessary condition of convergence of the series
;
it
is
La n = 0. This condition is however not by itself sufficient.

The rapidity of the convergence of a convergent series may be
that
measured by the least value of n corresponding to a given value

of e, which is such that all the partial remainders Rn>m are
arithmetically less than e; that is by the number of terms which
it is
all
necessary to take in order that the partial remainders
numerically
less
may be
than some assigned number.
In the case of the geometrical series 1 + x+x2 ... which converges to the
value 1/(1 #), when x is numerically less than unity, we see that
^n +
1"
"r
tt
+ to
n
m
_x (l-x
and supposing x to be positive, this will be

xn
if
<e in this case a suitable value of n
1 x
;
*
,
si
^_
The value
of
less
is
than
for all values of
m,
the integer next greater than
n increases as x
increases, thus the rapidity
logo,-
when x approaches
of convergence of the series diminishes as x increases
of
the series becomes
thus
the
increases
n
convergence
indefinitely
unity
;
When x=l,
indefinitely slow.
194.
+a +
2
the series
is,
of course, divergent.
Let us next consider the case of a convergent series

+a u + .. in which there are an indefinite number of
...
positive terms
Denoting by
to On or to
also an indefinite number of negative terms.

the numerical value of an so that \a n is equal
and
\a n
an
according as a n
is
positive or negative, let us
...
+|.|+
consider the series

",
In case this
|a2
4|
last series
\a 3
is
...
convergent the original convergent
1
See the author's work On the theory of J unctions of a real variable,
where this fundamental principle is discussed.
p.
36,
THE THEORY" OF INFINITE SERIES
250
be absolutely convergent, whereas, if the series

divergent, the series Sa n is said to be semi-convergent, or
conditionally convergent, or accidentally convergent.
series is said to
an
is
series l _2
The
-2 _2 + 3 _2 + ...
is absolutely convergent, since the series

_1 -2 _1 + 3 _1 - ... is
convergent but the series 1
only
-1 +2 -1 +3 -1 + ... is
as
the
series
l
conditionally convergent,
divergent.
series aj a 2 + a s ..., in which the terms are of alternate signs, is
l-2_|_2
_2 + 3 _2 +
...
is
always convergent
absolutely or
(either
if
conditionally)
l)".ttn,m = ( a
hence
l) n i? jm
re
is
ra
+ 2)
a re + 3 a n + r) +
positive and
less
may be chosen so great that /?,,

may be chosen and thus the series is
|
term
For
_ ( an + 2 an + 3) -
is
>
than or equal to an +
It follows that
<e, for all values of m, however small e
1
11
=a m +
each
La n = 0.
numerically greater than the next following, provided also
convergent.
In a conditionally convergent series the order of the

terms cannot in general be deranged without altering the sum.
195.
Let
Sp
the
first
be the sum of the
first
and S'q the sum of
positive terms,
q negative terms with their signs changed, then
the
if
be re-arranged so that the sequence of the positive terms

is unaltered, and also that of the negative terms, but so that of
the first p + q terms, p are positive and q are negative, the sum of
series
the series so re-arranged
is
Now
indefinitely increased.
Sp S'q when p and q are

two series Sp S'q each consists of
the limit of
the
positive terms, hence the limits of Sp and of S'q are each either
finite and definite or else infinite; by hypothesis they are not
and definite, as the given series is not absolutely conhence

one at least of the limits Sp S' q is infinite if both
vergent,
are infinite the value of L (Sp S' q ) will depend on the two
sequences of values of p and q. If one only of the limits Sp S'q
both
finite
L(Sp S' q )
and the original series was not

in
a a 2 + a 3 ... of the series
If
the
order
original
convergent.
and
are
the signs
alternately positive
negative, p and q become
indefinitely great in a ratio of equality, but if, for example, we
write the series a^ + a 3 a 2 + a 5 + a7 a 4 +
p and q become
S'q
indefinitely great in the ratio 2 1, and the limits of S, q
and Sq S' q when q is indefinitely increased, are in general not
is infinite,
is infinite
equal.
As an
denote
its
example, consider the semi-convergent series

sum by , then
S,
=1-1 + 1-1+
\4-3
4>i-l
4w-2
4w/'
| + a~j + ...;

Let S' denote the
sum
of the series
order of terms in the series
hence
+ ^ |+$ + 1 - } +
in
...
which the
has been altered, we have
"
fi 3tt==
251
+
(^=3 4^1" Si)'
^-^(-L. _^
when n becomes
we have
indefinitely great,
who
was given by
therefore S'
= %S.
This example
sum
of a semi-con-
Dirichlet,
pointed out that the
vergent series depends on the order of the terms.
first
Riemann has shewn that the terms
196.
in a semi-convergent
may be so re-arranged that the limiting sum of the new

series may have any given value a.
Suppose a is positive take first p positive terms, p being such
that $p_i < a and Sp > a; then take q negative terms, q being so
chosen that Sp S'q^ > a, and Sp S' q < a; next take p positive
terms such that $p +J,<_, S'q < a, and Sp +p S' q > a, then q negative
terms such that Sp+P S' q+q < a, and Sp+P $' 9+9 '_i > a, and so
on.
Proceeding in this way, we obtain a series such that its sum
differs from a by less than its last term, hence when we make the
number of terms indefinitely great its sum will converge to a.
series
>
'
'
It can also be
that the
new
'
shewn that the terms may be
so re-arranged
series diverges, or that it oscillates.
The convergence of complex
series.
2 U z.>, z3 ... z a ... to be a sequence of complex

thus
z
where xn and y n are real
numbers;
n denotes x n + iy n
numbers. Let
197.
Suppose
Sn =z + z 2 + ...+z n sn = x +x. + ...+x n s'n = y, +y +

thus Sn = s n + is'n
If Sn has a definite limit S, itself a complex or real
1
...
+y;
when n
is
z
is
+ z, +
said to be convergent,
its
simply
The
as n
is
number,
indefinitely increased, the infinite series
and
. . .
+ zn +
is
called
its
limiting sum, or
sum.
condition that
S= LSn is
indefinitely increased
S Sn =
thus
that
|
S Sn
if
p H (cos 6 n
sin #),
converges to zero
252
we must have Lp n =
have
Lp =
n
s n = p. cos
0,
we
s'
have
also
= s + is', when s and s' are real, we

= p n sin 6 n it then follows that, if
L(s s n ) = 0, L (s s' n ) = 0, or sn s'n

If
0.
6n
<S
s' n
converge to s and s respectively. It thus appears .that in order

that the series zx + z2 + % + may De convergent, it is necessary
that the two series xx
oc2
+ scs +
(s
y1
, . . ,
+y +y +
s
should both
...
these latter series are convergent,
be convergent. Conversely
the series of complex numbers
if
also convergent, for
is
+ is') (sn + is'n) ^
s
I
sn
4-
s'
1
s'n
of n so large
if now Ls n = s, Ls' n = s', we can choose a value
It follows that
that \s sn |<ê, \s s'n \<ê, provided n^n
(s + is'n) = e if tc = n and since e is arbitrary we
(s + is')
therefore have L (sn + is' n ) = s + is', and thus the series of complex
?i e
tl
>
numbers is convergent. In case the limiting value of either

of the sums %x, 2/y is not finite, or in case either of these series
oscillates, the series S^ is not convergent.
=
Suppose zn rn (cos 6 n + i sin 6n ), then we shall shew that the
is
series S^
convergent provided the series Xr, in which each term
rn is the modulus of the corresponding term z n is convergent.
The given series 2rn (cos w + isin n ) is convergent provided each
of the series 2rn cos#n Srn sin n is convergent; now each of the
numbers rn cosdn rn smdn lies between the numbers rn also
the number S )l+m Sn is for either of the series JLrcosO, 2rsin#
,
numerically less than the corresponding partial remainder for

the series 2r. If then the latter series is convergent, so is each of
the former ones
The converse
hence the series %zn is convergent.

not necessarily true thus the series
is
2rn (cos 6 n
may be
sin 6n )
Srn is divergent.
%rn formed by the sum of the moduli is convergent,
1rn (cos 6 n + i sin 6 n ) is said to be absolutely con-
convergent, whilst
If the series
then the series

vergent.
For example, the
series of
which the general term
is
n~ 2 (cos nd + i sin
?id)
-2
is absolutely convergent, since the series 2>i
converges, whereas the con1
is
term
of
which
n~
series
the
( coand+tsinn$), (2n>8>0),
general
vergent
i
is
not absolutely convergent, since the series 2u~ l
is
divergent.
253
Continuous functions.
198.
Suppose f(z)
to
be a function of the complex variable
= x + iy, which
has a single finite value for every value of z which

lies within an}' given limits; this function will then have a single
value for every point in the diagram, which lies within a certain
area; this area
may be any
finite portion of
the plane of repre-
sentation of z, or the whole of that plane.

Such a function is said t-o be continuous at the point z = z
if a positive number t) can alivays be found such that the modulus of
f (z) f (Zj) is less than an assigned positive number e, taken as small
x
as
we please,
for all values of z which are such that the modulus of

For each value of e a value of t) must exist.
77.
than
is less
function which satisfies this condition at every point within

any given area, is said to be continuous in that area. The boundary
of the area may, or
may
not,
be included.
Uniform convergence.
Let fn (z) be a function of z or x + iy, Avhich
then if the series
199.
in
any area
continuous
/i(*) +/.(*)
is
is
convergent,
we may denote
+ .+/.(*)+.
its
limiting
/i(s)+/2 (*) +
sum by
F(z).
Suppose
..+/(*),
equal to Sn (z), then the limiting

any fixed number,
sum of fn+^z) +fn+2 (z) + ... is called the remainder after n terms,
and may be denoted by R n (z) we have therefore
where n
is
is
',
F(z) = Sn (z) + R n {z).
Now
suppose that, corresponding to any given positive number e,

small, a value of n, independent of z, can be found, such
however
that for
area,
all
values of z represented by points lying in any given

is equal to or
m (z) is less than e, where
the modulus of
said to converge uniformly for all values

greater than n, the
in
that area. The integer n will depend
of z represented by points
in value upon e.
series is
If as z approaches indefinitely near any fixed value zx in the

m (z) may be
area, in order that the moduli of all the remainders
less
than
e,
it is
necessary to suppose n to increase indefinitely,
254
then in the neighbourhood of the point z 1} the series does not con-
uniformly and
verge
which
is
said
to
converge infinitely slowly.
can be so chosen that this

point
happens is said
to be a point in the
neighbourhood of which the convergence
is non-uniform, or sometimes
simply a point of non-uniform convergence in case the series converges at that point itself. For
Zj for
any
space including such a point it is impossible to assign any fixed

value of n, such that for all values of z within that
space, the
moduli of
e;
Rm are
and thus the
less than the

sufficiently small positive
series does not converge
When
that space.
is
number
uniformly throughout
equal to z1} the series may be either
convergent or divergent.
We may state the matter as follows
Suppose that as z approaches some fixed value zx a positive

number e can be assigned such that the number of terms n of the
which must be taken, in order that mod.
equal to or greater than n, depends on the
modulus of z z-t in such a way that n continually increases as
mod. (z z x ) diminishes, and becomes indefinitely great when mod.
series
/ (^)-f/ (2')+
...
is
li
Rm {z) <
e,
where
z)
becomes indefinitely small, the series is said to converge

non-uniformly in the neighbourhood of z
In the neighbourhood of such a point, the rate of convergence
of the series varies infinitely rapidly, and when mod. (z z
) is
(z
diminished indefinitely, the series converges indefinitely slowly.

It should be observed that a convergent numerical series
cannot converge infinitely slowly; thus when z is equal to zu the
convergence of the series fi(z )+f2 (z )+ ..., if it is convergent, is
not indefinitely slow it is only when z is a variable such that
1
mod.
(z
z,)
is
indefinitely diminished, that the series
converges infinitely slowly. It is consequently more exact to speak

of the non-uniform convergence of a series in the neighbourhood of
a point, than at the point itself. The number of terms n that must
be taken in order that the modulus of the remainder n {z) may be
less
than the sufficiently small number
e,
increases as z approaches
the value zx becomes indefinitely great when mod. (z z^) becomes

continually smaller, and then, if the series is convergent at the
,
point Zi, suddenly changes to a finite value; this number n is

therefore itself discontinuous in the neighbourhood of such a point.

If in
any area
!/,()
where a
series Oj
*, ...
+ a* +
we
have, at every point of the area,
th,
\Mz) ^
aWl
...
a2
...
. . .
255
\fn (z)
is
S o, ...,
numbers such that the
are fixed positive
+ a.n +
convergent, then the series
/i() +/.<)
..
This theorem affords a

is uniformly convergent in the area J..
of
which
is
test of uniform convergence
great value in application
To prove it,
Weierstrass's
test.
cases it is known as
to
particular
we observe
may
be an arbitrarily chosen positive number, n

+ a n+2 + ... + a n+m is, for every value of
be so chosen that a n+1
less
m,
that, if e
than
e,
where n
^n
\fn+i(z)
The modulus
+fn^{z)
of
+fn+m{z)
than an+1 + a n+2 + ... + a n+m

is, for every value of z, not greater
holds for every value of m,
this
Since
than
e.
and is therefore less
see that the complex series is convergent, and that for every
Therefore the series
e
value of 2, \R n (z)\>e, provided
we
n^n
converges uniformly in A.
By some writers, a series is defined to be uniformly convergent in a

given area, when a number n can be found such that for all values of 2, the
modulus of the remainder Rn is less than e. The definition given in the text
is
more stringent than the one here mentioned
which converge uniformly according to the

the former definition.
series
200.
If the
functions fi(z), f (z),
...
it is
latter
possible to construct
but not according to
are continuous for
points lying in a given area
all
A, then
values of z represented by
the function F{z) which represents the sum of a convergent series
for all values of z represented by
%f(z), is a continuous function
the series 2f(z) converges
area
in
the
A,
provided
points lying
uniformly in the whole area A.

For we have F(z) = Sn + R n n being such that for all values
of z to be considered, the modulus of Rn is less than e let z
receive an increment Zz, and let BF(z), 8Sn BR n be the corre,
sponding increments of F(z), Sn and R n Then, since by supposition

the moduli of R n and R n + 8R n are both less than e, the modulus
Also since Sn is a continuous function
of BR n is less than 2e.
,
the modulus of %z be small enough, the modulus of BS n is

less than e
hence, provided mod. Sz is less than a certain value,
of
z, if
the modulus
ot
cS a
+ BR
lif
or of BF(z)
is
less
than
3e, since
the
256
modulus of BSn + SR is not greater than the sum of the moduli of

Now 3e can be made as small as we please, thereBSn and 8R n
tl
mod. SF(z) can be made as small as we please by making

mod. 8z small enough; that is to say the function F(z) is continuous.
fore
It will be observed that for this proof, the less stringent definition of
uniform convergence, given in the note to Art. 199, is sufficient.
For a value zx of z, for which the series converges non201.

uniformly in the neighbourhood, the sum of the series is not
in this case the reasoning of the last
necessarily continuous
;
Article
fails.
The
limiting value of the function /(/)>
when
= zly
00
is
fn( zi)> but
does not follow that
it
[fn{z)fn(z\)} converges to
zero as z converges to zx
We may denote
the
sum 2
\f(z)f{z\)}
z x ), a function of n, and of z
zx now the limiting
value of F(n, z z ) when z is first made equal to z x and then n is
afterwards made infinite, is zero but if n is first made infinite,
by F(n, z
',
and afterwards z
z x is
made
zero, the limiting value of
F(n, z
z)
x
is not necessarily zero.
As an example
of this
l+5x
this series
"*
becomes
1
Now
the general term
is
+
'
n(n + l)
2x
{(n- 1)^+1} (n^ + 1)'
I-
or
therefore the
have; the
sum
sum
sum
of the series
is
is 3,
_2_|
whatever value different from zero x
- + ^^ +
...
may
however unity, and thus the
is
discontinuous in the neighbourhood of the value of x = 0.

1
The remainder
of the series
of the series
real series
x(x + 2)n + x(4 x) n + \ x

n(n+l){[n-l)x+l}(nx+i)
2
2(1 + j?)
when x = 0,
phenomenon, Stokes considers the
after
n terms
is
n+\
2
+-
=-
nx+l
putting this equal to
e,
we
find
n = {x + 2-e(x+l) + \/{* (x + l)- (x + 2)} 2 - Atx (e -
which increases indefinitely as x becomes indefinitely

converges infinitely slowly when x is infinitely small
discontinuity in the sum of the series.
.small
this
is
3)}/2p,
;
thus the series
the reason of the
257
The discovery of the distinction between uniform and non-uniform convergence of series has usually been attributed to Seidel, who published his
" Note iiber eine
Eigenschaft der Peihen welche discontinuirliche Functionen
"
in the Transactions of the Bavarian Academy for 1848 ; the

"
On
theory had, however, been previously published by Stokes, in a paper
the Critical Values of the sums of Periodic Series 1 ," read on Dec. 6, 1847,
darstellen
before the
Cambridge Philosophical
Although the theory
Society.
is in
some
respects stated more fully by Seidel than by Stokes, the latter must be
considered to have the priority in the discovery of the true cause of dis2
continuity in the functions represented by infinite series
The
distinction
between uniform and non-uniform convergence has played a very important

part in the modern developments of the subject.
The matter is summed up by Seidel in the following theorem
Having
given a convergent series, of which the single terms are continuous functions
of a variable z, and which represents a discontinuous function of z one must
be able, in the immediate neighbourhood of a point where the function is
discontinuous, to assign values of z for which the series converges with any
:
arbitrary degree of slowness.
The geometrical
202.
where z =
series.
Consider the geometrical series 1

x + iy = r (cos 6 + i sin 6). We have
+ z + z" +
for the
sum
zn
l
.
of this
series the value
rn (cosn9 + isinnd)
r (cos 6 + i sin 6)
1
cos 6 = p cos <p, r sin 6 = p sin
= + Vl - 2r cos 6 + r\
p
1
put
zn
or
7-
then
the
(p,
sum then becomes

1
(cos
(p
+ ism
rn
jcos (nd
<f>)
+ (p) + i sin (n0 + <f>)\',
and when n is made indefinitely great, the modulus of the second

term in this sum becomes indefinitely small, if r< 1 but if r > 1,
it becomes infinite.
Thus the infinite series
;
l+Z + Z +...+ Z n ~ +
2
converges
then
if
the modulus of z
1
(cos d>
,
If the
1
modulus of z
+ % sin 0) =
.
is
is less
...
than unity, and
its
sum
lr cos 6 + i.r .sin 6

r
greater than unity, the series
See Stokes' Collected Works, Vol. i.

On the history of this discovery see
lleiff's
is
Qachichte der
divergent;
unciidliclien
lieihen.
II
T.
is
17
258
and
if
mod. z
is
the two series
it is
unity
also not convergent, since the
2 cos nO, % sin
nO,
which have been found
sums of
in Art. 74,
do not approach a definite value when n is indefinitely great.

We have, by equating the real and imaginary parts of the
and the sum,
series
2
f-
fjog
2r cos + r = 1 + r cos + r- cos 2$ +
2r cos + r
+ r n cos nd +
r sin
= r sin + r
these series hold for
=1
and r =
that this
all
20 -f
sin
. . .
+ r n sin n0 +
...,
.;
values of r lying between + 1, excluding

series are not convergent.
To see
which the
1, for
we need only
the case,
is
write
for z in the original
series.
The geometrical
series is uniformly
modulus
z of which the
is
number, arbitrarily small.

Z71
terms
is
is
convergent
for all values of
rj,
and the modulus of
this less than
(l7l)
n
;
the
7)
then be such that
series will
modulus
where rj is any fixed positive

For the remainder after the first n
1
rj,
if
e,
77> n
(1
v
of z of which the
for all values
R n (z) <
^- <
..
6,
>
or if n
log
fi
r]
'
4-
log e
Ar-
log (I-77)
Hence, since it is possible to choose n so that for all values of z of

which the moduli are ^1 rj, the remainders after n terms are
less than e, and since this clearly holds for all greater values of n,
the series converges uniformly for all such values.
It has thus been shewn that the geometrical series
is
uniformly
convergent in the area bounded by any circle concentric with and
interior to the circle of radius unity with the centre at the. origin.
Series of ascending integral poiuers.
203.
We
shall
where a0> a u a 2
plex variable z.
the moduli of a
now
consider the general power- series
a z
x
az 2
...
a n z 11
-f
are complex numbers independent of the comLet r denote the modulus of z, and a,,, a 1} a 2 ...
The series of moduli is
a ,a 2
...
ax r
+a
r2
+ a n r" +
when
259
this series is convergent the series in
powers of z is absolutely
If
the
series
of
moduli
convergent.
converges for any value of r
it is convergent for all smaller values of r
and if it is divergent
;
for
As
any value of r
also divergent for all greater values of

a
a r + a.,r- + ... three cases
this
series
regards
may arise.
it is
The
r.
series
some values of r
for
different
(1)
may converge
from zero, and diverge for other values there then exists a
positive
number p such that the series converges when r < p, and diverges
;
when
>
p.
as the case
When
may be.
p the series
may either converge
The series may converge for

(2)
venient to express this by p = oo
values of r;
ail
or diverge,
con-
it is
The
(3)
this
series
may
diverge for
be expressed by p
may
all
values of r except r
0.
In order to determine the number p in any given case, we consider

i
the values of a nn
It
that, as
may happen
indefinitely in-
is
n
creased, a n converges to a definite limit
in that case, if e be
an
arbitrarily chosen positive
and A
between
A+e
number
finite
that a positive
number, as small as we please, a nn lies

for all values of n with the exception of
More
of such values.
number
it
generally,
such that, for
exists,
may happen
all
values of n
except a finite
set,
a nn
< A + e, and
such that
i^
of values of n, a nn lies
number p
between
A+e
and
for
an
infinite
number
e. In either case,
the
To see this it will be sufficient to

equal to 1/A.
that
the
series
prove
converges if r < 1/A, and that it diverges if
n rn
r >
For all values of n
a finite set a r n <
is
1/A.
where
except
may
be arbitrarily chosen
if
r has a value
(A +e)
1/A, we can
,
<
+ e)r<
1.
All the terms of the series, except
are
then
less
than the corresponding terms of
them,
the geometric series of which the common ratio (A + e) r is less
than unity consequently the series is convergent. If r > 1/A, we
choose
so that
(A
finite set of
can choose
for
an
e so
infinite
that (A
number
e)
>
1,
and thus
a n rn
of values of n; the series
>(A e) n r n > 1,
is
consequently
divergent.
i_
If o n n converges to the limit zero, as n is

the series converges fur every value of r.
For, in that case,
172
260
a n rn
<
n rn
where
may be
so chosen that er
<
and
every value of n except a finite set of such values.

of the series, Avith the exception of a finite number,
this holds
Each term
for
is
then
less
than the corresponding term of a convergent geometric series;

= oo
consequently the series is convergent. In this case p
.
If a nn has indefinitely great values, that
is,
if
no number exists
n
greater than all the numbers a n the series diverges for
=
t
0.
In this case p 0.
all values of r except
For, if r have
any given value except zero, there are an infinite number of terms
which
is
of the series each of which
is
greater than unity, and thus the
series is divergent.
In the last Article it has been shewn that a number p

which may however be zero, or may have the improper
value oo, which is such that the series a + o.^r + a2 r2 + ... is convergent for each value of r which is < p, and is divergent for each
204.
exists,
is > p.
About the point 2
value of r that
= 0as
centre, describe a circle of radius p;
this circle is called the circle of convergence of the series
and
a z
x
+ a. z- +
z
...,
is called the radius of convergence of the series.

radius of convergence may be finite, or zero, or infinite.
2
It will be shewn that the series a + a-^z + oz + ... is absolutely
its
radius
The
convergent for any point z in the interior of the

vergence, and that
circle of con-
any point z exterior to that

divergent
can
be made as regards the
No quite general statement
circle.
convergence of the series for a point on the circumference of the
circle of
for
it is
convergence.
That the
series is absolutely convergent if mod. z p is seen from the
an zn
is not
fact that the necessary condition of convergence
na
n
1l
an
for
infinite
number
of
and
For \a n z
satisfied.
n
p
(r/p)
n
e
be
so
hence
if
chosen
that
values of n, an p n > ( 1
pe) ;
r(i-e)>l,
we
see that
a n zn
>
1, for
an
infinite
number
of values of n.

It will
205.
261
next be shewn that the series a
ax z
+a
2 z-
..
converges uniformly in any circle of which the radius is less than

is the centre. Suppose
the radius of convergence, and of which z
k to be the radius of this circle, and let p^ be a fixed number
p
between p and p
sum
k = p h. The modulus of the

+ ... does not exceed the limiting
k; let p
of a n z n
+ a n+1
limiting
of the series
z n+1
sum
an rn +ctn+1 rn+1
n
+ ...,
n+l
n+1
nPl (r/Pl ) + a n+lPl
+
(r/ Pl )
n
n+1
Now the numbers an p an+1 /o 1 , ... are all less than some fixed
since the series is convergent when r = p r ; thus the
number
n
n+1
+ ...}, or than
sum of the series is less than
{(r/ o 1 ) + (r/pi)
or
than K{\ - h/p^pjh. If e

K(rlpl) (\
be an arbitrarily chosen positive number, a value n of n can be
Hence the
determined such that K(l h/p ) n p /h< e, for n = n
modulus of the remainder R n {z) of the series a + a z + a,z-+ ...
- r//,) -1
and
this is less
is
than
less
e,
k
p
n =
for
and
for
all
values
of z
such that
therefore the convergence of the series is uniform

in the circle of radius p k. This is true however small the number
mod. z
k (> 0) may be taken to be, but

that
the convergence
is
would be incorrect to assert
it
uniform
necessarily
the
in
circle
of
convergence.
Denoting by F{z) the sum of the
series a
+a
+ a.,z*+
...
for
values of z of which the moduli are less than the radius of con-
vergence, it follows from Art. 200 that F(z) is a continuous

function of z, for all points lying in the interior of the circle of
If the radius of convergence is infinite, F(z) is
convergence.
continuous for
The
all finite
series
points in the plane.

1
+ z + s2 + z* +
z
1+ T +
have the radius of convergence unity

functions of
The
z in
has the radius of convergence
series
+ 3 +;
their sum-functions are continuous
Zn
r-r
1
The
the interior of the circle of radius unity.
series
finite values of
..
i3
+ ...H n + ...
+ ^-r
2
-.
infinite
the sura-function
z.
+1
\z
+ 2lz 2 + ... + n\z n + ...
has the radius of convergence zero.
is
continuous for
all
262
The convergence
of the series on the circle of convernot

been
has
considered we may without loss of
yet
gence
of
take
the
radius
convergence to be unity.
generality
It can be shewn that the series aQ + a x z + a 2 z- + ... when the
206.
itself
on the
coefficients are real, converges for points
circle of conver-
= l, if the coefficients are

gence, with the exception of the point z
and with the exception of the point z = 1, when the
all positive,
coefficients are
alternately
both cases the coefficients a
positive and negative, provided in

a 1} a 2 ... are in descending order of
,
absolute magnitude, and provided the limit of a n
when n
is
indefinitely increased, is zero.
Sn =
Let
and suppose the
Sn (lnow
z)
&\&
2^
coefficients all positive,
= a - an -\Zn z
CLn-\Z
n ~X
then
- a ) + (a^ a
{(a
)z
+ (a - a )z-+ ...
+ (o_o - a n _!) z n ~
2
- cti) +
(a 2
- a.) + (a, -a )+
3
} ;
convergent (see Art. 194, note), therefore the two series

(a
ai) -f
(a
i) + (cd
(j
2 ) cos
a2 )
sin
+ (a a ) cos 26 + ...,
6 + (a. a ) sin 26 + ...
2
all
lie
between
thus the series
1,
(a
is
...
are also convergent, since the cosines and sines
the series
(a Q
is
Oo
- aj) + (f/j -
convergent when mod. z
zero
when n
mod.
z=\;
is
infinite,
hence unless
we
a,) z
+ (a, as)z2 +
since
|
has
is
the limit
LSn (1 z)
see that
z\, LSn
a n_j z n
...
is
finite
when
finite.
If the coefficients in the series are of alternate signs, change

z, then this case is reduced to the last.
z into
Whether the
series is
convergent when z 1, or in the case of

when z= 1, has not been determined,
coefficients of alternate signs,
and depends upon the particular series. The

semi-convergent on the circle of convergence.
series
may be
only
If the coefficients of the series are complex, we can divide the

one of which the coefficients are real and in
series into two, in
the
other imaginary
separately.
the
two
series
can then be considered

Z
The
is
series
Z*
263
g8
+ T + - + - + ...
convergent when mod. 8=1, except when 2=1.
Thus the two
2-cos?*0, 2 - sin nd are both convergent, except that the
when
is
series
divergent
zero or an even multiple of n.
207.
Suppose F(x)
sum
represented as the
coefficients,
is
the continuous function of x which
of the series a
which converges
Let us assume that the

series a
first is
ctj
a,
+a
+a
x-
when x >
corresponding to x
= 1,
is
is
with real
than unity.
for real values of x, less
series diverges
but that the
convergent.
shewn that the sum of the series a Q + + a 2 + ...

is the limit of F(x) when x increases from values less than unity
to unity as its limit.
Thus the continuous function F(x) defined
It will then be
for
x=l
the series
Let
which
by
when x=l.
sum
of
This theorem was given by Abel

... + a n
s = a
In virtue of a theorem
1
s n = a + i + a. +
will
continues to represent the
F(l)=LF(x)
2
be proved in Art. 209, since the two series

T"
*T~ CvjiJls
&Q "J ^'l & ~j~ (tow" ~J~

are both absolutely
>
l+x + x + ...+x + ...

convergent when x< 1, their
2
product, formed
by multiplication,
S() ~\~
S\ CO
~^r
Sod)'
"7"
...
-f" S)i*x)
~\~
is convergent, and its limiting sum is F(x)/(1 x), the product of

the limiting sums of the two series. Denoting Lsn by s, the number
n can be chosen such that s n ,s n+1> s n+ , ... all lie between s + e and
s e, where e is an arbitrarily chosen positive number.
The limiting sum of sn xn + sn+1 x n+1 + ... for such a value of n,
n
n
Therefore
lies between (s + e) x /(l x) and (s e) x /(l x).
,
F (x)
lies
between
+ (1 - x) (s + s,x+ ...+ Sto-j^"" )

x) (s + s^ +
+ 5 n _i^' l_1
e) x + (1
follows that F(x) s is less than
e + a\ (1 -xn ) + (1 - x) ( s
+ *! + ... + sn-i
+
(s
(s
and
It
e)
xn
11
. . .
The number n having been

2e, for 1
fixed,
corresponding
to
\
e,
we can
s\ is numerically less
x, say x ly such that F(x)
> x = x since 1 x and 1 xn may be taken as small
choose a value of
than
).
See
Crelle's Journal, Vol.
264
we
Since 2e is an arbitrarily
please by properly choosing x.
s
is
limit
follows
that
the
of
it
small number,
(%) for x=l.
as
If a
two
into
a,,
a2
we may
are complex numbers,
...
parts, one
divide the series
and the other imaginary, and the theorem
real
applies to each part separately
hence
holds for the whole series.
it
Next let F (z) be the continuous function which represents,

when mod. z<\, the sum of the series do + c^z 4- a,z' + ..., where
The series may be
z is the complex number r (cos 6 + i sin 6).
2
divided into the two parts
+a
+ a. r
r cos 6
+a
i(a r sin 6
x
cos
26 +
26
r- sin
...
...),
and the theorem holds for each of these two series. Therefore if
the series a + ax z + a 2 z'2 + ... is convergent when z cos 6 + i sin 6,
its sum is the limit for r = 1, of F(z), the value of 6 being kept
The function represented by the series is then conconstant.
tinuous at the point on the circle of convergence with the values
on the radius of the circle of convergence through the point.
In order that the necessity for the investigation in this Article may be
we remark that a similar theorem would not hold for the series obtained
2
by altering the order of the terms in the series a +a 1 x+a 2 x +.... For
two
real
series
consider
the
example,
seen,
and x-\-\x--lx'i +\x* + }x' -\x^ + ...;
a?-^2 +i3 -i4 +...

as long as
sum
shewn
x= 1,
x< 1, the series are absolutely convergent, and they have the same
when however x=\, the sums of the series are not equal,
in Art. 195.
The sum of the first series is continuous up
of x, but that of the second
208.
is
not
so.
There cannot be two distinct

ao
b
+ a + a 0- +
+ b z + b.,z +
1
2'
as has been
to the value
series of
powers of z,
...,
..,
which both converge to the same value

(z) for all points in a
of radius k (> 0).
For since they converge to the same
value for z = 0, we must have a = b
and thus the series
circle
a^z
+ a 2 z2 +
mod. z
k.
...,
both
z+b
This
0,!
are
b1
+a
is
2
converge to the same value when

impossible unless the two series
2
z2
...
+a 3 z 2 +
convergent
and
...
have
b1
b.2
+b
the same
z2
+ ...
limiting
sums
for
< mod. z k. The radii of convergence of these two series are

each = k, and their sum-functions are both continuous within their
265
Since their sum-functions are identical
circles of convergence.
for
each value of z except z = 0, in the circle of radius k, it follows

from the continuity of those functions that they are identical when
z=
therefore a 1
=b
By
proceeding in this manner,
shewn that all the corresponding coefficients in the two

equal, and thus that the series are identical.
Convergence of the product of two
Let
209.
it
can be
series are
series.
the limiting sums of two absolutely
S, S' denote
convergent series
+ a + a + ... +a n +
+ b, + b + ..+b n +
a1
then
it
...,
...;
b1
can be shewn that the series
tti& 1
+ (a
&2
+ ao& )+
1
+ (i b n +
...
tt 2
6_i
+a n b ) + ...
...
obtained by multiplying together the given series

and that its limiting sum is SS'.
is
convergent,
Denote by sn the sum of n terms of the product series, and let

be the moduli of a and b respectively. Since the series S, S'
are absolutely convergent, the series of moduli are convergent;
denote their sums by 2, ', and let
a, /3
= aifr + (!& + a ft) +... + (ai/3 + fin-i +

have S n Sn sn = a. b n + a bn^ + ... +a n b
0- n
*-2
We
+ aft).
'
'
mod. (Sn 8n
hence
- sn ) ^
a 2 /S
n_i
tl
+ a/3n
"n-
'n-îi
Now
+a
< S2n' < o"anj because a2n contains more terms than the
S
whereas <r n contains fewer; hence the limit of a n
2
n
product
when n is indefinitely increased, is finite, and therefore since the
<r n
ft ',
limits of
cr n
limit of mod.
m must be the same, each is equal

(Sn Sn s n ) is zero, or s = SS'.
<r
to SS'
thus the
'
More generally
it
can be shewn that
it
is
sufficient
for
the
validity of the theorem that the convergence of one only of the

should be absolute, that of the other
series a x + a 2 +
b -t- b., +
. . .
In case the two series are both only conditionally

the
convergent,
product series a b + (a b.i + a.J) ) + ... is not necessarily convergent, but it can be shewn that in case it be convergent,
being conditional.
sum
its
1
is
the product of the
For proofs
sums
of the two given series 1
of these results, see the author's
variable, pp. 500, 501.
Theory of functions of a real
266
The convergence of double
double sequence
Let us consider a
210.
numbers
series.
of
positive
real
a,. jg
^1,1,
&l,2,
Ofja,
...
cc
02,1,
02,2,
k,S,
V,8,
liS
...
Let us assume that the numbers in each row when added

together have a definite limiting sum; and let sl3 s2 ...s r ...
,
denote the values of this limiting sum for the

rows. Let it be further assumed that the series
is
convergent, and has 8
that the series a
M+a
2iS
...
+ ar ,s+
s1
sum
...
?'th
+s r +
...
It will
...
be shewn
obtained by adding the
any one column is convergent, and that

be denoted by sg the series 2j + 2 2 + s 3 + ...
numbers
second,
+ s+
sum.
for its limiting
first,
if its
in
is
limiting
convergent,
and has S for its limiting sum.

That a 1)S + a 2)S + ... + a r ,s+ is convergent follows from the
fact that each term is less than the corresponding term of the
convergent series s 1 + s.2 + ...
chosen that the r numbers
n=p
2i- S
are
value of
sum
is
than
less
all
+ s + s2 +
^
r,
...
+sp
ct
n>1
e/r.
22
the series
is
integer
%+%+
. .
22
is
...s,.-
so
22
a )l>r
2,.
is
less
than
since this holds for every
convergent and its limiting

Also the integer q may
arbitrarily small.
nq
p may be
n=p
a,,,.,,
+ S; and
be so chosen that the r numbers

n=q
An
n=p
- 2
Therefore
or than
S, since e
+s r +
THE THEORY OF INBTNITE SERIES
267
terms of a convergent double series of positive numbers and S is

said to be its sum.
In accordance with the theorem proved, the
limiting
taken
sum
first
of the series
is
with respect to
converse order.
same whether the summation be
the
and then with respect
Thus
CO
00
2 2
CO
Ori8
CO
2 2
a,.
to
r,
or in the
268
without altering
limiting sum, provided the series
its
S +S +S
is
convergent, where
I
An
Sr
+...
denotes the limiting
ar.i
sum
of
+ |ar,| + ....
r,t|
important case of this theorem, of which we shall afterwards
make
use, is the following

a 2 z2
If a
al z
...
sum
be a convergent series of which the

and
if a Q a u a 2 ... are the
F(y,z),
limiting sums
is
limiting
of the absolutely convergent series
,
ho + KiV + K*y~ + h*f +

Ko + hii/ + h^f + h hsy + 3
ho + Kiy + h*y* + h*y

then, if the series
Ar
A +A
sum
denotes the
z
|
+ A.
z
1
of the series
J
&r>0
+
.
is
convergent, where
b rA y
b rt2 y-
...,
the series
(b
,o
+ bi,
z2
+...)
+ (&o,i + b ltl z + b.2>1 z + ...) y

+ (b ,2 + b h2 z + b, t2 z +
2
. .
which
.)
y-
obtained by substituting for a0) a 1} a.2 ... in the given

series, and arranging the terms as a series in powers of y, is
convergent, and its limiting sum is F(y, z) the same as that of the
is
original series.
The Binomial theorem.
A very important case of series in ascending integral

211.
powers of a variable is the series
V+(m ^(m
m (m 1
l+mz + iyj
.,
vi
2)
'z 3 +....
In the particular case in which m is a positive integer, the

and its sum is (1 +z) m the ordinary proof of this
being applicable to a complex value of z.
series is finite,
We
shall
suppose z to be a complex number, but shall confine

In this case a n /a n+1 is
is real.
ourselves to the case in which
n
to
equal
^
+1
n m
the limiting
value of which
is
the radius
unity;
J
of convergence of the series is therefore unity.

The series conz
at
interior
to
the
circle of radius
verges absolutely
any point
269
and uniformly in any circle of radius less than unity.

Denoting the limiting sum of the series by f(m), and applying
the theorem of Art. 209, we find for points within the circle of
unity,
f^ x/(m
convergence
and thence f{rih)f{m^)
First suppose
terms, then putting
=f(m + m
.f(m q ) =f(m + m +
2)
2 ),
m =
l
m.,
).
lowest
its
have
=ApI
and the values of the 5th roots of
+ mq
of (1
is
+ z) p
Let
+ z) p = 1\ P (cos pxp + i sin p(f>),
(1
where
= mq = plq, we
...
therefore /(p/g) is a 5th root of/(p), that

= rx sin </>, then
1 + r cos 6 = r, cos (f>, r sin
rj
to be a positive fraction p/q in
[f(p/q)]
i
(
cos
p(f>
this are
2stt
h 1
pcf>+
sin
has the values

rx
and we may suppose
</>
0, 1, 2, ...
1.
We
= + Vl + 2r cos 8 + r
to
2stt
have
2
,
v sin J which
be that value of tan-1
acute (positive or negative); such a value exists, for cos </> is

We see
positive for all points within the circle of convergence.
is
then that/(p/g)
and
is
a value of fyr-P \ cos
must always have the same
f(l>'q) is
a continuous function for
1-
value, since
all
s, put (j>=0, then /(p/q)

therefore be equal to a real value of
+
2S7T
we know
that
points within the circle of
convergence.
To find the value of
2/r-P xcos
sin
is real,
and must
2stt)
sin -
and therefore
small,
/(-)
s
is
= 0,
or s
= \q
in case q
is
is sufficiently
be equal to
certainly positive; hence s cannot
and must therefore be zero.

We have thus proved that the sum of the
positive rational
number
p/q,
is
that is
(1
if
even;
2r cos 6
+ ry
/2 ?
series,
when
is
the principal value of (1 +z)
/nth
2
(cos
+ i sin
nd>\
P
'
\q
270
where the expression

and <b
^
is
+ 2r cos
(1
'
rz) p!2q has
-f
its real positive value,
-1
the numerically
J smallest value of tan
m be
let
+ rcos#
where
= r (cos + i sin 6).
Next
^,
number
a positive irrational
we
be defined as the limit of a sequence

... m r
lt m.2
rational numbers.
It will then be shewn that/'(m)
,
consider
it
to
of positive
the limit of
...
is
the sequence f(vh), f(m 2 ), ... f(m r ), ..., or f(m) = Lf(m r).
have, for any point z in the interior of the circle of convergence,
We
,m r (mr l) & +
ft
\
i
f(m ) = 1 + m r z +
.
+-nW.
(n-1)!
where
|i? M
less
is
(.z)|
than the limiting sum of the convergent
series
N(N+l)...(N + n-l )
where iV
m m
x
...
Rn (z) <
mr
chosen positive
the finite series
as
For
au the numbers m r where

number. It is clear that the
'
e is an arbitrarily
limit of the sum of
m r converges to m, is
m(m 1) * +
1 + mz +
2
V
'
greater than all the numbers

sufficiently great values of n, we have
all
f r
e>
+ -'
'
number
a positive
is
+
+ N(N+l)...(N n)
(n + 1)!
n\
m(m 1)
...
(m to + 2)>
J-h.;
[yj
this is therefore the limit of f(m r ) R n (z).

In accordance
with the definition of an irrational power given in Art. 186, the
limit of the principal value of (1 +z) m
is (1 + z) m
Since
and
>-
m m
\B n (z)\<, for all the numbers

which must have a definite value,
Xi
is
...
mr
,..,
L \Rn (z)\,
e.
It follows that
_
1 _l ?? j2
differs
+ m(m
J
2!
1)
v2
_i
from the principal value of

is not greater than e,
the modulus
(1
(m ?i + 2)/ z n-l
(n-1)!
m
+ z) by a number of which
*+ + m(m
1)/
...
for all sufficiently large values
ADDENDUM.
Insert on page 271, above the third line
page
the foot of the
from
To shew
that
when
>
1,
the absolute magnitude of an
diminishes indefinitely as n increases indefinitely, write s for the

positive number m + 1, and denote the product of a certain fixed
number
if
is
of factors in the expression for \a n

the integer next greater than s,
by k
we have
then,
r+1
K|=&(i-i)(i
<k
>[K)(n
<
The sum
1+s
r+1 )...(
+1
+ ...+
of the first r terms of -
that of the next 2r terms
is
T2 +
is
>i,
> , and so on therefore, for a

sum of the series exceeds a prethe sum of the series increases
scribed multiple of and thus

It follows
indefinitely as n does so.
that \an
When
definitely as n is increased indefinitely.
of the binomial series are alternately 1 and
series does not converge.
also
sufficiently large value of n, the

;
diminishes in\
m=
1,
1,
the terms
and thus the

of n
271
therefore the convergence of the Binomial series to the

m
principal value of (1 + z) has been established for the case of a
;
positive irrational number.
m
We have then
=
or f(m) is the
Hence f(m) l/f(m
f()n)f(in )f(0)=l.
reciprocal of the principal value of (1 + )'"', or is the principal
Lastly, let
be a negative number
value of
(l+z)
We may
m
.
state the complete result as follows
The sum of the

2
fur
all values
1)
when
of which the modulus
argument of
lies
z,
...
2r cos 6
and
<\>
(m n-f
1)
than unity
is
the
modulus and 6
the
is less
z)"\ which, is
+ r )^ m (cos m^> +
2
any real number,
is
- 1)
principal value of (1
(1
m(m
of
series
m (m
),
the
being
sin m<),
l
being that value of tan~
r sin u
which
between \tt
This result was obtained by Cauchy, and will be found in his
Analyse Algebrique.
212.
mod.
now remains
It
for
Denoting the terms of the
1+ +
by a
us
consider the
to
case
when
when
n>m
z = 1.
a lt a 2
...,
series
2T +m(ml)(vi2) +"
m(m l)
3!
we have a n+1 /an
= (m n)j(n +
1)
this ratio is negative, therefore the terms of the series are alternately positive and negative, after a fixed term ; the series is,
Art. 194, convergent if the terms diminish in absolute magnitude and become ultimately indefinitely small. This will be the
by
case if
n.
m<
+ 1,
that
is,
if
m > 1
thus the series
is
a semi-
m >
1, it is divergent,
1, whereas if ra<
convergent one, if
since the absolute magnitudes of the terms increase indefinitely.
From the proposition in Art. 200, it follows that the series
1 4-
mz
m>
-\
1,
1)
mlm
^
and
z-+... converges when mod. z=\, provided
z^1.
272
When
\,
the terms of the series are, after a certain

terra, of the same sign
applying the known test
z
all
Ln(l
+ a n /a w -i)>
the series will be convergent
Ln
{1
1,
if
(n m
>
l)/n]
1,
or if
> 0.
According to the theorem in Art. 207, whenever the series
V+
l+mz+ m(m
v
1)
converges on the circle of convergence,

(1
at the point.
The
+ 2r cos + r-)^
We may
its
(cos mcf)
...
sum
is
+ i sin
the value of
m<)
state the complete result as follows
series
'
= 1, if m is positive, for all values of z

1, for all values of z except z =
converges when mod. z

and
is between
if
which case the argument of
is
it.
m = 1,
For
all
m< 1.
and when
sum
series converges, its
is
(2 + 2
where 6 has a value between
The
series diverges
also
in
1,
when
values of z for which the
cos 6)% m (cos
|m0 + ism m<9),
it.
The Binomial Theorem has been considered generally, for complex

by Abel, in a memoir published in Crelle's Journal, Vol. I.
values
of m,
The circular functions of multiple angles.

213.
its
An
important application of the Binomial Theorem in

m of which,
form, is the expansion of (cos 6 + i sin 6)
,
generalized
the principal value is cos m0 + i sin mO,
by De Moivre's Theorem,
m
tr.
between
if 6 lies
Writing (cos 9 + i sin 6) in the form
cosm 6 (1
cos
+ i tan
6)
m we have
,
m6 + i sin mO = cos m
V^pL) tal
f
/i
+ % hn tan 6
+
...J
m(ml)(m 2) tan 0+
n
~f
'
.
3
V
...[
this condition will be satisfied

is convergent
provided the series
if 8 lies between the limits \tr, whatever be the value of m,
> 1.
and also when 6 = \tt, provided
;

Suppose
(1)
m6 = cosw
cos
m positive,
-
\l
m(7?
then we have
1)
tan 2
","
+ ,(--i)(-D(-)
~
m
md = cos6 Li tan - (m
sin
273
(m "
2)
^_
tan 3 6>
<H
(1)j
|
. .
.1
(2),
lies between + \ir, and they hold

m, provided
These results are an extension of those obtained
for all values of
0=
for
\tt.
which case
in Art. 51, for the case of in a positive integer, in

there is no convergence condition.
Suppose
(2)
ra negative, then
m
cos md cos" 0=11
(^+l) tan
changing
into
2)
for all positive values of
\tt. These
and 0.
when
0=
results hold for
The formulae
214.
(1)
and
we have
" + * ) ( "t +
mS cos" = m tan 6 - (?
which hold
+ l)(m + 2)( + 8
)tm<tf _
+ m(
sin
tan'g+
m, provided 6
only
\tt,
if
lies
(3)
(4),
between
m lies between
(2) of the last Article have, in the
been applied in Chapter vn to

obtain expressions for cos mcf>, sin ni(f>, in series of ascending powers
of sin <f>.
We proceed now to find similar expressions, when
case
in is a positive integer,
is
not a positive integer.
We
have proved that, when
m
cos m<f> = 1
-,
sin 2

=rn
sin
-2
(m
sin 4
)(m
-^
m(m -
-4
<p
2
-^sin^+
(5),
,

and sin <, by substituting for powers
powers of cos
These
series
sin m(f), in
of cos
cf>
sin
powers of 1
cf>,
Binomial Theorem
for
expanding each of these by the

positive integral index, and arranging
(j>,
The same series will be obtained

any positive integer, not limited as to evenness or
is positive, which will be the case if
oddness, provided cos
the powers of 1 sin 2 < will no longer
lies between
^tt
necessarily be integral, but the Binomial Theorem is still applicable
the result in powers of sin
when
<f>.
is
<j>
<f>
Since all the series of

since all the series will be convergent.
2
are
of
sin
absolutely convergent, and since the original
powers
<f>
expression for cos m(f>, sin m<p each contains only a finite number
of terms, by Art. 210, we may arrange the result of the expansions
2
Thus we see that if
in a series of powers of sin <.
is
any
positive integer, each of the series (5), (6) holds, provided <f> lies
between + \ir the first series does not consist of a finite number
;
m be
of terms unless
+ m (i sin
.
</>)
m be
even, and the second not unless
Let/(m) denote the limiting
sum
m (m l
2
,. .
sin
-q\ (*
9)"
odd.
of the series
2
.
(l
"*
o~i
sm
...
?)*
+ ->
on the right-hand side is obtained by adding the

by i. When m is a positive
=
lies between
have
we
+
/'(m)
cosm^> isin?)i0, if
integer,
+ \tt. Now when m x and m 2 are positive integers, we have
where the
series
series (5) to the series (6) multiplied
<f>
f(m
x/(i 2)
= (cos wi,î + i sin m

+ % sin m
(cos m.
= cos {m + m ) + i sin (v^ + m,)
x <f>)
=f(m + m
1
The product
Art. 209,
two
of the
form, whatever
lt
m.,
we conclude
be
all
convergent.
values of
We
let
7?i!
/(wi2) will be of the same

employing the theorem of
thus,
wij
and
=/( w + ^2)
i
since the series are absolutely
have consequently
f(m )f(m
1
<j>
that the equation
/("'1) */(wi)
holds for
<$>
)...f(m q )=f(m
+ m,+
= w, ... = niq^p/q, where p and
get then
2 (f>)
2 ).
series /(wii),
may
2 (f)
...
+m
q )',
q are positive integers,
we
^75
hence f(pjq)
a value of \f(p)} q and
is
^- +
2S7T
jt?$
cos
r+
M<
therefore of the form
is
h i sin
2S7T
-,
where s is some integer. Now when <f> = 0, we have

f(p/q)= 1,
hence since the sum f{pjq) varies
as
increases
continuously
from -i7r to +$ir, we must have s = 0, if
lies between these
limits; hence in that case
/(p/q)
+*s
cos
Next let
be a positive irrational number defined as the
limit of a sequence of irrational numbers
...
lt
2
S) ....
m m
We
have then
f(m ) = 1 + w, (i sin
s
0)
(i sin <)
...
w /-2r-3l
w,(7 g -P)...
) /
m.'(n ta-2')...( w ,-27=2|')

(2r)
where
|
JX
w p
-(uin^-îJ,
,.
than the modulus of the

limiting sum of the
less
is
-(isin0)-'-
(2r-l)!
convergent series
N(N* + 1*)...(N*+W^l\*).
sin ri,,
i
(2/- + 1)!
.
-.
<f>
,
>+*
+ iV7iV
2 2 )...(iYr2
+27|U),
,,
l**4>\
(2^+2)1
M+
^
..'.
number which is greater than all the

For each fixed value of <, r may be so
where e is an arbitrarily chosen positive
iV denoting a positive
m m ....
that R <
numbers
chosen
1}
number,
The
limit
increased,
1
e,
for all the values ra 1} in 2
is
of/(m s )
cos
or cos
m-=
(i sin
+ ~ra(ra
+
ra2
(m
0)
-l
of
...
. .
-2r-3j
^
_ m
(2r-l)!
-2
from cos ra$
)...(ra
)...(m
+ * sin ?n< by
-(isin^)-'
-27^2|
-(27)1
differs
g $, as .9 is indefinitely
</>
It then follows that
i sin ??*<.
?</> +
+ in (i sin <) +
+ i sin m
number
(*
sm
*)
of which the modulus
182
27 G
does not exceed
Since
e.
verges to cos
m(f>
+ i sin
has thus been shewn
e is arbitrary, it
$ between +
that for each value of
the infinite series con-
\ir,
mcf).
number m
be a negative rational or irrational

Lastly let
Since f(m) x/(mj) =/(0) = 1, we have
f(m) =
We
1 /(cos
+i sin m^) =
1 (f)
have shewn thus that the two
cos
m(m-l

+ i sin
cos m<f>
m<j>.
series
2
(m
22 )
sin 4
d>
..
(5),
sin 3

hold for
lying between
.
5
\ir,
(6),
whatever
real
number
m may be.
converge absolutely when <f> = \ir. For,
a
the
absolute
value of the general term of the first
denoting by r
series, we have
The
series (5), (6)
ar _(2r
l)(2r
2)
-m
ar+1
(2r)
Lr
therefore
\a r+1
+ JL
J3_
2r2J \
2r
=-
and thus in accordance with a known
The
vergent.
series (6)'
may
4r 2
the series
test,
in a similar
is
con-
manner be shewn
to
In accordance with Abel's theorem in Art. 207, the

converge.
series (5) and (6) converge to the values cos ^ nnr, sin ^ mir, when
4>
=i
i 77
similar proof will
"-
shew that the two
m -l
sm-
9=
,
cos m<fi]cos
series
<j-j
-
(7),
sin3
J.
-4
<f>
values of m, provided
(f>
-sin 5
^f
series (7), (8) are not valid
4l
lies
when
between +
<f>
0-...
^tt.
(8),
^tt.
277
when
series (7) terminates only
The
when
(8) only
an odd integer, and
is
an even integer.
is
If we take the series for cos m<f>+i sin
215.
z = i sin
and put
</>,
we
have, since (cos
<f>
from (5) and
??i<,
<)
the expansion
2
+ mz
+Yl
m(m l
2
m-
m
(Jl+z + z) =
~S\
+ _ (?n
??i
2
)
i
4!
*+...
(6),
= (J\ + z + z) m
sin
m(//r-l )...(m -2s-3j
Z _,
(2^-1)!
(m
-2
) ...
(m2 - 2s-2| 2 )
Z + ""
(5)1
In a similar manner we have from (7) and (8)
,
(v/l
-.
+ wis +
w(m -2
2
It
??i,
)...(m
(2s2
(m -
of
m
l
2
/=
+ * + z)mlJl + z =
2j-
z2
-2s-2
m
(m 2
^
2
)
;
-
*8
. .
_1
2g
1)!
2
2
(m - 3 )
2
(m -
. .
2s
can be shewn that these expansions hold for all real values
provided the modulus of z is less than unity. By some
writers, these expansions are investigated directly, and then the

It is however not easy to
series (5), (6), (7), (8) are deduced.
investigate these series
by elementary methods, except when the

than unity we should, with that
z2 is less
modulus of z]J\ +
when
restriction, obtain the series for cosm<f>, sinm<, only
<
lies
the same
restriction that applies to the

employing the principle of con-
between + \ir, which is

and (2). However, by
are valid
tinuity, it is seen that the above expansions
series (1)
<
region
1 of
convergence of the
7r,
cos
m fir
^
,\
</>
we change
(6),
which hold
obtain the following series
and
and
If in the series (5)
216.
-m
cos
+
,
g-j
We

hjTT-2
m(m l
s-j
into \ir
for values of
ra 2 (ra2
fir
\
sinm ^ $ =mcos
in
the
series.
<f>
cos
cos
,
^ ~
between
m<f>,
when
<
278
has any value 1
r is an integer,
If
cos mcf)
also sin
(f>
= ( l)
cos wi< = cos mrir
sin
i"7r +
<f>
where
(f>
between +
lies
<
\ir,
and
we have
(m
= cos mrir cos m<fi sin mr-rr sin m<f>

sin
(l
thus we have,
=f
1) rir
sin
c/>
if
lies
<f>
between
(r
+ ^)
it,
~
m sin ^-=-: 1") sin
2
?7Z
( T72.
</>
<
<
...(11).
Similarly
1
sin2
~-j
<f)
m ^
(m l
2
+ cos (m
From
1)
(10),
= cos?>i(2r +
cos??i<
and
(9)
cos(ra-l)(2>-
sin
?*7r
jm
sin<
we obtain
7T
1)
+ l)
<1
cos 2
-^
where
Series of
217.
and
between
lies
?'7r
some
by giving
then, writing x for to, in
(7)
(8),
and
(r
</>
letting
??i
x2
=l--+
,
cos|7ra;
= 2x,
=
<f)
^tt,
4
2
cos 3
...^
(14),
derived from (5) and
Let
</>
(6),
= \ir, we have
(x
-2
-*
)
^
4~T
-9
o
15 )'
(1G).
and
in (5)
(8),
we have
x2 V(x2 -l 2 ') --*

x2 (x2 -l 2 ){x2 -2 2 )*
g^
x (x L
= Jrv ,_
3Jtf-- g-j
.
sini7
^-
=x
..A (13),
(6),
2"j
Again
-1
may be
x
x
cos \irx = 1 +
sin \ttx
+ 1) 7r.
and
4>
...[
2
2
particular values
-cos 3
*-=-j
interest
(5)
...V ...(12).
TO(TO
(/>
sin 3
...>
< -f-
,\/ n
tvTI
+ sin(m-l)(2/-+l)
g j*cos0
^y-
~- cos
manner
in a similar
Wl2
^j?icos0
= sin to (2r+ 1)
??i</>
1-)-
(x
- P)
(17),
(x -2-)
^y
,,,_,.
+ ...
)
--..j
,_ ox
(18).
The formulae (11), (12), (13), (14) were given by D. F. Gregory in the
Cambridge Mathematical Journal, Vol. iv.
2 The series in this Article were obtained
by Shellbacli, see Crelle's Journal,
Vol. xlviii.
they have also been discussed by Glaisher in the Messenger of MatheSeries equivalent to (15) and (16) are given by M. David
matics, Vols. ii. and vn.
1
in the Bulletin de la Soc. Math, de France, Vol.
xi.

Various series
sin \irx,
...
in
be found for powers of tt, by expanding cos|;r.r,

and equating the coefficients of the powers of x
may
powers of x,
to those picked out from the above series

3
by equating the coefficients of x ,
11
n3
Expansion of
11.3/
powers
</>,
powers of m, as
(16)
we
have,
1\
measure of an angle in powers
the circular
its sine.
and
(6), for cos mcp, sin nuf>, in

series as series of ascending
If in the expansions (5)
of sin
example from
for
11.3.5/
1\
of
218.
279
we arrange the
we are, by Art.
210, entitled to do, since the
series
sin 4
sin- <p H
-j
m sin
.
j-j
^ +
I s)
in (in 2
, sin mcf), in powers of <f> we thus obtain from (6)
;
.
,
1 sin 3
1.3
sin 5
l'.3.5...(2r-l)sJn"0 +
and from
(5)
2 sin 4
2.4
<f>
sin' 
between +
J-7T,
+
when
or
cf>
^7r.
~ U)
'
We
them
sin -1
a?
= a; 4-
-^
(sin-^-)
+^ -+
^+3-2 + 3-.5
(19),
20 )'
where sin-1 a?, in either equation, is the positive or negative acute

angle whose sine is equal to x.
The series (19) was discovered by Newton; the method of
proof
is
that of Cauchy.
280
219.
By changing x
into
x+h
in the series (20),
and equating
the coefficients of h on both sides of the equation, which process
equivalent to a differentiation with respect to x, and may be

justified by employing the theorems of Arts. 210 and 208, we
obtain the series
is
sin -1
a;
=x+
STZ*
or putting sin
--x'
_,\
(21),
for x,
</>
</sin
or writing
7r
"3^x* '3.5
=
2<j>
cos
</>
<f>
= 1 + 25 sin
o
<
2 4.
+ ~ sin 4
_-
</>
o O
(22),
6,
=1 +
0/sin 9
- cos 6) + ^| (1 - cos 6)~ + ...
\{1
6 cosec
+ \o vers + \~
o O
vers 2
(23).
Again, in (22), put tan
tan- 1 2/=-^-il
!+?/-(
<f>
= y,
and we obtain the
+--1+-ôl+?/'
f*
3.5(1+2/-)
series
+. ..[... (24).
j
Expression of powers of sines and cosines in sines and cosines

of multiple angles.
We shall now shew how expressions of the form

220.
m
cos 0sin # may be conveniently expressed in cosines or sines
,l
of multiples of
6.
We
shall in the first instance confine our-
selves to the case of positive integral values of

and n.
x
i sin 6, then z~ = cos 6 i sin 6, hence 2 cos 6 = z
z cos
2i sin
6 = z z~
l
,
Let
+ z*
1
,
and
m
n
(2 cos 6) (2i sin 6)
= (z + z~
- z~ ) n
l
(z
we expand
the expression in z, in powers of z and z~ l we can

arrange the result in. a series of terms of one of the two forms
k (z r + z~ r ), k(z r z~ r ), where & is a multiplier depending on in, n,
if
and r
De
now
zr
= cos rd + i sin rO.
and z~ r
cos rO
% sin
rO,
by
Moivre's Theorem, hence
k
thus
(z
+ z~ r ) =
we have the
2k cos
rd,
2k
(z
- z~ =
r
required expression for cos
cosines or sines of multiples of 6.
wt
2ik sin rd,
0sin'"0 in a series of
281
Example.
Express sin^dcos^d
in series
of multiples of
6.
+ z- 6 = (2* - a-^^ + s"

2
2
6 -z- 10
\Oz
5z-lOz+
+
(z-5z
)(z + zor 3U +a9_5 37_526 + 102S+103 r 103- 1 -10- 3 + 53- 5 + 53-*-3-0-3- 11
which is equal to 2t (sin 110 + sin 96 -5 sin 76 -5 sin 50 + 10 sin '36 + 10 sin 0),
We
which
6
(2 cos 6) =(z-z- ^(z
have (2iski6)
equal to
is
),
therefore sin 5
cos 6
equal to
is
(sin
110+sin 96 -
5 sin 76
sin 56
+ 10 sin 3(9+ 10 sin 6).

This process
may
also be arranged thus, writing c for cos 6,
for sin 6,
= l + 6 + 15 + 20 + 15 + 6+ 1,
(2c)
G
(2) (2c) =l + 5 + 9+ 5- 5- 9- 5- 1,
2
6
(2) (2c) =l + 4 + 4- 4-10- 4+ 4+ 4 + 1,
3
6
(2w) (2c) =l+3+ 0- 8- 6+ 6+ 8- 0-3-1,
c
(2w)*(2c) = l + 2- 3- 8+ 2 + 12+ 2- 8-3 + 2 + 1,
5
c =l
+ l- 5- 5 + 10+10-10-10 + 5 + 5-1-1;
(2c)
(2*'s)
6
2 are omitted on the right-hand side, and a figure in any

by subtracting from the figure just above it the one that
here the powers of

line is obtained
precedes the
latter.
This very convenient mode of carrying out the numerical calculation

given by De Morgan in his Double Algebra and Trigonometry.
We
is
and (2 sin 6)
(2 cos 6)
or
sines
of
cosines
in
a
Avhen
is
multiples of 6,
positive integer,
the
last
Article.
have
in
by the method we have employed
221.
can obtain formulae
for
We
m
(2 cos 6)
= (z + z~ ) m = z m + mzm-* +
l
in (m 1 '
z m ~*
+...+ r
hence
2n-i cos
m0 _ cos m +
where the
last
term
- - cos (m - 4)0 +
. . .
is
m cos (m - 2) 6 + - or
m!
2(m)!(m)!
(m-l)!(w +
m
is even or odd.
as
according
cos
a
0,
l)!
From
m
m
'~-- z m -> -... + ((2ismer={z-z- ) =z -mz -*+
we obtain similarly
l
2-i (_ l)*~sin m
+
when
//t
is
even,
= cos md - m cos (m 2)0

i
(m 1)
-2T-"
COs(wi
" 4^
.
^"- +( "
/
\?
1)'"
z~ m
1)
"2(i,iO!(i0!
282
m -1
or 2"
"1
m
(- \)~^~ sin
= sin m,0 - m sin (m -2)0
x
a
2
+ m(m2! 1)-sm(m-4)t9-...+(-l)
when
.,
_ x
sin
fl
(im-l)!(im+l)!
in is odd.
These formulae have already been obtained in Chapter
We
222.
shall
next consider the expansions of cos m #, sin" #

l
and sines of multiples of 0, when

1. We have from Art. 212,
than
greater
m cos m
2 m + cos
in cosines
= 1 + m cos
</>
cos20 + (m
m (m
v
1)7
in
lt\
2 m (+ cos
ic/>)
w sin
= msm</> +
where
is
real
any
number
- kir)
m
m
(in 1)
Cm
1)
.,
cos3d>+...,
2)
(i</>
'sm2^+
m Cm -1) (in 2);
sin3</)
+ ...,
between (2& 1)tt and (2& + 1) ir. Multiplying the

by cos a, and the second by sin a, and adding, we get
lies
</>
first series
2 m (+ cos
kir)
(h<j>
l-<f>)
VII.
%(f))
m cos
(a
-~
in (m
cos
+ mkif) = cos a + m cos (a

_ N
m (m 1 (m 2)
hiicj)
(a-
2c/))
+^
</>)
-cos(a-3<)+...,
between (2k 1) 7r and (2& + 1) ir. Let = 20, then

corresponding to the two cases of k even (= 2s), and k odd (= 2s + 1),
we have
- md +
2 m cos' n cos
where
(/>
lies
t/>
(a
where
2m
lies
(- cos
b)
Imsir)
= cos a + m cos (a - 20) +

cos (a - 40) +
--^j
between 2s7r \tt and 2stt + \tt\ and
m cos
(a
- md + ms+\ir)
= cos a + m cos (a where
lies
In these
2 m cos m
between
2s7r
results, put a
+ -^Til i'D'l
20)
- cos
(a
- 40) +
+ ^tt and 2s7r + 07r.

= m0, then we have
cos 2msir
= cos ra0 + m cos (m - 2) + ZM Z_J cos ( m _ 4)

7
(25),

where 6
lies
between
2 m (- cos 6) m cos (2s
^tt and
2sir
+
= cos md + m cos (m -2)6 +
where 6
lies
4) 6
...
(26),
(m -
4) 6
...
(27),
4) 6
2s7r + hir and 2s7r + 7r.

=
md
a
+ \ir, then we have
= sin mO+m sin (m -2)6 + "
where 6 lies between 2stt \-n and

2 W (- cos 0)'" sin (25 + 1) imr
= sin w0 4- m sin (m -2)6 +

lies
(m -
cos
"i
sin 2 msvr
where 6
also
between
Again, put
2 W cos'"
+ ^tt
Isir
1) tott
283
between
2sir
sin
+ \ir
??&
( '1)1/
"^"
2s7r
also
sin
(to.
(28),
+ 7r.
and then put a=m6, we then have
|7r,
= cos m6 m cos (to -2)6
2sir
'
+ hir and
Next change 6 into #

2 w sin"'0cosm(2s + )7r
tn (vi
-\
1^
cos
(m
4) 6
...
(20),
...
(30),
where 6 lies between 2s7r and (2s

2 m (- sin 6) m cos m (2s + ) tt
+ 1) it
= cos m6 m cos (m 2)6-\

where 6
lies
2 m sin'" 6
+ ) tt
= sin ?/*# to sin (to 2) 6
cos
(m- 4)6
and (2s + 2) it.
(2s- + 1)it
= md + îr, and
between
Lastly, put a
^-=-
also
change 6 into 6
\ir we
have then
(^
. .
(31 ),
(32),
sin to (2s
^rr~
^
- sin
+ l)7r;
also
4)
where 6
lies
between
2s7r
and
(2s
m
(- 2 sin 0) sin to (2s
+ f ) tt
= sin to<9 - to sin (m - 2) 6 + m
^~
1)
sin
m _ 4) #
lies between (2s + l)7r and (2s + 2)7r.

where
These series are convergent for all values of 6, if m is positive.
If to lies between
and 1, the extreme values of 6, 2sir îr or
2s7r, (2s + \)tt must be excluded, as the series cease to be conver-
gent
for those
The
values of
6.
eight formulae of this Article were given by Abel, in his
on the Binomial Theorem, and

writers.
><-.i
j
>j
memoir
to have been overlooked by subsequent
CHAPTER
XV.

The exponential
Let
223.
LOGARITHMS.
series.
us consider the infinite series
the limiting sum of which we shall denote by E{z), where z

complex number x + iy. If r is the modulus of z, the series
+r++
is
yVl2
...
convergent for all values of r, since the ratio of the (n + l)th

term to the nth is r/n, which diminishes continually as n increases
is
consequently the original series is absolutely convergent for

This series is called the exponential series, and
values of z.
uniformly convergent in any circle with centre at z
224.
sponding
If
to
we multiply together
Zi
-,
and
m
A>1
ml
which
is
equal to
z2
mi
series,
the two exponential series corremth degree in zL and z2 is
^\
6*2
(m-1)!
(z l
+
\\
z2 ) m
We
positive integral index.
two
is
= 0.
the term of the
&\
all
m 2
(m -
2)
^2
'"
2~!
ml
by the Binomial Theorem
have therefore
for
for
the product of the
the series
2
Now by the theorem in Art. 209,

1 + z.2 ).
since the exponential series are both absolutely convergent, the
product of their sums is equal to the sum of the product series as
above formed, therefore
which converges to E(z
E{z )xE{z. ) = E(z +

l
z.^
(1).
From
285
fundamental equation we deduce at once

E{z,) x E(z) ... x E(zn ) = E(z, +zs + ... + zn)
this
and thence
where n
LOGARITHMS
is
{E (z))
any positive integer
E (nz)
(2),
1
.
If in the equation (2),
225.
we put z = l, we have
E(n)={E(l)}n,
where E(l) denotes the limiting sum of the
series
Till.
It will later
number
on be shewn that the number ^(l)
is
an irrational
2 718281828459...; it is usually denoted by

= en
therefore when n is a positive integer,
(n)
Again in
(2),
We
z=p/q, where p and q are prime
let
another, and let n
e.
q,
have
to one
we have then {E(p/q)}v = E (p), hence

root of E(p) or e p since E(p/q) is real
E(pjq) must be a </th

and positive, it follows that E(p/q) is the real
of %/e p which we call the principal value of eplq
;
positive value
The exponential series is a particular case of the power series con208.

Its radius of convergence is infinite,
sidered in Arts. 203
and consequently the
series converges uniformly in
any fixed
circle
centre at the point z = 0.

Moreover, in accordance with
in
the
function E(z) is continuous
Art.
the theorem proved
200,
with
its
at any point z. If x be any given irrational positive real number, it

can be defined as the limit of a sequence xx x2 ... ocm ... of positive
In accordance with the definition in Art. 186,
rational numbers.
,
the principal value of e*

is
is
known
x >
when the integer

that this limit exists and
the limit of
indefinitely increased; it is
has a value independent of the particular sequence of rational
numbers employed to define the given irrational number x. Since

E(z) is a continuous function, it follows that E(x) is the limit of
x
E(x M ) when m is indefinitely increased. Hence since e E(x m),
e
for every value of m, it follows that e =E(x), when e* has its
principal value.
Next
if
x be any negative
real
number, since
E(x)E(-x) = E(0) =
we have E(x) =
1
l/e~
= ex
This investigation
is
where
x
,
l,
e~ x have their principal values.
due to Cauchy, see his Analyse Algtbrique.
LOGARITHMS
286
We
have thus proved that for any real number
sum of
the limiting
x*
the series l
+^+
x
of e where e is defined by E(l)
theorem for a real exponent.
= e.
sum of
the principal value
... is
This
x, the
the exponential
is
We shall now shew that whatever complex number z is,

number E(z), the limiting sum of the exponential series in
m
powers of z, is equal to the limiting value of (1 +z/m) where m
has positive integral values, when m is indefinitely increased. We
226.
the
have
(1
+ z/m) m
7)1
. 1+ , +
Now
m(ml)...(m s+l)z
m(m l)z-
(
V
771"
+
_i)^
771/2!
if a, b,
c, ...
...
be any positive real numbers,
(1
a) (1
-a)(l -b)
+ (i_i)(i_i)...(i_!zi);
nil
in
m si + ....
we have
(1
771
b) (1
c)
less
than unity,
>1 - (a + b)
>
>
(1
1
- a - b) (1 - (a + b + c)
c)
Hence
>1 ~(a + b + c + ...),

=l-6(a + b + c+ ...),
(l-a)(l-b)(l-c).
say
where 6
(
is
<
1,
some number between
and
and
_IV 1 _!W
1
_i)_i_
m
v
771/
'/
1.
Hence we have
ft
+ m + ... + )
(I
771/
\"
-i-e..
' l'
some number between
where 6S is
We have now
m=
(l+z/m)
v
and
+z+~
+ ...++
2
s
!
where
...+
zm
+R,
77i
denotes
z1
2m
The sum
limiting
.
'
1.
zs
Z"
'
+1)
^ni
/,
z1
+* X+ &
2]
zs
0.+1
7j
+ ... +
of the series in the bracket has a
sum
of the convergent series 1
z\
^ -^
modulus less than the

I
+ -^ +
J-
zm ~-
e in _,
*l
\z
-
and when
LOGARITHMS
287
m is
indefinitely increased, z-/2m converges to zero. Therefore the

m
is indefinitely increased, is the
limiting value of {1 -f z/m) , tvhen
The number
function E(z).
The theorem proved
227.
means
We
l/m)
m
.
in the last Article gives us the

where z = x + iy, a complex
have
+ xjm = p
E (z),
of finding the value of
number.
put
the limiting value of (1
e is
E(x + iy) =
cos <p, yl m = p
L(l+^y
sin
then
<p,
=pm (cos (p + i sin (p)'" = p
by De Moivre's theorem.
P
r
(cos m),
Also
/,
J
V
+ x- + y
2x
2
>
ni-
ii
value of tan -1
the principal
r
1
x + ni
that of
and 6
p
is
is
m/
orof
^>{
now suppose
that r
is
+ m)
(x
The
,4m
number
then the limit of

if-
+
(\/m
is
than \fm
less
+ xj*Jm,
+ x/\/m)-)
between unity and that of
or between
'
^(x + mf\
and therefore that of p m
unity,
value of
mr-)
now r may be made as large as we please,

condition r < \/m + x\s]m, hence the limit of
and e^
subject only to the
is
'
(Vm + r/ViW
a fixed positive
limiting
value of
x
.
The
limiting value of
l
E{x), which
is
m tan" f-
where
e*
has
its
- is
+ iy) = e* (cos
2/
the principal
that ot
=e x (cosy + i sin y),
principal value; thus
A'(
is
+ i sin y).
288
228.
LOGARITHMS
Expansions of
the circular functions.
If in the last result
we put x = 0, we have
E (iy) = cos y + i sin y,

hence
cos
+ % sin y = 1 + iy
I-,
i k-. +
.. ,
equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides of the

equation, we have
or,
cosy
s.n y
l- + -...+(-iy
(3),
y-^, + f,...4(-l)- l TI^ +
(4),
the series for cos y and sin y expanded in powers of the circular
these series have already been obtained in Art. 99.
;
We may also write these results in the form
measure y
= {E{iy) + E(-iy)}
cosy
(5)
sin
'
y=^{E(iy)-E(-iy)}j
The exponential values of
the circular functions.
a real number, the expression e z as defined in

Algebra,
multiple-valued except when z is a positive integer.
If z is a fraction p/q in its lowest terms, e vlq has q values, the 5 th
roots of e p of these values, that one which is real and positive is
229.
If z
is
is
called the principal value of e z and is equal to

When z is
(z).
an irrational real number, the principal value of ez is defined, as in
,
Art. 186, as the limit of the sequence formed by the principal values
of e z >, e z >, ... e Zr ..., where z u z 2 ... z r ... is a sequence of rational
,
numbers
of
which z
the limit.
is
We
shall in general
understand
to have its principal value

(z).
When z is not a real number, no definition of e z has as yet been
given, and it is so far a meaningless symbol.
e
It is convenient
z
however
or e x+iy
the symbol e
nition of the meaning
may
be called
more general
its
to give
definition a
meaning to
At present we give only a partial defiwe shall attach to e* we define only what
by
principal value,
definition.
and
shall shortly proceed to a
LOGARITHMS
289
The principal value of the function e z we define to be the function

or what amounts to the same tiling, the limit of (1 + z/m) m
E (z),
when
is indefinitely
increased through positive integral values.
It should be observed that this definition of the principal value

of e x + iy is such that the function satisfies the ordinary indicial law
this follows from
general,
E (z)
principal value
With
230.
e* +i y,
the theorem (1) of Art.
when we use the symbol
we
this
We
224
understand
e*,
shall
in
to have its
it
as just defined.
understanding as to the meaning of the symbol
have, by Art. 227,
_ ex ( CQS
e x+iy
and putting x =
0,
The theorem
may now be
(5)
-\-i S i
n y)
= cos y + i sin y.
e iy
cos y
sin
h,
written
(e
uJ
. {e iy
'
e~ {y)
.(6).
iy
)
2i
These are called the exponential values of the cosine and
sine.
The student should bear in mind that these theorems (6) are
nothing more than a symbolical mode of writing the equations
and
(3)
which have
(4)
The only advantage
also
of the
been written as in
(5).
e iy
over the symbol E(iy) is that the

former one reminds us more readily of the law of combination given in
Art. 224.
The theorem (1) is of the same form as that for the multiplication
of real exponentials
we
symbol
therefore find
it
convenient to introduce exponentials
with imaginary indices, for which the law of combination shall be that
expressed by
230
The function
|1J
.
value of
z.
(1).
as the limiting
1
we
ez
see that e z
being defined as above,
sum
+z + z*/2\ +
* '/3
:
...,
where
zg
z2
=1 +z+ +
-^-
...+
+R
8+1
\
y-
^r-,
(.9+1)!
1
The
latter
II.
T.
fiir
form of the definition
Math. Vol.
any complex
jR s
is
[
than the sum of the infinite scries
X. ilrhrifi
for
of the exponential series
is
not greater
s+2
z
+ ^r +
I
It
(5+2)!
that introduced by Schlomilcli, see
VI.
19
290
follows that
or than
f-
than iJ!lL ji
less
is
jR,
(s
1 N
zi
e'
In case
<
z
|
LOGARITHMS
l)!
we
1,
I
'
IfJ!
2!
Li!!
3!
see that
\*+i
I12l<
R\ <r V^-. ^l-+-[î-l-|^| 2
[
or
-K
I
1
We
I
'
\s+i
<
(s +
/
1)
shewn that
have thus
-H-
s|
=I+z + 2 +
=-,
...
where us <
|
'
by taking s = 1,
where \u <^\z \e lzl
x
does
z
|
(1+ uX
We may
so.
to zero as
does
|
we have the theorem

and thus 1^1 converges
particular,
to zero as
and thus us converges
= 1 + z(l + i^),
|z|=0
e lzl
In
so.
e*
,
tS
''
express this result in the form
tl-L
z
From
such that
the last result
equal to
it is
The function
e8
we have
its
may
own
gZ
+h
qZ
=e 2 and
,
thus the function
is
differential coefficient.
be introduced into Analysis by defining

dtL
function u which satisfies the conditions
-=-
it
as that
for every value of
and
a,
2 = 0. If it be assumed that there exists a series a + iS+#22 + ...

which is convergent for every value of z, and such that the derivative series
a 1 + 2a 2 z + 3a 3 z 2 + ... has the same property, both series converge uniformly
u = \ when
in a circle of
any
finite radius.
that of the second series

(ill
then -y
ciz
ax = a
= , we
2a 2
=a
that
sum
of the
is,
an _
,...na n
s
and thence we
+ ...+
+ ...>;
)
find a re
= an /?i!.
and
it is
sum
-j-
If
thus
It follows
assumed conditions of uniform convergence.
of this series satisfies the condition
have a
easily seen that this series
CL1L
2 = 0, we must
dn
",
actually satisfies the
that the
first series,
in accordance with a known theorem,
can equate the coefficients of corresponding terms;
m = ^1+s+
f
Denoting by u the
= l.
-j- = u.
az
If
It follows
u=l when
In this manner we are led to the series

z2
!+*+- + ...+_+...,
with the investigation of which we have commenced in the text of this
(
lhapter.
Periodicity of the exponential
LOGARITHMS
and
291
circular functions.
We have shewn that E (z) = ex (cos y + i sin y) now cos y,
231.
siny are unaltered
if
2&7r be
added
k being any positive or
to y,
= (z + 2iXV) or (z) is a
negative integer, consequently E(z)
Since e2 = e z+2kin the exponential
periodic function, of period 2i7r.
e? is
or e
'
the imaginary period 2iir
also e iz = ei {z+ kn)
as before denned, is a periodic function of z, with a real
periodic, with
iz
2tt.
period
We
have thus seen that each of the two functions
2
,
iz
is
sinr/ly periodic, the first having an imaginary period 2iir, and the
The student who is acquainted with the
latter a real period 2tt.
elements of Elliptic Functions
will
know
construct functions which have both
period
that
real
it
is
possible
to
and an imaginary
such functions are called doubly periodic.
The
y were first introduced

and we have regarded them, in
the earlier part of this work, as functions of an angular magnitude
measured in circular measure. We can however drop the idea of
the angular magnitude, and regard them as functions of a variable
a value of the variable of course measures the magnitude in
circular measure of an angle by means of which they were defined.
232.
circular functions cos y, sin
by means of a geometrical
definition,
The main importance
of these functions in Analysis is derived

it has been shewn
from their property of single periodicity
by
Fourier and others that all functions having a real period can,
under certain limitations, be represented by means of a series of
;
It would however be beyond the scope

enter
into this most important branch of
of the present work to
these circular functions.
Analysis.
Analytical definition of the circular functions.

233.
circular
possible to give purely analytical definitions of the

functions, and to deduce from these definitions their
It
is
fundamental analytical properties, so that the calculus of circular

functions can be placed uponabasis independent of all geometrical
considerations; these definitions will include the circular functions
of a complex number".
19
292
We
LOGARITHMS
can define the cosine and sine of z by means of the
equations
cosz
= ${E(iz) + E(-iz)}
sin z
= -.{E(iz)-E(-iz)}\ "
'
(7)
'
where E(z) denotes the limiting sum of the

In
we
other words,
z2
series
1 ^- + j-
z Q-T + -F1
and
...,
limiting
sum
~+
&
sum
...
of the
of the series
then as the generalized
this
regard
and sine
definition of the cosine
the
sin z as the limiting
We may
cos z as
define
z*
+ z+
series 1
and it includes the case

was not included in the earlier
functions,
of a complex argument, which
geometrical definitions.
For real values of z, the functions cos
z,
sin z are in accordance
with the earlier geometrical definitions, because the series which

they represent agree with those obtained, in Art. 99, from the
geometrical definitions.
By employing the theorem
R
|
zJs+1
<
|
(s
iz
and -
1)
iz,
e'
',
z*
= 1 + z + ^~,
+
proved in Art. 230
(1)
,
we
see
letting
a** = i -
= 2m +
I
'
z-
Tl
z4
< th
-srn
(zm +
ri
In case
'|
<
z
|
1,
e iz|
z-
and cos z =
we have
~1
*2
'
also
-Ri'
(2 ,-
z into
+ rj,
\R \< ^-^
+ ii/, where
z?
and
*'
<
we
see that
n
Sin *
where
41(1-1*1)'
Similarly
>
In particular, we have cos z
e lz| .
z
< ~I
jK
|
by changing
Z)]
where
and adding the expressions so
- ... + (- vr
g i2m+2
RJ
+R
obtained, that
where
. . .
=Z~
3!
"
5!
"
+ ( " 1)m
z .m+\
(2^+1)"!
+ ^'
+R\
T- -e
-
where \Sm <

'\
'
W\<4r*
*
j
<
1,
and
>
we have
293
-2111+3
(2m +
igl
LOGARITHMS
3)
sin z
also
1
lzl
;
and
in particular
sin z
r
= z + JR
',
where
= z - \z* + 22/,
3
\z
3/ <
where
'
'
&'
v,
*' <
n
8(l-|jr|V
ft
SJ <
I
I
'
SrJV
If
'"
- 7
o!(l-|^|)-
From the definitions given in Art. 233, we can now

234.
deduce the fundamental properties of the two functions. We
have
i sin z E{ iz),
cos z + i sin z =
(iz), and cos z
+ sin8 z = E {iz) E (- iz) =
hence
cos z
E (0) = 1.
Also
cos (zx
+ za) = {2? (?>! + i22) + 2? ( iz iz*)}

= I {E(iz,) E (iz2) + E(- iz,) E (- iz2)}
1
{E (iz,) +
# (- &,))
{#(i*)
+ tf (-
-#(-^
r)]
or
cos (^
Similarly
sin (z x
+ 2 ) = cos z cos sin z

+ ^ ) = sin z, cos #2 + cos z
2
Thus the addition theorems
+ | {#(<*,)
{E(iz2)-E(-iz2)\
sin #2
sin
2.2
follow from our definition.
Let us now consider the equation E(z)
235.
t>2 )}
1.
In the
first
~
for it is clear
place this equation has no real root except z
from the definition of E(z) by means of the exponential series
;
that the equation has no positive real root and it can have no
x since the positive number x would then
negative real root
;
E(x) E(x) = 1.
=
\ can have no complex root a -ft/3,
Also the equation E(z)
were a root, so also would be a i/3,
where a > 0. For, if a +
and therefore E(2a) = E (a + i/3) E (a z/3) = 1, which is im-
also be a root, as
is
seen from the relation
?'/?
possible, since 2a cannot be

It thus appears that, in case the equation
a root.
E(z) = l has roots

In order to
be
must
they
purely imaginary.
shew that the equation has such a root it will be sufficient to shew
other than z
= 0,
that the equation E(i/3)

root other than zero; for,
E (if /3
i/3)
= 0,
be such a
E(2i/3)={E(iJ3)}>
and thus 2 i/3 would be a root of E(z)
or sin/3
root,
= l,
1.
= 0,
we have
has a real
294
shewn
It will be
3!
then f(ft)
that
sum
of the series
TI^"''
5!
positive for all values of
is
= 4.
ft
negative when
it is
denote the continuous function
that, if /(ft)
represented as the limiting
LOGARITHMS
such that
ft
From
this it
/3
3,
and
be concluded
may
between 3 and
4, or for an
and in any case that the numerically
is between 3 and 4, in case the
smallest positive root of f(ft)
has
more
roots
than
one.
equation
If ft is positive and < V20, each term in the series for f(ft),
that /(ft)
zero for one value of
is
odd number of such values
with the exception of the
ft
numerically greater than the
is
first,
8
ft
ft
=-.,
^- + v-:
2
next following term.

for
values of
<'
(ft)
is
positive,
= 2ft
and
<j>(ft)
to 3
.
3,
have therefore /(ft) >
and
by
<f>
=1
is
we
the
also
3/3
derived
ft
3.
function
between
is
11
2/3-
0(3) = 17/560,
find that
negative
2/3
~ +
when
2.3
>
--_+>-__>-- _
<f>(ft),
(0)
^-
since
and some number greater than
between
ft
1-^ + -^
Denoting
which
We
Hence
0.
steadily diminishes from 1 to 17/560 as ft increases from

and it follows that /(ft) cannot vanish for values of ft
;
and
between
. //IN
We
3.
have also
4
46
48
256
/w<i-8i+rrri + 9i <1 -i6-!i-i < ^

and
therefore,
/(4) being negative, there exists at

and 4.
least
one root
of /(ft) between 3
Denoting the numerically smallest root of /(ft) =

by it, we
is a root of E(z)= 1, and that there is no root of this
see that 2iri
=
equation with smaller modulus, except z 0.
From the present point of view the number
from
zero,
it is
defined as the
E (2tti) = 1,
and such that no number, different

with smaller modulus exists as a root of E(z) = 1. If
number such that
k be any integer, positive or negative, E(2k-ni)= {E(2iii)) k = 1

and hence 2kiri is also a root of the equation E (z)=\. Also there
can exist no root 2p-tri, where p lies between k and k + 1 for in
that case we should have
;
E (2p7ri - 2kTri) = E (2pm) E (- 2fari) = 1
LOGARITHMS
295
and 2 (p k) iri, which has a smaller modulus than 2iri, would be

a root of E(z)=l, contrary to the supposition that 2iri denotes
the root with smallest modulus.
shewn that
It has thus been
the roots of the equation
all
are of the form 2kiri, where k
E(z)=l
integer, and ir is a definite

to lie between 3 and 4.
The number
we have,
theory,
is
a positive or negative
number which has been shewn above
being thus introduced into the analytical
ir
any value of
for
E(z +
z,
= E(z)E (2iri) = E (z)

2iri)
and therefore the function E(z)
is
a periodic function, with the
imaginary period 2iri.

It follows from the definitions of cos z and sin z that they are
also periodic, their period being 2ir hence cos 2ir = cos 0=1 and
;
ir
= 0.
We
have of course not verified the identity of

as here defined with the ratio of the circumference of a circle to
sin 27r
its
sin
This
diameter.
may however be done by
considering the case
of a real angle for which the period of the cosine or sine

according to either definition of the number ir.
is 27T,
= E(2iir) = 1, hence E(iir)

must equal
since it cannot equal + 1, as iir is not a root of
E (z) = 1 also E ( iir) 1 hence we have cos ir = 1, sin ir 0.
E ( iir) x E(hiir) = E(iir) = -1,
Again
E (| iir) xE(-h iir) = 1,
and
hence
E(îir) = i and E( hiir) = +
therefore cos \tt = 0, and sin \tt = 1
to remove the ambiguity,
We
236.
have
also,
E(iir) x E{iir)
1,
i,
we remark
that
if
is real,
sin z is essentially positive
= and z ir, as has been shewn in Art.

=
+ l. Having now obtained the values of
sin^7r
values 2
sine of 0, \tt,
prove
all
tt, 2ir,
we
can,
between the
235
therefore
the cosine and
by means of the addition theorems,
the ordinary properties of the cosine and sine functions.

functions tan z, cotz, sec z, cosecz will now be defined
The
=
by means of the equations tan z = sin z/cos z, cot z cos z/sin z,
secz= 1/cos.z, cosec z = 1/sin z, and we can then investigate the
properties of these functions in the usual way.
v,
All the properties of the circular functions investigated in Chapters IV,

VII, are deduced from the addition formulae and the property of
and
periodicity
it
follows that
arguments hold also
for
all
the properties which are there proved for real
complex arguments.
296
237.
very important case
to iy
= $(e y + e
cos iy
the
expressions
sin iy
),
(e
(e
- e~ y
- e~ y
),
is
we have then
^(e
e~ y ), \
number
that in which the
is
entirely imaginary, and equal
LOGARITHMS
=i
tan iy
),
ey
e~
ey
y
,
e~y
are called the
hyperbolic cosine, sine and tangent of y, and are written cosh

sinh y, tanh y respectively thus we have
y,
cosh y
We
= cos iy,
sinh y
= i sin iy,
shall consider these functions in
tanh y =
i tan iy.
a special Chapter.
Natura I logarithms.
If u = E(z) which is a single-valued function of the
variable
E~ 1 (u) to be the logarithm
z, we may define z
complex
of u to the base e this system of logarithms is called the natural
Since E(z) is periodic with respect to z,
system of logarithms.
238.
the inverse function

extent
log u
if
is
E~
(z) will
one value of
be multiple-valued to an infinite
z, the general value Log u will
be given by Log u = log u + likir, since E(z) = E(z + likir), Avhere

k is any positive or negative integer. In particular, the logarithms
of a real positive number x will be
log x + 2ikir, where log x
denotes
239.
its
ordinary real logarithm.
Let u x
= E(z
u 2 = E(z2 ), then since
1 ),
E(z
x E(z2)
= E(z
4-
z2 )
the logarithms of the product MjW 2 are the logarithms of

that is zx + z2 + 2ikir, or we have
Log Hi + Log U2 = Log (WjWg) +
We may
we may
2i&7T.
suppose the expression 2^7r included in

write this equation
Log
E(z + z. ),
Log
(uû.,),
hence
+ Log m = Log (wâ)

2
which the particular value of one of the logarithms is deterwhen those of the other two are given.
Now let u = p (cos + i sin </>) where p is real, then by the
result just proved, we have Log u =
Log p + Log (cos 4- i sin <), and
in
in iiK.'d
</>
</>
since E(i<f)
= cos cp + i sin <p,
icp is
a value of Log (cos
cp
+ i sin
<f>),
LOGARITHMS
2.97
+ 2ifoir is the general value of Log p, we have therefore

Log u log p + i(cf> + 2/itt) for the general value of Log u, where
by log p we mean the real value of Log p.
it and it, we shall
If 4> is restricted to be between the values
and log p
logp + i(f> the principal value of Logu and shall denote

u
we have then the general value Log u given by
log
call
it
by
Log u =
where logu
is its
log
2ik7r,
principal value, and k
is
any positive or negative
integer.
We may
write this result
Log (x +
iy)
=\
log (x-
+ y-) + i
(tan"
2/ctt
J
(8).
The
principal value of the logarithm of a real negative number

has not been sufficiently denned, since the argument of such
a quantity may be either it or nr we shall however suppose, for
convenience, that for

that
its
its
its principal
principal value
logarithm
is
log x
is
log x
+ (2k +
1)
value the argument is it, so

iir, and the general value of
iir.
The general value of the logarithm of a real positive number

= log x + Log 1 = log x + 'lihir, the principal
given by Log x
is
value being log
a?.
= (2k + ^) iir
principal value of Log i is \tzi, hence Log i
= (2k h)i7r.
the principal value of Log (i) is
^-m", hence Log ( i)
The
It is also possible to consider the logarithm of u as a single- valued function

modulus p and the argument cp, the latter being supposed to go through
of the
values from - oo to + oo
and -it; the logarithm of
logp + i'<, and every time
and the numerical value of
all
<f>
student
who
is
not being restricted as above to lying between

is then the single-valued function of p and
increases
by
2tt,
the logarithm increases
by
it
</>,
2iir,
becomes the same as before. The

acquainted with the theory of Riemann's surfaces will appre-
ciate the full force of this
the
mode
number
%i
of considering a multiple-valued function as
converted into a single-valued one.
The general exponential function.

240.
If
a be any number,
real or complex, the
2
symbol a
may
mean K(zLog a), where Loga has any of its infinite

number of values; when Log a has its principal value loga, we
z
sliall call K(z log a,) the principal value of a,
be defined to
29
o
Since
we have
E(z Log a) =
t-.
Log
LOGARITHMS
Log of
(z
'
91
=|
the general exponential theorem

*_-,
^Logq
and the principal value of az
is
^(Loga)
given by
.slog a
a=1 + -fh +
(loga)
+ ""
2!
In the case in which a and z are both

ordinary form of the exponential theorem
real,
we have the
~
2!
1!
which gives the principal value of ax

241.
In the particular case a
Log = log e +
= e, we
2ikir
have
2i'&7r,
and the general meaning of the symbol
E (z + likirz)
the principal value of
is
E(z~Loge) or
E{z), and this is in
e
is
accordance with the definition of the principal value of

The general value of ez is therefore
Art. 229.
E(z) (cos 2kirz +
We shall
given in
i sin 2kirz).
continue to use the symbol
still
e*
for its principal value.
of az as above defined, is equivalent

where
a = r(cosd + ismd) = a + ifi, 6
to E{z(\ogr + i0+2ikir)},
=
it and it
writing z x + ty, we thus have for the
being between
242.
The general value
+ i^)x+Uj the expression

Z? [x log r 6y- 2kiry + i (y log r + xd +
general value of (a
which
is
e x\ogr-e y -2!cny
The
2tt}cx)}
equal to
|
cos
Qg r
principal value of (a
e siogr-ty| cos (^
where
The value
+ x q + 2ukx) + % sin (y log r + xd + 2-irkx)}.

4- ifi)
i
x+iy is therefore
+ i s n (y log r + ##)},
= tan -1 /8/a.
g r + x 0)
= Va + yS
2
of tan -1 /3/a, to
be taken,
is
not necessarily
its
in Art. 38.
principal value as defined
+
x
^ the function
r=l, we have for the principal value of (costf+i'sin 0)
{id (x+i'y)} which maybe written cos (x + iy) 6 + sin (x + iy) 6; this is the
extension of De Moivre's theorem to the case of a complex index.
If
LOGARITHMS
299
In order that the equation a ? x a z* = aZt+z may hold,

must suppose that the values of a Zl a z as +z* are those
243.
we
>
corresponding to the same value of
a z, x a
-.,
Log a
-,
_ e{z (log a + 2iktr)} x E

= E {(z + z2) (log a + 2ikv)}
= a~
a
{z.2 (log
we have
in that case
2ikir))
i{
but
this will not hold if
functions az \ az\
we take
different values of
In particular, the equation
k in the two
x az
a- 1
= a z +z
*
is
true of the principal values of the functions.
The expression
244.
but every value of
and
(a
z*
not necessarily a value of aZiZi
hence the values of a
(a*')
2*
ZlZ *
are only those of (a
we take
If in every case
azi*a =
Zt z *
k'irz^,
= 0.
in the case k'
the principal values, then the equation
holds.
use the symbols a z
we
i)
is
= E(z z2 Log a) = E {z z (log a + 2ikir)}

= E [z Log a* E [z2 {z Log a + 2ik'ir)}
= E \z z% (log a + 2ikif) + 2i
a*i*
02
(a-
a value of (a 2 ')**, for
a~>~ 2 is
as equivalent to their principal

usually done in practice, then we
have
we
as
shewn,
just
perform operations in expressions in
may,
which these symbols occur, according to the ordinary rules for
If
values E(z\oga), E(z), as
indices, as in
common
is
Algebra.
Example.
If A, B, C, D,
inscribed in
that
AP, BP, CP,
the angle
We
be the angular points of a regular polygon of n sides,

of radius a and centre 0, prove that the sum of the angles
...
circle
...
make with
OP
tan- 1
is
a" cos n0
AOP = 0.
rn
have
-a"e m
3=7.-1
ffl
= n {r-ae^
8=0
+ n
where
-,
r"
OP = r, and
'
)
'
},
hence taking logarithms,

log (r*
an cos nd ia n sin n6)
"V
- a cos
log
(+*=)-
{r
and equating the
coefficient of i
** sin
(*
on both sides of the equation,

2
asm /0+ ^\
V
tan -1
,
""
sin0
3
an coand-r
=
n
=>i-i
2
s=0
7t
tan -1
cos
('a
(
^n\
'
^)}
LOGARITHMS
300
corresponding values of the inverse functions being taken the expression on

the right-hand side is the sum of the angles OP makes with AP, BP, ... ,
;
hence this
sum
a' 1 sin
is
tan
nd
(/"cos
nd
rn
'
Logarithms
to
base.
any
z
If the principal value of a is equal to u, then z is called a
the
u,
logarithm of u to the base a, and may be written Loga
z
a
is E(z\og e a), where log e a is the principal
of
value
principal
245.
Now
logarithm of a to the base

z loge a
e,
and
if
= log u + 2ikir, therefore

= (log u +
Log u = Log u/\oge a
= Loge
a)
u,
we have
The
E(z\oge
2ikir)l\og e a.
principal value of Log a u we regard as loge u/\oge a,

hence the general value is
it by log a u
denote
and can
Log a u =
loga u
2ik7r/\oge a,
a multiple-valued function in which the different values differ by

case a = e, the above
multiples of 2i7r/loge a. In the particular
definition accords with that in Art. 238, giving loge
the general value of
Log
likir for
e zt.
Gen eralized logarith ms.

246.
which
is
We may
give the following definition of a logarithm,

in the last Article.
more general than that given
z
any value of a is equal to u, then z is a logarithm of u to the
written [Log a u] to distinguish it from Log u
be
and
base a,
may
The most general value of a z is
Article.
last
as used in the
E(z~Log e a), and if this is equal to u, we have
If
z Loge
= Log
a,
or
z (loge
2ilc7r)
= log
2ikir,
where k and Jc are integers. Hence the general value of [Log u] is

which is multipleLoge i<l~Loge a or (\oge u + 2ikir)/(\og e a + 2ik'ir),
The
two
in
valued to an infinite extent,
logarithms Loga u
ways.
are therefore included as the particular set of values of [Logtt u]
obtained by putting k' = 0.

logarithm of u to the base a.
247.
which
is
If a
e,
we have
We may
[Log,, u]
call
[Log u] the generalized
(loge
2ik-rr)/(l
+ 2ik'-rr)
the expression for the generalized logarithm of u to the
LOGARITHMS
^01
In the more restricted logarithm Log,, u, we have defined

z to be a value of Log,, u when the principal value of e2 is equal
base
to
e.
but in the generalized logarithm
if,
[Log,, u],
we
consider z to
be a value of [Log,, u] when any value of e2 is equal to u.

The generalized value of [Log e 1] is 2ikir/(l + 2ik'ir),
1)] is
[Log,(-
(2k
The expression
and of
+ 1) iir/(l + 2ik'ir).
(\og e
u + 2ikir)j(l + 2ik'ir) may be considered from another

lopM+2iX-7r
principal value of {E(l + 2ik'n)} l+2tfcV is, by the theorem

(2), E(\ogu
2tkir) which is equal to u, hence Q.ogu + 2ikn)l(\ + 2ik'ir) may
be regarded as the logarithm according to the definition in Art. 238, of u to
l+ 2l!c'n
the base E(\+2ik'n) which is the principal value not of e but of e
s0
The
point of view.
'
we have
that
[Log u] equal to the values of Log^,, 1+2 ^, n.^<, for
in fact
different values of
k'.
Thus we may regard the
generalized logarithms to the

1+2l/'"'r
which though
e, as ordinary logarithms to the base not e but e
numerically equal to e, has different arguments according to the value of k'.
base
The question was at one time frequently discussed, whether a

number can have a real logarithm thus for example whether
can be regarded as the logarithm of Je, the fact being borne in mind
that e* has the values + s!e. The answer to this question depends on the
if we take the ordinary definition in Art.
definition we take of a logarithm
z
238, that z is a logarithm of u when the principal value of e is equal to u,
but if we
then a negative real number can never have a real logarithm
define a logarithm as in Art. 246, that 2 is a logarithm of u, when any value
of e* is equal to u, then a negative real number may have a real logarithm.
If r be a positive real number, we have
248.
negative real
[Log-r] =
..
rT
logr+(2+l)z7T
_^_- =
+ 2'(2<fc+l)7r
{logr
-
and th is is real if log r = (2k + l)j2k'.

form (2k + \)j2k\ where k and k' are
4W
If therefore r be such that log r is of the
integers, a value of
[Log(-r)]
is
real;
if
not of this form, we can always find a number r differing as little as

a fraction p/q
please from r, such that [Log(-r 1 )] has a real value; for
is
logr
we
} + ;{(2 + l)7r-2'7rlogj-}
+
terms can always be found which differs by as little as we please

\ogr'=p/q, if q be even then [Log (-?')] has a real value, and
2<p+l
_ J_
j_
r' = r
but if q be odd, we have r' e 2*? xe 2*3, and e 2s? can be made as
near unity as we please by taking large enough, or log / can be made to differ
in its lowest
from
log/-; let
by as
little
as
we
please from ~'^
can be found, which
differs as little as
We
therefore a
we
number
please from
log/-,
|--=logr!
such that a
conclude then that although there is not

for every value of r, a value of [Log (-)] which is real, we can always find a
number r such that r x r Lb as .small as we please, and such that a value of
value of
[Log(-r
1/)J
''"'-r (
-r i)]
i ,s
rea, l-
is
real.
302
The logarithmic
LOGAKITHMS
series.
m
principal value of (1 + z) is
Art. 211, the principal value of (1 + z)m
by
E [m
The
249.
log e (l
+ z)},
the limiting
is
but,
sum
of
the series
l
+ mz +
m(m
^
2
1)'
m (m l)...(ra
s + 1) z
^+
si
...
provided this series is convergent, which is the case if the modulus

is less than unity, and also if it is equal to unity, provided
it also converges on the circle of convergence, except at
>
of z
> > 1. Now it has been shewn in

the point z = 1, when
Art. 210, that we are entitled to arrange this series in powers of
m, without altering its sum, provided the series
\m\
vi
(I
1),
m|(|ml + l)...(|ml+a-l)
sl
is
convergent and this

Since
[m log e (1 +
;
the case
is
we
of
+ m log (l+z)+
the two series
+z)}
^
to equate the coefficients of powers
(-
I)*-*
1^ +
(9).
sum, when mod. z=l, provided the series

the case unless the argument of z
is
249
Assuming that \z\<
(1)
.
log, (1
where
|
+ z) = z -
...
s+1
...
and thus
22,
convergent,
sum
'
I)
-zs +
of
the
convergent series
<
|
+ (-
'^-j-j
(1
s>
L-L+ -^ +
I
+ lz 3
\z-
is
is ir.
the series (9) shews that
1,
cannot exceed the
Rs <
also according to Art. 207, the series has still log<;(l+^)
for its
{log
8ee V(l
which gives the principal value of Loge (1 + z), is called

it has been
proved to hold when mod.
series,
which
of the series
2
hence
the logarithmic series
z<l;
< 1.
sum
+ z) = z-^ + ^3- ... +
log, (1
This
by Art. 208, entitled
are,
m in
stands for the

x
if
|
z)}
z\
+ \z\> + ...)
or
We
have thus shewn that when z <
+z) = z - \z* +
does
loge (1
where
LOGARITHMS
<
&
1,
^-
and thus
vs
I
'
vi
O + v,\
to zero as
converges
<
-p
L
+ z) = z (1 +
This result
an d ^hus j^l converges to zero as
\i
If
771
-- \
may
gioge(i+2/)
Hence
so.
if
where
does
\z\
so.
= 0.
z
that the
limit of
Wj
converges to zero as
have assigned to
the values in any
it
is
e2
indefinitely,
we
This theorem has been
rnj
proved in Art.
where
1 H
we have
greater than \z\,
numbers which increase
sequence of positive real
numbers
number
eza+wi) j
see
Tjj),
&e
be any positive real
z/m does
Z\
1*1=0
so.
In particular, taking s=l, we have loge (1

i
?s
7 =-^
1 I
|s|
s+
...
303
226 only in the particular case in which the

This restriction
integers.
m are restricted to be positive
has here been removed.
Writing z
250.
log e (1
and
= r (cos + i sin 0), we have

+ z) = log (1 + r cos + M" sin 0),
e
this is equal to
loge (1
+ 2r cos +
5
7-
where the inverse tangent has

the two series
tan -1
its
+r
{r sin 0/(1
principal value
cos 0)},
we have then
+ r ) = r cos - r cos 20 + h- cos SO tan" [r sin (9/(1 +r cos 0)) = r sin 0-r sin 20 +-*r sin30where r < 1, or where r = 1 and = 7r.
1, we have
If we put
= cos - \ cos 20 + J cos SO loge (2 cos 0)
,
l<
ge (l
2r cos
..(11),
.(10),
7-
0 =
where
lies
If in (11)
between
we change 8
if
8 lies
0-^ sin 2<9 +
and cannot equal
into 28,
30-
ir.
we have the theorem
-log 2+cos 28 - cos 40 + J cos 60between i?r.
log cos 8
which holds
it,
sin
i sin
...
(12),
(13),
304
LOGARITHMS
Changing 6 into \n - 6, we have

log sin 6 =
which holds
if
lies
- log 2 - cos 20 and
between
-J
cos 40 - cos 60 -
...
jr.
The series (13) furnishes an example of discontinuity, owing to the series

becoming indefinitely slowly convergent as 6 approaches the value ir when
6 = tt, the sum of the series is zero, but when 6 is less than n by as small
an amount as we please, the sum of the series is \0.
;
Gregory s
We
251.
7r,
have loge (cos 6 4-
+ log (1
- $ tan
hence logc cos
\oge cos 6
4- i
(tan
sin 6)
= i6,
where 6
tan 6)
= id,
or
4- i
series.
+ \ tan
4-
0.
between
lies
2
(i tan
i tan 4
*..)= #,
lies between + 1, which is the case if 6 lies between

and may equal + \ir hence we have, since cos 6 is positive,
provided tan 6
\tt,
= \ tan
loge c s
tan 4 6
-J
...
= tan#-itan 0+tan 05
and
The
called Gregory's series,

between 4 \ir, both limits being included.
Change 6 into ^tt 6, then we have

latter series
is
7r-0 = cot0-i cot

which holds when
sions for
lies
i cot 5
(14).
and holds
if
lies
. . .
The general expres-
between ^7r and f it.
any angle 8 are

6
nir
+ tan
| tan
4-...
0= (ft 4- 1) 7r cot # + ^cot
or
# -
...,
nir lies
where in the first series n is an integer such that
between 4 \ir, and in the second such that 6 nir lies between
\tt and it.
Gregory's theorem may be also written in the form
where #
lies
between 4
1,
and tan -1 x has
its
principal value.
The series for sin -1 # in powers of x, obtained in Art. 218,

from Gregory's series. Let # = sin -1 .r, then we have
sn\~ i u! =
i
"1
a?
(l-^)i
-L i-
.,
(l-a?
)$
may
be deduced
x5
(l-tf
+ (_1)r
)*
I
#2r + *
2
2M-"T(l-.r )M2
-+i)

if
LOGARITHMS
305
than unity, the series obtained by expanding
is less
x,2r + 1
(l-î^+D
2r+l
in
of
powers
is
absolutely convergent, and the series
is
if
convergent
powers of
x.
we
2r+l
2
are therefore entitled to arrange the series in
of
in
(l-y)
2r + 1 ) in
(l-y)^ (2r+1)
Hence the
coefficient of
x 2r + 1
the
x2r + 1 the expression

,
sum
(2r+l) (2r-l)...l ]
2.4.6...2r
J'
,
of the first r +
coefficients in the
powers of y, and this is equal to the

or (1 -3/)- (2r_1) which is equal to
coefficient
(2r-l)(2r-3)...l
2.4.6...2r
is
l)
""
-?/)l(
_1
(1
+ (2r+l)(2r-l)
2.4
the expression in the brackets
expansion of
(\-x*)
"We find for the coefficient of
If.
2r+l
|d7|<
V2
(l-*2 )$
(l-x'^h
in the expansion of sin -1 * is
ar+1"
1.3.5...(ar-l)
2.4.6...2r
'
therefore
.
3
a-
n--+ s
,
1.3*6
OT +
1.3.5...(2r-l).r
2
2|
74T6^2T" 27?l +
,
'
shews that this series holds for values of x between + 1/V2,

but by employing the fact that the sum of the series is continuous within its
circle of convergence, it can be shewn to hold if x is between + 1.
this proof only
The quadrature of
251
the circle.
The famous problem known
(1)
.
as that of "squaring the
circle," that is, of constructing a square whose area is equal to

that of a given circle, is equivalent to that of constructing a
straight line of length equal to that of the circumference of a

The construction to be employed in solving the
given circle.
problem is a Euclidean one, involving only the construction of

circles and straight lines, in accordance with a Euclidean system
of postulates.
The problem may be
stated as that of the construction ot a
number ir, a given

straight line whose length is represented by the
finite straight line being taken to have the length represented by
unity.
integers,
n. t.
proved by Lambert, that the number it is irranot represent able in the form p/q, where p and </ are
not of itself sufficient to establish the impossibility of
The
tional, that
is
fact,
is
20
306
LOGARITHMS
it, because a certain class of straight

of irrational length is capable of Euclidean construction.
step of fundamental importance in this connection was taken
constructing the line of length

lines
when
Liouville 1
established
the
existence
of
transcendental
An algebraical
numbers, as distinct from algebraical numbers.
number is one which is a root of an algebraical equation of any
degree n, with coefficients which are rational numbers; without
loss of generality these
may be
coefficients
restricted to be all
transcendental number is one

integers, positive or negative.
which cannot be a root of any algebraical equation with rational
Liouville himself gave examples of
(or integral) coefficients.
transcendental numbers, but the
first case in which a number, well

to
was
shewn
be transcendental, was that of
known in Analysis,
the number e, the transcendency of which was established by
2
Following Hermite, Lindemann gave a proof that it is
a transcendental number. He proved the more general theorem
x
that, if e = y, the two numbers x arid y cannot both be algebraical,
Hermite.
= 0, y = 1. Simplified proofs that e and tt

except in the case x
3
are transcendental numbers were afterwards given by Hilbert,
Hurwitz, and Gordan. A modified form of Gordan's proof will be
here given.
The proof
that
a transcendental
number
equivalent to
the establishment of the impossibility of squaring the circle by
means of any geometrical construction in which straight lines and
or more generally when any algebraical
circles are alone employed
tt
is
is
For any such construction amounts to

some algebraical equation obtained
of
the
cartesian
combination
equations of straight lines and
by
The fascination which the
circles or other algebraical curves.
curves
may be employed.
the exhibition of
it
as a root of
"
"
problem of squaring the circle has exercised for centuries upon

many minds is such that Lindemann's proof of the impossibility of
the problem under the assumed conditions is a result of great importance in relation to a problem of historic interest.
251
,2)
assume,
To shew that the number
if possible,
that
e satisfies
Ao + Ate + A.^-t1
e is transcendental,
the condition
...
+ A n en =
0,
I.iourille's Journal, Vol. xvi. 1851.
Mathematisehe Annalen, Vol. xx. 1882.
Ibid. Vol. xliii. 1893.
let
us
A lt A
where
LOGARITHMS
807
are positive or negative integers, and A is a

In order to shew that this assumption leads to
An
...
positive integer.
a contradiction, it will be shewn that a

mined such that
number
K can
be deter-
= I + f KA e = I, +/, KA,e = L +f.

KA e n = In +/
where I0i J ,Ia ,...In denote positive or negative integers, and
KA
numbers numerically less than unity, and such

that fi+f>+ +fn is numerically less than unity, and where
I + I + ... + I n is not zero. On multiplying the original equation
by K, we have the sum of an integer and a number numerically
To determine
less than unity equal to zero, which is impossible.
the number K, let us consider the expression
fi,f-2,
fn denote
(*)-
-^y
-) (2-*) (8 -*).( -*)),
1(1
a prime number greater than n and greater than A Q

denote < (x), when expanded out in powers of x, by
xv-1 + cp xP +
+ Cnp+p-! x nP +p ~ Denoting by
where p
is
We may
cp -!
. .
'(*),
the successive derived functions of
are
all
(n !y
1,2, 3,
l
P
we
but
(m),
...
</>'^
</>*
if
'(0)
not a multiple of p, since

(0)
denote one of the integers,
p~
is
...
<f>'(m),
(w) are
<p-v
(0)
<f>
Kp
-1)
all
<f)
all
(m)
vanish,
and
integers divisible by p.
r=np+pl
Kp denote
or
see that
1
see that 4>(m),

+y-1
we
...***-
(0),
Also,
^{x)
...<t>
(x),
(f>
+1
(p
<^(0),
n* +
... >(<),
4>"(x),
+ 
(0)
not a multiple of p, since <p -1 (0) is not divisible by p.

It will be shewn that the value of
p for a sufficiently large value
thus
is
the required number K.

of the prime number/),
A
is
to
Since
p,
prime
p A is not a multiple of p.
is
We have
r=np+p
Kp A mem = A m Z
rlcr em
r= P -\
Am
r-
tip
+ /)-\
r=p-i
cr
<mr + rm r- + r(r-l)m r-* +

1
(
///'
,+1
f+l
+
(r
...
+r\
r+2
+ l)(r + 2)
202
'"]'
308
m r+n
r+1
Now
sum
the limiting
that of
mr
of
7
lV7
r +-^-+
1
(r+ l)(r
m?
+m+
LOGARITHMS
}
. . .
or than
m where
re
sum may be denoted by m

m
e = Am
(m) + 0' (to) +
Kp A m
{(/>
< 6r <
. .
...
0w+p-i
We have
1.
then
m )}
+ A m em
the
than
is less
therefore the limiting
+
^
2)
cr
mr
r=p-l
a positive or negative
term on the right-hand side is

by p, and the second term
first
integer divisible
r=np+p-l
than A m e m
|
\c r
is
less
numerically
or than
r=p-l
Am e "
(p-l)i
K 1 + m) ( 2 +
(n
m))P,
which cannot exceed
n p-i
^-
2
+
+
^(^lyi^ aK +)( )}*
[n (n
1) (n
+ 2)
may be made as small as we

when p is so large that
a p-i
,
is less
number
choosing p great enough, the
By
{(1
+ ra) (2 +
than unity.
have then
We
w)
.(
. . .
(w
Let
please.
+ n)}* 4
(j
K(A + A e + A
- 1)
)}*/(p
Kp
be the value of
+ 4
|
e
1
. . .
+ An
1
A n en)
equal to the
not divisible by p, an integer which is
divisible by p, and a number numerically less than 1 ; and this is
Since e cannot be a root of an equation
impossible.
sum
of an integer which
e~
... -f
is
A + A x+...+ A n xn = 0,
l
with integral
251
coefficients, it is
If
,3)
.
coefficients, iir
assume that
a transcendental number.
were a root of an algebraical equation with integral

would also be a root of such an equation. Let us
7r
iir is
a root of the equation
C (x i) (x
a.2
(x
a8 ) = 0,
with integral coefficients thus iir is one of the numbers a, a 2

a
Since e in =-l, we have (1 +e a >) (1 + e*)...(l +e ) =
,
multiplying out the factors, this
A + eP> +
where
-A is
c F*
a positive integer.
is
of the form
...
+ eP = 0,
. . .
ag
on

be observed that
It will
Ca l}
Ca.2
Cas are
...
* <) =
where p
symmetrical functions of
take
(Jnp+p
~1
{(x
(^Syi
~ A) (* ~ A) <*- &>*>
a prime number greater than
is
309
integers, therefore all those of C/3 1} C/32 ,--.C/3 n
We
are integers.
the
all
LOGARITHMS
the numbers, A,
all
n, C,
C*|ft&...&|.
Denoting
that
< (a;)
-1
c p _i a;?
by
+1
^+^-
+ c p xp +
4-
. . .
# Mp+p
~~ 1
,
we see
(0), </^
(0) are all integral multiples of p,
(0),...
</>
that <^ _1 (0) is not a multiple of p.
^ n, (j> (/3, n ),
Also, if
and
m=n
Cnp+p-*
(/8 OT ),...^'-
(/3
m ) are
all zero,
m=l
m=n
,+ "^ _1
<^
(/3 W )
n=l
m=n
and
(/3 m ),
2 <^+ ( m ),
]
m=l
are integers divisible by p.
Let
Kp =
r=np+p-l
thus A^J.
Also
r\cr = <f> ,p_1)
r=
p-
is
not a multiple of
()
*>
(0)
<
. . .
n* +*- 1
(0)
ifp <*
(r+^+ 2) +
p.
+ r/3,/- +
1
cr
/3,/
= ^ <&> + *' <&> +
+ r + ^- T
r=np+p
+" _1
<#>
*=p i
'
where the numbers
and
between
all lie
1.
r=vp+p- 1
The number
c r 0/
/3
numerically less than
is
|
|
r=p-\
r=np+pl
|c r ||/8 m
r=p-l
or than
0>-l)!
where
/3 is
We
{lfcl
is less
the greatest of the 'numbers

so great that
/^
|,
/3 2
1,
...
/3 n
|.
now choose p
+ IW+... + IWJ
7^ &****i(fl +
\fii\)(fi
+ \&\)...}'
than unity.
Taking the value ofKpfor such a prime jo as the value of K, we see

that
K{A -\-e Pl +e Pi +
...
+ e 3n )is expressible as the sum
of p, an integer not divisible by p, and a
of a multiple
number numerically
less
310
LOGARITHMS
than unity; it is therefore impossible that it can vanish. It has thus

been shewn that it cannot be a root of an algebraical equation
with integral coefficients, and it is therefore a transcendental
number.
The approximate quadrature of
of the quadrature of the circle, which is

tt, can be solved to any required
The problem
252.
the circle.
equivalent to the determination of
degree of approximation, by taking a sufficient number of terms

in any one of a large number of series which have been given for
The simplest series which we can obtain is got by putting
7r.
= ^7r,
in Gregory's series
Itt
we have then
14- JL 1 4-
which however converges much too slowly

use for the calculation of
253.
tan-1
for
it.
If we use the identity \tt= tan -1 i + tan -1 ^, and substitute

-1
\, tan
\ their values from Gregory's series, we have
1_
2
4
This
is
be of any practical
to
f 1\3
+5
\2) 4.
/XY5
V2,>
called Euler's series.
Another
series
substituting for
may be
L
as
tan-1 x =
1
+ x2
1
7r
3 .L
1
l0l
- =
3 1
x2
+
+f 3
2
-
2_
3 10
2
3-10
(.
x2
5 VI
We
in Art. 219.
~10{
which we have obtained

4
obtained from the same identity by
tan -1 ^ and tan -1 ^ their values from the series
+ a?)
3.5UoJ
2
+ ... }
j
have then
+ 2^4 [2_V +
/ 1
3T5Vl0j
I
"'j
)
-}'
254.
Other series obtained in a similar manner have been
used by various calculators. Clausen obtained his series from the
= 2 tan -1 ^ + tan -1 \, using Gregory's series Machin's
identity \tt
1
series is obtained from

\tt
1
See a paper
of Math. Vol. 11.
"On
= 4 tan -1 1
tan -1
the calculation of tt" by Edgar Frisby in the Messenger
LOGARITHMS
3]
Dase used the identity
\tt
tan- 1
1
more convenient form
tan -1 \ + tan"1
of Machin's series
who used
the identity \ir
gave the
series
=4
3-io
'
56
2.41
4
1+ 3-100 +
2 Y-
3t5lrdo)
this is obtained from the expansion of
3îo-2+
was used by Rutherford,

Hutton
-fa.
tan-1 7\ + tan -1
tan -1 \
L 2
7r=2nA4
+
-}
x-
x tan -1 x in powers of
J.
#= ^
by putting
= f,
and
and using Clausen's
~T"
-,
00"
identity.
Euler has given the series
W~
10 |
UOO/
3033 6
100000
+
2
144
5 llOoJ
3U00T)00/
'
2.4/ 144 V
+
3T5U000U0j
""
which can be deduced from the identity

7T
The value
of
20 tan" {
1
8 tan" 1 Y%.
has been calculated by
ir
W, Shanks
to
707
decimal places 2
The continued
+ + -+
1
fraction
1+
32
52
...
was tnven
=xtr
4
in
1658
A. n.
by
J
Lord Brouncker, the first president of the Royal Society. It is obtained by

+ .. according to the usual rule.
transforming Gregory's series 1- A +
-1-
-!
Stern 3 has given the continued fraction hir
1.22
33.4
y
j7
= 1 +^1
An interesting account of the history of the subject of the quadrature of

the circle will be found in the article " Squaring of the Circle" in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th edition. See also an article by Glaisher in the Messenger
of Mathematics, Vol. III. "On the quadrature of the circle A.D. 1580 1630."
Trigonometrical
255.
It can
identities.
bo shewn as in Art. 190, Ex.
algebraical
relation
quantities a,
b, c...,
(5),
that any identical

of
= 0, between any number

f(a,b,c...)
will lead to
two corresponding trigonometrical
Phil.
See Proc Royal 80c. Vols. xxi. xxn.

Crelle's Journal, Vol. x.
Bee also a note by Sylvester, Phil. M<nj. 18GD.
Trans. 1776.
312
These
identities.
will
LOGARITHMS
be obtained by giving
a, b,c...
the complex
+ 1 sin 7
. . .
values
cos a
+ i sin a,
cos
+ i sin /3,
/3
and reducing the given identity

</>(,
&7
+ *>(.&?.. .) =
..)
whence we obtain the trigonometrical

<O,/3,
which
7 ...) =
will involve the sines
cos 7
to the form
<>,
identities
f(a,ft 7 ...) = 0,
0,
and cosines of
a, f3,
<y
The work
of reduction will usually be shortened by using the

1
forms
instead of cos a + i sin a, cos ft + i sin /3
e, e ^.
symbolical
.
Example.
J'rom the identity

3
(x-b)(x-c)
- c)
- r-r-.
b) (a
;
-.
(a
a) (x-a)(x-b) =
+ (x-c)(x
n - + 7 - r~, - ?r 1,
,
c) (b
(b
a)
b)
a) (c
(c
deduce the identity
s in (6- y) sin (6- a)

-v)
~ ,A
dnV-e&niB-y)
q)
-2{sin2(d-a)+-r-j
-
sin (a
- /3) sin
Utx=e 2ie
(*-6) (x -
c)
(a b) (a c)
(a
--
a = e 2;a
(*
(
2ia
sin
y)
=e
(/3
(,
y) sin
nV-a)rin(0-n
p)
Sl7l{y-a) Sl/l(y
m
,
= e 2i \
then we have
^ - r^ ("^-
"
- f#) (e - e"y) _
(e
- e 2 ^) (e2ic - e2
(*"*- -*-") (*'-*--<-*)
^} ?* (-?
':
?)
.
sin (0-/3) sin (0-y) ,
r
-7 - %.
- -( {cos 2 ((9- a)
sin
/3) sin (a
(a
7)
or
a)
(j3
..
+ i sin _.,,
2(0- a)}
transforming each fraction in this manner and equating the coefficient of

we obtain the identity to be proved.
zero,
The summation of
256.
When
sum
the
a
is
series.
of a finite or an infinite series
+ !# +
a^x
known, we may deduce the sums
...
S and
}
&> of the series
+ a x cos (a + 0) + a,x cos (a + 20) +

o sina + i#sin (a+ 0) + a.^ sin (a + 20) 4= a + a x + a. x- + ...,
For suppose
f(x)
e 'f(a:^) = 8 + iS
then
a cos a
....
to
LOGARITHMS

and
e~ ia
also
therefore
S, =
and
S.2
the values of
i0
ia
f(xe
{e
S u S2
f (xe~ ) = S - iS,
313
ia
{e
ie
e~ /a f (xe~ ie )} ,
f (we49) - er^/iaser*)}
now be reduced
thus obtained, can
to a real
form.
Examples.
(1)
We
Sum
the series
>S a
+ x cos (a+/3) + X2 cos (a + 2#) + ...+x-
cos {a
n- 1
have
-f^=l+x+a?+...+ti
lx
Change x into xe^ and multiply by
,a
+ (n-l)/3}.
we have then
l-xetP
and similarly we have
e
_ ig
l-^n e tn
=e -i* +xe -Ha+{i) +a
1-xe-*
therefore the
sum
If,
"
'
- xn ein ^)
la
1 e
~ (1
l-xet
i-xe*
(1
which
is
-H*+m +t j>+a n- le -t(a+iT-i
ia
'
-*-**
l-xe-* J
- j-^) +e- ia (l -xn e~ inp ) (1
-:re' p )
(l-xe^)(l-xe-^)
equal to
COS a X cos (a -
/3)
Xn cos (a + ?l/3) +xn +

1
(2)
of the given series is
or
Jt
fam
-2.r cos
COS (a+
n Iff)
#+.*''"
<Ae infinite series
Si/la
x(a + 2ff)
QN
+ n/3)
+... + xn(a
+ xsm(a + /3)H
g-j
,
I-...,
We
e*=\
have
put ê'^ for
#,
+# + *- + ... + -{+...,
and multiply by
e'
gt^+ia saeia +xeHa+p)
a
,
we have then
X
+ l_ et( + S +
and similarly
hence the
sum
of
the given series
is
...
+ ^ e H + P) + ...
314)
_ e -2'(.rsin/3+o)i
f
jLgXCOSjS 6*(*sin/3+a)
or
which
is
LOGARITHMS
equal to
rcos
e-
^sin(a+A-sin/3).
We shall now give some examples of the application

257.
the
of
exponential expressions for the circular functions to the
expansion of expressions in
To expand
(1)
where x
(1
than unity
is less
series.
2#cos + x )~
- 2x cos + <T = (1 - xe
2
(1
which expressed
2% sin
. (e ie
VI
3ie
ie
is
(sin
may be
+ x sin
i0
(e~
...
- xe-'
'
we have
x,
+ xn~
ni
+ xe~- +
ie
+x
1l
~l
e~ nie +...),
20
+ x" sin
30
+ xn ~
...
sin
+x
o
2
than unity
log c (1
cos
2a;
log (1
,
(9
2*-
+ 2x cos
cos 2^
+ x' )
in
+ xe
+ 2x n cosn0 +
...
powers of
x,
....
where x
we have
+x)=
2x cos
log e (1
ie
+ \og
(1
hence expanding each logarithm on the right-hand

the formula (9) of Art. 250.
(3)
n0 +...).
shewn, in a similar manner, that
To expand
(2)
ie
=--K*
1 2x cos
is less
- xe- y\
)~ (1
equal to
cosec
It
x,
e~ ie
xe
+ xe 2ie + x e +
2i sin 6
which
ie
ie
expanding each fraction in powers of

zi sin 6
powers of
in partial fractions is equal to

1
CT
in a series of
we have
To expand
ax
sin (bx
+ c)
in powers of x,
+ xe~
side,
ie
we obtain
we may write
the expression
2i
If
we expand
of
x n to
'
e' a+ib)x , e {a
~ ih]x
in
I-
powers of
x,
we
find the coefficient
be
i~
ic
{e
(a
+ ib) n - e~
ie
(a
- ib) n
= tan
let b/a
a,
(a
n
-e
i{c+na)
+ 62)*" sin (c + na)
<-<+">}'
#n in the required expansion.

sin
Having given
We
b-)& \e
l
this is the coefficient of
when w <
(a
or
2i n
(4)
x n
sin (x
a),
to
expand x
e*'*
or
2ix
therefore
lix
?/e-'
- 1},
{*<+
ne ia
taking logarithms and expanding the right-hand
kir)
x + k-rr
where k
is
powers
e^ = n {e^x+a) - *-*+>}
hence
in
1.
have
2i (x
315
then the expression becomes

=-.
of n,
LOGAKITHMS
- e~ ia ) + n
n (e !a
2ia
9 (e
= n sin a + \n
sin 2a
side,
- e~ 2ia ) +
+ \n
sin 3a
we have
. . .
an integer.
be the angle of a triangle and be less than A, we can

circular measure of B in powers of b/a; since
the
expand
If
B = - sin (B + C),
sin
we
have, since in this case k
0,
B = - sin G + A % sin 2(7 + 1 ^ sin 3C + ...
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
.
1.
A (n + V + B hin( * and
t>
z is
A+Bz
Prove that the general term in the expansion of
powers of
1
XV.
.
'"
tT^cos d>+
that the general term in the
sin<
Niiansion
of,
1
A+Bz
srs
(l-tozCOSQ + Z*)
(n + 3j sin ( + l)
<-(+!) sin
4sin
:5
is
+ 3)<ft ^
(w +
2)sinw - nsin(rc + 2)(fr

ft
4siu
:;
f/i
(^MZer.)
If tan
2
?i
CHAPTER XV
EXAMPLES.
316
2
z
x=
prove that x = n sin a + * n sin 2a + 1 n sin 3a +
1
n cos a
,
being less than unity.

If cot y
3.
= cot x + cosec a cosec x, shew that

3
2
y = sin x sin a + h sin 2.r sin a +. sin 3x sin a + ...
1
/I
If tan
4.
+ a\^
0=( yzt~
tan l<> shew that
2X3
= < + 2\sin< + 2\2 sin 20 + -^X
where
6 = a + X cos a 2
If (1
6.
%x
/\
~ /a\
/
+ "~
+5
=2 + {V +
\V
.
%)
= x + tan a,
If tan
5.
30 + ...,
sin
prove that
cos 2 a sin 2a
cos 3 a cos 3a + j#4 cos4 a sin 4a + .
^x
+ m) tan 5 = (1 - m) tan 0, when
and
. .
are positive acute angles,
shew that
= (P~m sin
If tan a
7.
2<fi
= cos 2m tan X,
+ J i 2 sin 40 - ^ to 3 sin G< + ....
shew that
X - a = tan 2 a> sin 2a + 1 tan 4 w sin 4a + J tan 6 a> sin 6a +
x = n cos (x + a), expand x
8.
If sin
9.
Shew that
xp
the coefficient of
in ascending
powers of
in the expansion of (1
2 {ap cos pd + aiCtp-i cos Qo-2) ^ + a 2 P -2 c s
18
where a m
10.
is
the coefficient of xm in the expansion of
Prove that
tt
= 18
n.
2x cos $+x2 )~ n
Qo- 4) # + ...},
(1
x)~ n
2
n=0 (2+2)>
11.
Prove that in any triangle

log
supposing & to be
12.
c= log a
less
than
cos
C-
b2
-
b3
cos 2C-.,
cos 3(7-
...,
a.
If the roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c=0 be imaginary, shew that

~
11
in the development of {ax 2 + bx + c) l in powers of x is
the coefficient of x
q*
8in( w + l)g
c^
where 6
,
13.
is
given by b sec 5 + 2 \/c
t, ,
If 'w
14.
6.
'
sin0
= 0.
..
+ i) 4 cos 2 5 + (l-?0 4 sin 2 5
(l
X
,,-- :
a
oa, expand log
(I +ny cos* 6 + (lny&m*d
-s
of even multiples of
of
w+1
Expand
.,
(,
p in a series of cosines
8.
loge cos (0
+ jjt)
in a series of sines
and cosines of multiples
CHAPTER XV
EXAMPLES.
317
Prove that
15.
713
tt_17
_
4
21
81
343
+ "* + 2n-l
Prove that
16.
i_14.I_Jl4.J__Jl4.J__ "" = ____(-J_l)

9
Find
17.
(a
23
17
the values of (^
all
Prove that
18.
15
25
v_ l
l)
+ a^-l tan 4>)
(*c*)-* V-i
log
number, and
s a rea l
find its value.
If
19.
a cos 8 + b sin 8 = c, where

/i
From
20.
,u
= /,
(4n + l)- + i\og
ff
-i
> \/a
+b-, shew that
-a 2 -lr
+ \Icr===
the expression for xn +
tan
a
J
r-
deduce that when n
in factors,
nd cos ?w
even
is
sin
tan -1
,
sin 28
2 cos n
= tan _1
1
From
21.
sin
sin 8
sin 8
(-....
JL _ 1 _ =
(g
cos (0 + a) sin
+ cos 28 2 cos n
'
cos 8
+ cos 28 - 2 cos
n
the identity
28-2 cos
htan -1
_^_
sin .
deduce
ft)
(8- (3)- cos (_ +0) sin (_-_) = sin
(a
- /S) cos 2_,
=
sin(5 + a)sin(^-/3)-sin(^+i_)sin(^-a) sin(a-/3)sin2(9.
Prove that
22.
tan"* a
~T~
where
^ tan"*
+
a,
0,
W~
tan"' y
~7
/, _ 1
_ * + V3 1o
3
+ J_ _
T l0g_2_W3_
2
2^73~ \ 7 13
y are the three cube
_
+1
25
.
to the base a + bi, in the form

Express the logarithms of c+di
24.
If tau m
(J
=
.
25.
In any triangle, shew that
a n cos
nB + b n cos n_l-=cn -Jia&cn
ft
tan
r-
~2
cos (_
- B)
n ( w ~ 3)
g g_y- cos 2 (_t- /?)-...,
being a positive integer.
then
and
A +Bi.
w + ^) = tan" ( + <), shew that

i
26.
'
roots of unity.
23.
m tan ~
71
J_
19
If
+ z/3) =j? + iq,

2
cos (_* si n j) = & log, (a +
log e log e log e (a

*
cos *
e^^sin^sin^Htan-
2
/3 ),
^.
CHAPTER XV
EXAMPLES.
318
27.
Shew
j-cos
is
Prove that
1
(l+ecos<9)
where 2X
29.
of
ascending powers
28.
the coefficient of x n in the expansion of e*cos.r in
that
is
sec 3 2X
...
+ -l) n 2 sec 3 2X tan X(l+?i cos 2X) cos M0+...,

(
the least positive value of sin -1
Prove that the series

1
1.3.5... (2m+l)
3.5.7...(2m + 3)
can be expressed in the form
-,
where
numbers, and
. . .
ad
inf.
A m B m Cm
,
_ (2m)
are
whole
B m = (2m-l)B m _ -2(m-l)l
1
30.
Prove that
sin" 8 cos n^>
= sin" $ cos ?i# + n sin" -
cos
<f>
(?i
- 1 ) 8 sin (8 <)
+ ^^-sin"- 2 0cos(?i-2)^sin 2 (^-0)4-...+sin(^ri
0),
being a positive integer.

31.
Prove the identity
cos 2a
32.
Prove that
"
sin|(a-/3)sini(a-y)sini(a-d)
+ \3 -\5 -)-7 + ... = JL2
'
s '-2
33.
Reduce tan -1
(cos
11
8) to the
0+iain
cos0
- cos 30
form a + bi, and hence shew that
- cos 58
r
.
TV
...=
>
the upper or lower sign being taken, according as cos 6
is
positive or negative.
Prove that one value of Loge (l + cos20+isin 2d) is loge

between - h n and \ ir. Deduce Gregory's series.
Prove that one value of sin -1 (cos + i sin 8) is
34.
when 8
cos -1
when
(2 cos 6)
lies
8 lies between
Vain 8 +i logc (Vsin 8
and
+ y/l + sin 8),
\tt.
00
35.
Find the sum of the series 2
^4
rt
e(
2,l
1)
x sin
(2n+ \)y
in
which
A " = _2
2+l
36.
In any triangle, shew that
cosnA
o"
=~=-(l
n
+ -C03g+
c
2n-\
a
if
L_
+ 3'
<c
+ a2
n(n
V
_T l)' -.
2
271
c2
COS
__
25
(+lHH+2)ff3
+ id,
CHAPTER XV
EXAMPLES.
319
Prove that
37.
^- i (1 +!}.,.< + ;
ftan-.tf =
,1
.+.).,_...
+ <zitY 1+ 3i+... +
V
?i
where x
between + 1.
lies
If
38.
u^log^tan
w...
+ 2 .A=x+a 3 x3 + a 5 x5 + ...,
}
Rationalize tan -uclog,,
39.
. .
j-.Y
Prove that
40.
cos x
41.
x = u - ct 3 ti3 + a 5 ub -
prove that
(n -
-Iit-lJ
) !""("
If
+
4- 1
;t
is
cos
- 2)
(n
2a?
(n + 2)
' ' '
cos
nx
_2
n~J
(
J2n)l
+ cos x)n" ~
(2)
2 (
!)
a positive integer, and
S=l + ?icos2 8+... +
,',7
1)! (r
'r,cos
-Mcos(?--l)^ + ....
1)!
prove that
aSBind={l+.(-l) }(-l)^ cos^+{l-(-l) }(-l)*

42.
Prove that the expansion of tan tan tan
a?+2|y+4n (6*-l)f^
43.
If
tan(ja
0) = tan 3 ja,
-sin
<=
44.
Shew
2
tan
45.
tana?, (n tangents) is
(176^-84 + 11) +....
then shew that
p sin 2a + 5
sin 3a-....
6-\ tan
6<1,
+ J tan6 6 -
...
= sin 2 + A sin 4 6 + J sin6 (9+
.. .
Prove that, w being a positive integer,
w(ft-l
+~
31
2)
~
w~ (?*.-
1) (n
2)
(w-
3)
(n-4)
i{2.
Shew
- 5)
6!
=
46.
sin%ft
that, if tan
) (
a-
...
{n_1)
+ (-l).2cs^l.
that the equations
-in2a+y sin23 + s-sin2y-2y2sinO + y)-22.rsin(y + a)-2.rysin(a+^)=0,

2
^2a+y 2 cos2/3+2
cos2y-2ycos(/3 + y)-2z.rcos(y + a)-2.zycos(a+0)=O
are satisfied by any of the following values:
x:y:z:\
:
sin 2 \
sin
(/3
y)
(0 y)
cos (0 - y)
cos 2 1 (0 - y)
sin 2 (y
cos 2 (y
- a) cos 2 *
: :
sin
n)
sin 2 i (a
(a
- 3)
- 0)
|(y-a) cosH(a-/9)
cos 2 A (y
a)
sin 2 J
(a- 0).
320
CHAPTER XV
EXAMPLES.
If 8 X ,
47.
#3> #4
>
are distinct values of 8 which satisfy the equation
+ d sin 8 + e = 0,
a cos 20 4- 6 sin 20 4- c cos
shew that
a
coss
sins
2cos(s-0)
2sin(s-0)
2s =
where
2cos|
(0!4-0 2
4 )'
+ # + 03 + #42
Prove that
48.
cos
(94-
= n sec
sin
0-'
.1
7b
- 1)* tan" = 1 - n sec
(_ i)4
(- 1) tan"
If sin _1
49.
a3 x
If
50.
=a
.r
-\-a9 x
a, jS,
^4-a 3 j?3 +
+ a l& x + ...
...,
is
are the
1^
-
-^-.
sec 2
cos
fclD sec2
20-
?2
15
...
{.7b
sin 20
... (rc
+ ...(
shew that the sum of the
^ {cos~
.r2
(\/ 1 + x + x*
2
4-
odd).
series
sin
n~
x n +piX
roots of the equation
even),
~*
#}.
+ ...+p n = 0,
prove that
tan" 1
asin0
-
ft
a x 4-tana cos 8
_j
jo 1
sin
-^
+ ...
pcos0 x
,.
sin0.^"~ 1 +p 2 sin20.^" _2 4sin n&

4-jt>
cos
xn ~ * 4- jt> 2 cos 2d.xn ~ 2 + ... +pn cos n0

xn +pi
If (1
51.
c) tan = (1 4-c) tan <,

csin20-ic
csin
is
equal to
(f),
'
sin
then each of the series

3
404-^c sin 63-...,
2<
+ ic sin4$4-Jc 3 sin60 + ...
where 8 and
<p
c< 1.
vanish together, and
Prove that
52.
cos^7r4-| cos 7r4-Jcos 7r4-... ad inf.=0.
Shew
53.
that the series

1
cos # 4- ;r-7r cos

2
3.r
.3
1.3.5
1.3
cos 5^ + ^
4---
cos
2.4.5
Z.4.O./
/jt4-...
assumes the following values,

(1)
(2)
If
54.
shew that
55.
e
aCOS
if /3
Shew
sin -1 (cos-|.r
sin -1
(cos
sin i#), when 7r>.r>0,
\x + sin
\ x),
when
2tt
>x>n.
= cos 2 0-^cos3 0cos304-cos 6 0cos50-...,

tan 2c = 2 cot 2 6.
that
^sin(asin^) + e
aCOS
^sin(asin
aCM(w-1)/, sin
2/3)4-. ..e
{asin(w-l)/3} = 0,
= 2tt/.
56.
sin 8
Prove that
.
sin 8
- % sin 16 sin 2
4- \
sin 30 sin 3 8 -
. . .
= cot -
+ cot 8 + cot 2 8).
CHAPTER XV
EXAMPLES.
Prove that
57.
2
log (cosec x) = 2 (cos x
sin 2
wi
59.
Shew
1
that the
).
sum
--,008
2.4.6
2-4
to infinity the series in
60.
cosd-cos3d + icos5d-
_,
cos i^
._
Examples 6071.
cos4d
cos 2d
_
cos2dH
cosec2 d
=-:
=-:
63.
cos d cos
64
sin d
sin 3d
cos (a
cosaH
67.
cos d cos
cos 3d
+ 2/3)
<f>
'
.4.1
cos (a + 43)
1
=-j
5d+
+ 5 sin 5d -
cos 2d
66.
cos 4dcos
+ 2T3T4 + 374T5 +
1.2.3
2d+cos 2d cos 3d+^ cos 36 cos 4d + ^-j
- si
cos d
_.
cos304-
cosecd
cosdH
-| cos 2d cos 20 + J
COS (a + 6/3)
:rj
"
=-\
30
cos 3d cos
3
tan asin4.r,
tan asin3.r
68.
tana.sin2.rH
69.
1+ e008 cos (sin d) + ^y- cos (2 sin d) +-gi cos (3 sin d) +
70.
3
2
sind.sind-|sin d.sin2d + sin d.sin3d~
71.
7nsin 2 a-|m 2 sin'-2a + ?n 3 sin 2
1-
\-
^-j
e 3cose
2 cose
TT
V2cos|d
~~2r + ^T~
62.
6 -
3(9+..,... is
+ n.
between
Sum
of the series
-1.3 ..1.3.5
-:rCOSd+ COS 2d -
lies
1.3.5...(2n-l) /*\
!
,
where 6
CA
/^-
61
2x + 1 cos 2 3a.- - J sin 2 4r +
Prove that
58.
COS
321
T.
3a-
where
m<l.
21
CHAPTER
XVI.
THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS.

258.
The
been defined
cosh
in
hyperbolic cosine, sine, tangent, &c., have already

Chap, xv, by means of the equations
u = \ (ew + e~u ), sinh u = \ (ew
cothw = 1/tanh
e~
u
),
sech u = 1/cosh u,
u,
tanh u = sinh w/cosh
u,
cosech u = 1/sinh u,
The
e~ u have their principal values.
of
circular
functions
are
in
terms
functions
expressed
hyperbolic
of iu, by the equations
where the exponentials
cosh
u=
sinh
cos iu,
coth u i cot iu,
u i sin iu,
sech u
tanh u
= sec iu,
cosech u
i tan iu,
= i cosec iu.
Relations between the hyperbolic functions.

259.
relations
We have, at once from the definitions, the following

between the hyperbolic functions
cosh 2 u
sech u
coth
(1),
u=
(2),
(3).
u
cosech u=
2
sinhtanh 2
These correspond to the relations

cos2
+ sin
1,
sec2
0- tan
1,
cosec 2
- cot
between the circular functions, and are at once deduced from them
= iu. By means of the relations (1), (2), (3), comby putting
bined with the definitions, any one hyperbolic function can be
THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

expressed in terms of any other one.
following table.
The
323
results are given in the
324
we
v) respectively,
sinh u + sinh v = 2 sinh h (u + v) cosh h (u v)
sinh u sinh v 2 cosh \ (u + v) sinh ^ (u v)
(8),
cosh u + cosh w = 2 cosh \ (u + v) cosh ^ (u v)
)J
cosh u cosh v = 2 sinh
(it + w) sinh ^ (u
+ v),
have, by changing u, v into J (u
h (u
|-
which are the formulae
for
the addition or subtraction of two
hyperbolic sines or cosines.
Formulae for
From
262.
and
'multiples
the formulae
submultiples.
and
(5), (6),
(4),
the relations
(8),
between the hyperbolic functions of multiples or submultiples

may be deduced, as in the case of the analogous formulae for
We
circular functions.
find
= 2 sinh u cosh u,
cosh 2u = cosh u + sinh u =
sinh 1u
= 1 5
1 + tanh- u
=
3 3 sinh u + 4 sinh
_,
cosh ^ u
cosh 3m
it,
+ 3 tanh it
1 + cosh u
4 cosh 3
2 sinh 2
u,
it
3 cosh
u,
/cosh
tanh 3 u
cosh a
sinh
^m
m
s
sinh
tanh^ = v/ coghM + 1 = rt+ cosh u

,
3 tanh w
tanh 3n
2 cosh 2
2 tanh
tanh 2m
sinh
'
Series for hyperbolic functions.

263.
We
u
have
cosh u
sinh u,
e~
= cosh
it
sinh u
thus the series for cosh u, sinh u, in powers of u, arc
As
in Art. 233,
|i2|<|w|V
Ml
,
we
COsh M
m*
= l + -f
+ j-7-+
sinh u
= w+
ir
see that cosh
|#|<jw|
4!
e |M|
?l
>
u=1
. . . .
+ R,
sinh u
= u + S, where

Also the principal value of (cosh u sinh u) m
mu
cosh
whatever
m may
be
cosh
sinh
264.
mu =
mu =
We
i {(cosh
\ {(cosh u
f)i>
-\
Moivre's theorem for
+ sinh u) m 4- (cosh u sinh u)m

+ sinh u) m (cosh u sinh u)m
],
}.
-\
m~
~~^~,
m(m l)(m
2)
1
o
)
cosh** -8
u sinh 3 u+
....
cosh" 1-2 u sinh 2
m (m l)(m 2)(to 3) cosh"1-4 u sinh

...
u
As
mu = cosh"
cosh
De
express the theorem thus
obtain from the last expressions, by expansion,
sinh mu = to cosh"1-1 u sinh u
always
sinh mu,
this corresponds to
We may
circular functions.
is
325
'
-^r,
we can deduce from
in the case of circular functions,
. .
these
mu, cosh mu in powers of sinh u it

is however unnecessary to repeat the work of collecting the various
coefficients, as we may obtain the result at once by substituting iu
series the expansions of sinh
for 6 in the formula of Art. 214,
mu = m sinh u
sinh
to (to2
l a)
mu = 1 + =-. sinh
2
which
which
is
265.
z/.
the case
From
first
if
= sinh u
the series for sinh
This series
is
^j
convergent
In particular, we have
...,
mu we
sinh
u=\, we
find
deduce, as in the case of
u in powers of sinh
1
if
-=
,,
smh'
u
u.
Equating
sinh
it
1,
..,
1.3.51
" "+
sm
% a a 7
or
if
wS log(l + y'-).
11 1.3 1 1.3.5
+ V2) = l-2-3 + 2T4-5"270-7 + ""
1
log(l
we obtain
3
..
-smh
u + ...,
m, provided they are convergent,
^ 1. If we put
w = log(l +V2).
1.3
11,,
= sinh u +
sinh u
to,
zAr
functions, a series for
powers of
-l 2)(m2 -3 )
sinh 4 u
^r-
series hold for all values of
tehe circular
the
thus obtain
+ m(m
cosh
We
-sinrr u
**r.
-\
Chapter xvi.
326
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
TFIE
Periodicity of the hyperbolic functions.

266.
2iri,
The
since eu
functions cosh
= e u+2ni
We
u,
sinh u have an imaginary period
have therefore
= sinh (u + 2iirk),
Since e u+,ri = e u #~ +*) = e~ w we
where k is any integer.
have cosh (u + iir) = cosh u, sinh (u + iir) = sinh u therefore
tanh (u + iir) = tanh u, or the period of tanh u is iir, only half that
cosh u
= cosh
(u
2iirk),
sinh u
of cosh u, sinh u.
We
find the following values of sinh u, cosh u,
tanh u corresponding to the arguments
0, i tri, iri, \-ni.

provided this limit
when
exists,
the
number
327
of sides of the in-
scribed polygon is increased indefinitely in such a manner that the

limit of the greatest side converges to zero, provided also this limit
has a unique value for

the point
P OA
r
We
let
r,
and
let
u and
have tan
sequences of polygons subject to the
all
Let u r be the value of u corresponding to

r denote the circular measure of the angle
prescribed condition.
correspond to the point Q.
tanh u r
sinh Ur
sin 6 r
hence we find
(cosh 2u r )~
(cosh 2u r )2
From
cos
cosh u
and cos Ur =
,
these values, and the corresponding expressions for sin 6 r +,

we find that
sinh (v,. +l - Ur)
sin (0r+1 - r ) =
*"
(cosh 2ttr cosh 2ur+ i)
r +i>
0P r = a (cosh
Now
and
ur + sinh 2 a,-)-
OP,- +
= a cosh*
a cosh-
2ur+1
2 u r,
hence
A OPrPr+i = i 0Pr 0P r+l sin (0r+1 .
The
OA,
r)
= Ui- sinh (w r+ - ,\
,
measure of the area of the rectilineal polygon bounded by

2 ...P nr- l Q is therefore
OQ and the sides of
AP P
l
where u
0,
un = u.
-I
r=0
328
This measure
a-
is
equal to
{(ur+i
-u + a
r)
- ury ew,-+1 " " r
(u , +1
theorem proved in Art. 263, where

than 1/6.
in virtue of a
a,,
are less
The length
a
of the side
{(cosh
u r+1 -
Pr Pr +i
cosh
2
it,.)
the numbers
all
is
+ (sinh
u r+1
- sinh Mr)2
2
}
which reduces to
2a cosh * (u r
Also
+ u r+1 ) sinh
ur+1 - ur < sinh (ur+1 - u r )
^ (u r+1
-v
r ).
therefore the ratio
(ur+1 -Ur)fPr Pr+l
< cr
is
cosh %(ur+1
- w^/cosh* (ur + wr+1) <
a -1 cosh \ u.
-u
a fixed number inder )/Pr r+i is less than

(u r+1
we see that in any
the
of
r
and
of
particular polygon,
pendent
u r+1 - v r in one
numbers
of
the
the
of
greatest
polygons
sequence
of the sides
of the
converges to zero as the greatest
Since
now
P P +i
r
polygons
In the polygon we
does so.
may
u r+1 -ur < n
ri
for all values of r,
where
rj n
therefore suppose,
converges to zero as the
number
of
sides is indefinitely increased.
We
the measure of the area of the rectilineal

M-l
- ur), or %a-u, by a number less than
polygon differs from \tf 2 (u y+1
r=0
n-\
v
2
tVgV ^" 2 (ur+1 - u r) or &a?yn*e u
now
see that
r=
and
this converges to zero
when
t] a
does
so.
It has
now been
2
limit of the measure of the areas of
proved that |a w is the unique
in
the rectilineal polygons
any sequence subject to the prescribed
bounded by
area of the sector
the
Therefore
condition.
OAQ
OA, OQ and
The area of any
by
u, u' is clearly
AQ
of the rectangular hyperbola is \a-u.

which the extremities are represented
of
sector
the arc
measured by \o?{u - u).
other branch of
It should be observed that, to represent points on the
- u, since
the rectangular hyperbola, u must be changed into iir
cosh
and
(iir
- u) = - cosh u,
sinh (in -u)
= sinh u.

268.
If
we
describe a circle 1 of radius
MP
any point on the circle,

POA by 0, we have area
at P,
its
OA = a,
and
let
be
ordinate, then denoting the angle
OAP = $a?0.
Let
PN
be the tangent
we have then
OM = a cos 0, MP = a sin 0, KP = a tan
From
329
iV draw
ON NQ- = a-
NQ
perpendicular to
a.
Now
MA = a vers 0.
OA
therefore the locus of
bola of semi-axis
0,
and equal to NP, then

Q is a rectangular hyper-
denote the area of the sector
OAQ
by \a a, then as we have proved in the last Article, we have

= a cosh u,
= as\nhu. Thus we see that, just as the
on the circle are denoted by
ordinate and abscissa of a point
2
OX
NQ
asin#, acos#, respectively, where \a?0
is
the area of the circular
and abscissa of the point Q on the

rectangular hyperbola are denoted by a sinh u, a cosh it, reThus the
spectively, where $a"u is the area of the sector OAQ
hyperbolic sine and cosine have a property in reference to the
sector
OAP,
The
tptei
so the ordinate
figure in
this Article is taken
on the Integral Calculus."
from a tract by Greenhill entitled
"A
330
rectangular hyperbola, exactly analogous to that of the sine and

cosine with reference to the circle.
For this reason the former
functions are called hyperbolic functions, just as the latter are
called circular functions.
We
269.
have, from the figure of the last Article,
when we
consider the point Q on the rectangular hyperbola, corresponding

to the point
on the circle,
~ NQ = a sinh u,
a tan
and
= ON = a cosh u
a sec
therefore the arguments 0, u, for corresponding points, satisfy the

= sinh u, sec = cosh u. Since
relations tan
.
sinh u
=-
tanh hu
,
Ave
have
tanh
and u
or
-kit
=-
tan
~ =
sec 6
satisfy the relation
sin
= tan
+ cos n
\u = tan \0.
_r
tanh
tanh u<Cu<C sinh

It
<.
a
ho,
A OQM < sector OAQ<hOAQ, we have
Since
Ti
-.
+ cosh u
ti
follows
,i
i
p
that the limits of
,-.
tanb?(
-
u.
sinlut
,
when u
is
,
a .,
lndennitely
,
diminished, are each unity, since cosh 0=1.
270.
We
have
e
therefore
w=
= cosh u + sinh
= sec # 4- tan
+ tan 0) = log tan Q it + ^ ^).
log (sec
e
it is called by
Various names have been given to the argument
Cayley the Gudermannian function of u, and denoted by gdu, so
;
that
=gd u, u = gd~
log tan (\tt
^0)
this
name was given
honour of Gudermann, who however called the function 1 the

longitude of u.
By Lambert, was called the transcendent angle,
and by Hoiiel 2 the hyperbolic amplitude of u (written amh u). A
from 0 to
table of the values of log tan (i?r H- \6) for values of
in
90 at intervals of 30', and to 12 places of decimals, is to be found

in Legendre's Theorie des Fonctions Elliptiques, Vol. n. Table iv.
The table which we give at the end of the Chapter, for intervals of
one degree, was extracted 3 from Legendre's table by Prof. Cayley.

1
2
3
See CrclWs Journal for 1S33.

See " Theorie des Fonctions
complexes."
See the Quarterly Journal, Vol. xx. p. '220.

The
331
table enables us to find the numerical values of the

hyperbolic
u, by means of the relations
functions of
sinh u
= tan 0,
cosh a
= sec 9,
using a table of natural tangents or secants of angles.

Those who desire further information on the subject of the hyperbolic
functions and their applications, may refer to Laisant's " Essai sur les Fonc"
tions Hyperboliques in the Memoires de la Socie'te des Sciences de Bordeaux,
x., also the treatises "Die hyperbolischen Functionen" by E. Heis, and
Die Lehre von den gewohnlichen und verallgemeinerten Hyperbol-funk-
Vol.
11
tionen" by Giinther.
Expressions for the circular functions of complex arguments.

271.
The
circular functions with a
complex argument may, by
the use of the notation of the hyperbolic functions, be conveniently

expressed in the form a + ift, where a and ft are real quantities.
Thus
sin (x
+ iy) = sin x cos iy + cos x sin iy
hence
sin (x
+ iy) sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y
Similarly
we
(0).
find
+ iy) = cos x cosh y i sin x sinh y

(x + iy) cos (x iy)
= sin
^'
tan (x + iy)
-)
-) ^
J
cos (x
Also
(10).
cos (x
_ sin 2x
cos2;r
+ %y
cos (x
%y)
+ sin 2iy
+ cos 2iy
hence
.
sin
f ( + ')-
2x + i sinh
,, ,.
2?/
(")
, 2. + CMh 2^
The inverse circular functions of complex arguments.
We
-1
shall first consider the function sin
{x
+ iy). Let
+ iy) = a + 1/3, then
x + iy = sin (a + i/3) = sin a cosh /3 + i cos a sinh (3,
we have therefore, for the
or x*= sin a cosh ft, y cos a sinh ft
or
x
determination of ft, the equation
/is<>sh- ft + y-/s'\nh ft =1,
=
cosh ft (cosh ft
a? (cosh ft
1).
1) + if cosh 6
272.
sin
-1
(x
332
If
we
cosh 2 ,8
= \ (x- + y + 1)
cosh
= Va + y +
therefore
and since cosh
/3
/3 is
cosh
/3
dj/cosh
cosh
we must
= i VO +
of sin a
8
+ y + l) -^x
2
+ \fx- + y
if
have,
\ V(a>
2/
find
2
;
- 2x +
1,
is positive,
+y
l)
3
.
is
2
+3/ +
|V(a- l)
-fy
a
;
hence we have
>
sin
cosh
/3
= \ \/(x +
l)
sin a
= V(# +
l)
>
/S
l)
W(+l)
or
\\/{x
2# +
positive,
The corresponding value
now
we
solve this quadratic for cosh 2 /3,
a,
+ y + ^V(a;-l) + 2 = w
+ y - %^{x - l) + y 2 = v.
2
These are the values of cosh
sin
(3,
whether x
a,
negative.
=w
The quadratic cosh/3
>
2/
/3
gives
positive or
is
+ \/u
2
log [u
1}
we
have therefore
sin -1 (x
+ iy) =
Ictt
+ (
an integer, and
sin -1
where k
is
satisfies
the condition sin a
sign,
= 0,
put x
then
- <-
fc
is
+ Vu
2
log {u
the principal value of
} ,
a,
which
= v. To determine the ambiguous

-1
sin iy = &7r + * log (Vl + y- + y) hence
= + cos &7r sin
iy
-1
v
l) sin
[i
log (Vl
+ y + y)]
2
^l
^s fcr^ri " y ~
hence the ambiguous sign must be that of (
l)
* (_
1)S iy>
or
k
-1
9
(x + iy) = kir + (- l) sin v + (- If i log {w + Vw -1}.. .(12),
where
w = | V(a? + 1) + ^ + 1 V(# -1)2 +
and
v = \\!(x + I) + y 2 - \*J{x - If + y\
sin-1
?/
If
value
value
we
consider sin -1 v
of sin-1 (x
is
kir
+ iy), and
+ (
+ ilog
{u
denote
it
-1
l) sin (x
fc
as for real arguments.

special case is that of
+ iy),
Vu-
by
1}
sin-1 (x
which
is
as
the principal
the general
+ iy),
the same expression
A
x > 1, y =
in this case u = x, v
and the principal value of sin -1 x is ^7r + ilog [x + \Jx2 1}.
know a priori that sin -1 x can have no real value when x>l.
;
= l,
We

Next
273.
333
+ iy) = ct+ ifi, we have

sin a sinh /3, and we
=
y
let cos -1 (#
then, as in the
last case,
x = cos a cosh /3,
hence
cosh /3 = VO + l) + if + &V(<c - l) + y = u,
cos a = ^(x +lf + y-- >/(#- lf + y- = v
cos-1 (x + iy) = 2kir + cos -1 w + log {u + Vu 1}.
2
find, as before.
2
To determine the
= cos
iy
J,7r
we put x = 0, then
+ \Jif + 1)}
sign of the last term,
2
log (y + Vy + 1)] = +
sin {+ i log (y
= (i)(*y);
hence we see that the second ambiguous sign must be the opposite
of the
first,
cos
If cos
cos -1 (x
or
-1
-1,y
+ iy),
(x
+ iy) = 2k-rr
tlog(w+ Vw 1)
2
v-i log (w + vV-1)}
+ iy) =
.(13).
denotes the principal value of
then the general value
Let tan-1 (x
274.
-1
{cos
is
+ i/3,
-1
cos (x
2lcir
+ iy).
then
+ i sinh
2/3
X + IV =
r
cos 2a + cosh 2/3
sin 2a
17
sin 2a
*= cos
ô^ô^
cosh
2a
hence
sinh 2/3
2/
^
cos 2a
2/3'
'
+ co&h 2/3
we have
y
+ sinh 2/3
cosh 2/3)
2a
+
(cos
sin2 2a
cosh 2 2ff
~~
- cos
2a _ cosh
+ cosh 2/3)
(cos 2a
cosh 2/3
2 cos 27
-2a' _ + * + Jr =
orl-^-2/ = cosh 2/3 + cos ^,andl
2
therefore
Since
tan 2a
2x
1-aP-y2
e#- e -v =
-s
5 7-
2y
:
hence the values of tan -1 (#
',
,
2
and tanh
77/e inverse
275.
If sinh a
= ,
Vy) are
_^_ y
2,
cos 2a
+ cos 2a'
2 cosh 2/3
cosh 2/3
cos 2a"
+ x- + f
+ (v + l)2
.r
---,
given by
(x
+ (v +
)'-')
itog|^ + g. ^j-W
hyperbolic /auctions.
then a
and is denoted by sinh -1

-1
cosh z and tanh -1 ,?.
of
Jfl
2?/
-,wehave^ =
,
2x
tair(g+fr) -far+itan-* 1
2/3
'
2/3
is
^.
called the inverse hyperbolic sine

similar definition applies to
334
If z
= sinh = i sin ia, we
have
a.
iz
sin ia, or a
= - sin -1
(iz).
Similarly
if
= cosh a =
we have
cos ia,
- cos -1
we
find
also if z
= tanh a,
=-
tan -1
We
(is).
have therefore the inverse
hyperbolic functions expressed as inverse circular functions by the
equations
= i sin -1 (iz),
cosh z i cos -1 (z),
tanh -1 = i tan -1 (iz).
sinh -1 z
-1
of the expressions we have found for the

functions
of a complex argument, we may find the
inverse circular
shall however find
values of the inverse hyperbolic functions.
By means
276.
We
them independently.
=
sinh a, we have e a e~ a = 2z;
If z
(1)
a we find e a = z
V1 -t- z2
quadratic for e
the expressions for
hence a = 2ikir
solving this as a
+ \og
(z
+ z' )
2
\/l
or
+ log
Zilcir
(z
Vl + z
),
both values of a are included in the expression
+ (-
Heir
Thus
and
its
l) log (z
the general value of sinh -1
principal value
the one which
is
is
+ Vi+2
log (z
isi'&7r+( l) \oge (z
+ Vl + z );
-1
usually denoted by sinh
2ik-7r
\oge (z + *Jz-l)
hence we find
(z
\1 z
1),
the general value of cosh -1
is
),
this principal value is
hence
+ v'l + s'
z.
If z = cosh a, we have e a + e~ a = 2z
a
e = z V'z 1, thus a 2ikir log
(2)
).
;?/
,?;
the principal value, which is the one generally understood to be

denoted by cosh -1 2, is loge (z + \Iz 2 1).
(3)
If z
= tanh
we have
a,
We
-1
?,
for
= s,
or e2a
the
-+
lo
respectively.
fz+l\
sUrx)'
lo
hence
-1
principal values of coth
&
tanh -1 z, the
sech -1
z,
the expressions
..
find
this is the general value of
principal value being ^ logg
cosech
ia
= ikir + % loge
(4)
+ \ rl - z
j
2
.
>
lo
&
l+Vf+l
z,
335
The solution of cubic equations.
We
277.
the cubic x3
V g sin 6, V- f g sin (6 +
are
27r2 \?
sin
have shewn, in Art. 117, that when the roots of

+ qx + r=0 are all real, and q is negative, they
30
= -j-j
(
in the case
condition
We
where
f 7r),
to solve the cubic
when two of the roots are imaginary.

+ <iq > is satisfied.
In this case, the
27?--
x = a sinh
then #
8*,
= â
Now
satisfies the
2
x
will
with
coincide
3 sinh u
+ |a x
sin (0
now shew how
shall
4 sinh 3 u
this
g>
Suppose q positive; consider the cubic
(1)
let
V- f
tt),
x + qx +
3
27
rf\i
4
3
(
cubic
the roots of the
equation
\a? sinh 3m
cubic
the
sinh 3m, or sinh 3m
= sinh Su,
64 g
= 0,
if
= fa
2
,
4 sinh 3 **
= sinh
3 sinh u
3m are
sinh (w -f tti) and sinh (u +îri), hence the roots of the

cubic x3 + qx + r =
are
sinh
u,
Vf q
sinh
Vf q
m,
sinh
V-^g sinh w,
or
(it
+ wi),
m +
V^g ( sinh
\lq sinh
i
(it
+ iri),
\/S cosh %),
,,2\i
We find the number 3 m from a

aV
table of hyperbolic sines, when the numerical values of q and r
are given, and then sinh u, cosh u from the same tables thus the
where sinh 3 m
27
A
-
numerical values of the roots will be found.

(2)
When
is
negative; consider the equation
we
find, as in
cubic which
3 cosh u
the last
a cosh
= cosh Su,
case, that if q = fa r = \a? cosh 3m, the
satisfies is x + qx + r =
thus the roots
4 cosh 3 u
it
required are
V-focoshw, V-3acosh(w + 7n), */-$qcosh(u + $Tri),

or
V - f a cosh
-
a,
V2
g (- cosh m +
jj
V3 sinh
m),
\2
27
-J
(7"
Hence, as in the
last case,
we can
336
employ tables of hyperbolic functions to find the numerical values

of the roots of the cubic, when the values of q and r are
given.
278.
Table of values of u for given values of
6.
CHAPTER XVI
EXAMPLES.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
8 sinh nx sinh 2 x = 2 sinh ( + 2) x
2.
If
cos (a + j8) = cos

+
3.
If
cos (5 +
(f>
i'r/>)
cos (a
sin
?"|8)
shew
<fr,
=1
- 4 sinh
tan y = tan a tanh
If
4.
(n
- 2)
a?.
= + sin 2 a = sinh 2
tanh 2 cosh 2 = sin a,
<fi
/3
z= cot a tanh /3,
tan (y+2) = sinh 2j3cosec2a.
shew that
5.
Reduce
6.
If
sin
(a+lW to the form
A + iB.
= a + ip,
+
2a
=
2
cosh
2 cos 20
20 - 4e
2
cos(0-,3) = e *cos(0 + /3).
log e sin (0
shew that
i<f))
and
tan
If
+ 2 sinh
= sin 2 0.
tan
/3,
n.z;
that sin
prove that
tanh 2 /3 cosh 2
and
(a-
+ iy) = sin (w + iv),
Express {cos (0 + i(f>)
8.
XVI.
Prove that
1.
7.
337
shew that coth
+ i sin (0 - i<)} a+ ^
v sinh
in the
2y = cot u sin 2#.
form
A + iB.
Prove that
9.
***
'
/tan 20 + tanh 2r/A
(tan 20 ^tanh 2* j
cos
5a
=sina J sin3a+i
sin
5a-
m=jt, when
prove that
0ga<^7r and
Prove that the sum of the
11.
cos 40
is
0- tanh $\ =
*"
(tan*0 + Unh0J
J cos 3a +
= cos
If
10.
/tan
+ *"
{cos (cos
0)
',.
(cot * COth
cosh2v = seea.
infinite series
cos 120
cos 80
cosh (sin 0)
+ cos
(sin 0) cosh (cos 0)}.
Prove that
12.
...
"=(-l)
sin(2m + l)n0 =2 P=2
,
a
.
2
{cos(cosjj0)cosh(sinp0)} + cosa,
79^T'
v,n4
.
where
13.
is
the unit of circular measure.
From
Euler's theorem
sin
x cos ix cos $x cos

,
x.
dedu;e that
0)
-i
log e .z
(2)
n. t.
l_ +
#-1
i
2
= cosech x + 2
Xi
I*
1+^
>
+1
4
sech 2 2
j?
1+x*
+ i_i_ +
8 1+.-
2 .r +
+ sech 2 -4 x + cr
zh sech
o
,
<ir
22
/3.
CHAPTER
XVII.
INFINITE PRODUCTS.
The convergence of
Let
279.
zlt
z>, ...
zn
...
numbers formed according

product
If
Pn = z
Pn
z2
...
infinite products.
be a sequence of real or complex
any prescribed law, and consider the

first n of these numbers.
a definite limit P, different from zero, as n
to
zn of the
converges to
is said to be the limit, or

limiting
of
the
infinite
value,
product z x z2 z3 ... zn ..., and that infinite
is
said to be convergent.
It is convenient to exclude the case of those products for which
n converges to zero from the class of convergent infinite
product
is
products.
If n
P = Pn
Pn
(cos
+ i sin
n ),
where
|
Pn
denotes the modulus

j
necessary and sufficient for the convergence of the

infinite product that both
n and n should converge to definite
values as n is indefinitely increased.
In case
increases
n
of
it is
indefinitely, as n is indefinitely increased, the infinite product is

In other cases in which the product is not
said to be divergent.
it
convergent
said
is
to
oscillate,
but oscillating products are
frequently spoken of as divergent.

The necessary and sufficient condition that the infinite product
should converge to a definite value (other than zero)
z x z2 ... z n
.
corresponding to each arbitrarily chosen positive number e,

an integer n can be so chosen that zn+1 z n+2 ... zn+r 1 < e, for all
is that,
values 1,2,3,
of
...
r.
To shew
that this condition
is
necessary,
Pn
converges to P, a number different from

All except a finite set of the numbers \P1 \,\P.2 \, ... \Pn ...
zero.
are greater than P 77, where 77 is an arbitrarily chosen positive
let
us assume that
number such
P >
that
j
fore there exists
tj
also
none of these vanishes, thereis less than all the
a positive number k which
339
INFINITE PRODUCTS
numbers
|
limit, n
for r
2 1,
,
\
Pn
.
|
Since
..
Pn converges to a definite
that Pn+r ~ Pn < & e
may be so chosen, corresponding to
1,
2,3,
Hence we have
\z n+l z n+2
...
therefore the condition stated
zn
...
sufficient, let
is
For an assigned value

e,
z n+1 z n+2 ... z n+r = 1 + pntr where p n>r < e, for r = 1, 2,
have then Pn+r = Pn (1 + pn>r), and therefore P n+r <
hold.
x ],
r = 1,
\P n
2 |, ...
zn+1 zn+ 2
2, 3, ...
by choosing
...
|
. . .
so
for all positive integral values of r

|
it
1
j
and
e,
it to
fixed
that
3, ....
We
Pn
+ e),
(1
numbers
number X.
follows that all the
are less than a fixed positive
z n+r
<
us assume
n can be
of
From
necessary.
To shew that the condition
>
1\< ke/\z^z
z n+r
is
e,
< e, we have
Pn+r Pn \< \e,
for
and since Xe may be chosen as small as we please

small enough, we see that Pn must converge to a
definite limit.
convenient method of considering the convergence of the

product z x z2 ... z n ..., is to consider the series
infinite
^ + l0g
l0ge
â +...+log6 ^+
....
convergent the infinite product converges to a

If the infinite product
value other than zero, and conversely.
If this series
is
converges to zero, the series diverges to

as before, we exclude this case.
oo
and
for this reason,
To prove
that the convergence of the infinite series and of the

product are equivalent, we observe that the necessary and
sufficient condition for the convergence of the series is that n can
infinite
be so determined,
|loge
(l+p n> r)|<e,
condition
If this
theorem
<
each
for
that
e,
= l,2, 3,
for
is
satisfied,
z\ (1
now
z\ e
\\oge (zn+1 zn+2
z n+r )\
...
or
....
we
lz
')
have,
on employing the
established
in
230*
Art.
',
be an arbitrarily chosen positive

p n%r
e
number, e can be so chosen that e(l + \ee )< t], and thus n can
be so chosen that \p,>, r or ^n+i^n+a ^m+r~ 1 is < V> f r
|< e(l
+êe
).
If
r=
rj
therefore the infinite product is convergent.

Conthat
n
can
us
assume
be
so
let
chosen
that
<
n
r
e, for
versely
p
<"
has
been
shewn
It
in
r
Art.
249
....
that
if
z
< 1,
1,2, 3,
l, 2, 3, ...
lio&a+^Mî+ijJ^,),
therefore
|log(l
+P,r)\< e(l
+i j-3-J;
222
INFINITE PRODUCTS
340
or \oge (zn+l Zn+2
is
<
Zn+r)
V>
provided
(l
+ \ yZT) <
v an(^
'
prescribed, e can be so determined as to satisfy this condition.
Therefore the condition of convergence of the series
is satisfied.
Suppose u,,ih, ... u n ... to be a sequence of real positive

numbers each of which is less than 1 it will be shewn that the
280.
infinite
products
GO
(l+u1 )(l+u2)...(l+un)...
n(l + w)
or
and
(l
00
u )...(lu n )...
)(l
or II (1
u)
+ u 2 + ...+un +
both converge, or not, according as the series u x

is
(1
+ Uj) (1 + U
clear
is
it
Ui
...
convergent or divergent.
Since
+u +
2)
(1
+ Un ) >l+Wi + Ma + ...+ Un
the product
does so. Also
that
(ljfl
11(1+ u)
Q-O >
-Id...
(1
diverges
+ w,) (1 +
" =)
the series
if
(1
'
m 2 ) (1 v.2 ) ... (1 u n ) condiverges the product (1

and
is
therefore
considered
as non-convergent.
verges to zero,
Next, if Xu converges, let e be an arbitrarily chosen positive
if
2w
number
less
hence
for
r=
(1
than
1, 2, 3, ....
1,
then n can be so chosen that
We
- U n+1 ) (1 - W n+2 )
have, as in Art. 226,
...
and therefore
un+1
(1
- U n +r)
> 1 (Un+1 +
(1
un+2)
(1
...
U n+2
(1
. .
Mn+r) >
u n+r ) 1 < e,
]
6,
and thus
the condition obtained in Art. 279 for the convergence of the

infinite
product
II (1
u)
is satisfied.
Also
(1
+ u n+l
(I
u n+2 ) ...(1
u n+r )
1
< C7^
un+1 ) (1 - u n+i )
(1
and thus
|(1
+ w + ,)(l
+u n+2
...
(1
tt
n+r )
- un+r ) <
(1
7^
...
<
JL
""
e'
If v be
INFINITE PRODUCTS
341
e) <
arbitrarily assigned, we can determine e so that e/(l

thus n can be so determined that
|
= 1,2,
for r
It
+ M B+1 ) (1 + Un+a)
II (1
<
77,
is
u)
...
and
convergent.
should all be
than 1 can be replaced by the wider condition that all except

these numbers are less than 1,
For we can remove
finite set of
finite set of factors in II (1
+ u)
or in II (1
u)
without affecting
convergence.
Next
281.
us consider the infinite product
let
+ u )(l + u )...(l + )...,

... are
complex numbers. We
(l
where .2l
if
+ U n+r ) -
Hence the product
3, ....
its
(1
. .
clear that the condition that u Y ,u2y ...u n
is
less
(1
rj,
un
...
the series of moduli of u u u 2)
|i|
u.2
un
...
\+
+ |w|+
...
shall
shew that
the series,
..., i.e.
...,
convergent, then the infinite product is also convergent. In

this case the infinite product is said to be absolutely
convergent.
is
We
|
see that
(1
+ Un+r) - 1
S_(l +| un \) (1 + un+l \)...
+ U n ) (1 + Un+l)
(1
since the
sum
modulus of the sum of any
Now
(1
u n+r
\)
1,
set of numbers cannot exceed
2 u is convergent,
the infinite product II (1 + u |) is convergent, in accordance with
what has been shewn in Art. 280 it follows that, corresponding
to any assigned e, n can be so determined that
the
of their moduli.
the series
if
(1
for
r = 1,
un
2, 3, ...
(1
u n+1
\) ...
(1
+ u n+r
|
I)
-1<
e,
It follows that
(1
+ Un) (1 + U n+l
(1
+ Un+r) ~ 1 < 6,
|
r, and therefore the product

U (1 +u) is convergent. It may happen that II (1 -f u) is convergent whilst the series 2\u\ is divergent in this case II (1 + u)
for all positive
integral values of
is
said to converge non-absolutely, or to be semi-convergent.

It follows from the above theorem that the infinite
product
(1
is
is
convergent
if
a convergent
+a z)...(l +a n z)...
a n + ...
+ a +
u z)(l
|
series.
ax
INFINITE PRODUCTS
342
Let
same
b1 , b2 ,b3>
and
sign,
...
let
bn
...
L
=x
b1
be divergent.
to
It
be a sequence of real numbers

but suppose the series
b.2
...
+b n +
be shewn
will
...
that
+ ib n ) is not convergent. To
+ ibn = (1 + b^pe****, when tan $, =
IT (1
I
of the
all
= 0,
bn
prove
|
bn
|,
the infinite product

this we see that
and the upper or lower
sign in + i$> n is taken according as b n is positive or negative.

If 7) be an arbitrarily chosen positive number less than unity, we
have <j> n > (1 77) tan cf) n for all sufficiently large values of 11 and
,
converge, although II (1
2
%cf> n cannot converge.
therefore
It follows that II (1
+ b n -)^
+ ib n )
cannot
converge in case the series
will
2&n
convergent. It is clearly sufficient for the validity of the
theorem that all the numbers b n> with the exception of a finite
set,
is
should be of the same sign.
number x + iy, and the numbers a 1} a, ...a n ...

and such that 2an is divergent, the product
If z be a complex
be
all
positive
II (1 + a n z) is certainly divergent if the real part of z is positive.

For the product of the moduli of the terms 1 + an z is greater than
II (1 + a n x), and this is divergent when x is positive.
The product
not converge in case
p^
1,
and
is
+~
. . .
p S.
1,
but converges
convergent
if
p>
if
..,
when x
p>l.
is
For 2
a real number, does
is
divergent
when
1.
The product (l+y) (l + |)...(l + -)...
is
certainly divergent if the real
part of z is positive, and it does not converge if the real part of z is zero.
When the real part of z is negative the product converges to zero, and is
therefore considered as non-convergent.
For lo^
where
|
rj
is less
real part of 2 log e

is
than a fixed number
negative,
+- )
whence the
divergent and 2
- convergent.
2
+- = n
11)
)
,(1
x
2,i z
for all sufficiently large values of
consequently diverges to
result follows.
00 when
+n),
'
'
the
the real part oiz
This depends on the facts that 2 -
is
INFINITE PRODUCTS
343
Expressions for the sine and cosine as infinite products.
We
now
find expressions for sin x, cos x as infinite

the
circular
measure x; we first suppose x to
products involving
be real and positive.
282.
We
shall
have
X + 7T
= 2- sin X- sin
^
.
sin
=
and continuing
where
x= 2
sin
2n
z 3 sin
sin
x
-
we
~l
sin
cos
(sin
sin
x\
sm .
This
when n
is
is
(\
sin 2
. . .
sm 2
- 2?r
sin 2
^r
x\
;
nj
2/i
2ir
sm ns
.
...
2n
find
sin-
have
X
X
n sin - cos n
n
we
hence
o^
n
n=2o_!
sm- smJ2tt
hence, by division
nj
27r
= n, we
x cosec n
+ (n\)ir
-
sin 2
ar=o
...sin
n\
2tt
sin
obtain
sin-
since
-.
+ 7r sin x +
any positive integral power of 2
is
ji
X
X + TT
X + 37T
X+2tT
sin
sin
T sin
4
4
4
4
this process,
o--i
n J
sin
x\
\
7T
/
/
/ 1
sm 2
/ \
71/
n
\
sin 2 - \
ZTT
X
sm -
si n 2
-~>ht
2n
the particular case of the theorem (19), of Art. 87,

2.
We might, of course, assume the general
a power of
theorem.
Let %{n
2) = r,
then
if
m be
sin 2 -
sma? = ?ism-cos-
where
R=
any number
\ /
sin 2
1
than
less
r,
we have
...I
\R
INFINITE PRODUCTS
344
Now, n being taken greater than 2x/ir, m may be so chosen

< (m + 1) 7r, then R is positive and less than unity also, as
that x
in Art. 226,
is
greater than
x
- \ cosec2 to + Itt
n ^(
n
sin 2
Now we
p<H
r
2
x2
cosec 2 *
-r
l)
r^r
jm (m +
/l
1\
Itw,
77
Since jR
where
is
between
between
is
rov>
(to + 2)
2
+t
1)
if
<
<
\tt,
1)
+ ^f
?*"]
+^rxz(w +r^ +
'
(r
- 1) rj
i?
= 1 &t
'
2)
1)
(to
ri*
'
a?_
and
1
sin2
sin x = n sin n
that
4?h'
and
2 ;
;r_
(1),
also sin 2
-r-i
4p
r^ +
((i
>
<
it!>l- T j4
hence
sin kir
if
>
> y^
sin
hence,
have shewn in Art. 96, Ex.
then
+ cosec rir)
n
. . .
1-
a;
-r
we may put
2
,
we have then
-
cos -
any number less than \n, such that x < (m + 1) w.

Now let w become indefinitely great, 7?i remaining fixed, we
have then, since each sine in the product may be replaced by the
-x has the limit unity,
corresponding circular measure, and since cos
where
to is
rin*-(l-)(l-^)...(lwhere
the limiting value of 0,

^$
creased, and is thus such that
6^
is
m"7r-J \
when
1.
is
4>m
indefinitely in-
345
INFINITE PRODUCTS
Now by
1
increasing
we may make the
sufficiently,
factor
6 x2
we have the
-j as nearly equal to unity as we please, hence
expression
^.-.(l-*^.. )(!_)
sin# as an
for
product
clearly be removed.
may
positive
From
283.
The
infinite
(1),
restriction that
the formula (17), in Art. 86,
if
is
x should be
even,
we may shew that
where m
between
is
any finite number such that 2#<(2m + l)ir, and 9 is

and 1 hence we obtain for cos x as an infinite product,
;
the formula
cos
284.
(2),
we
On
/
4>x \
\ /_
/_
2
4a; \
^x'
\
/
U
^x-2 \
4#
account of the importance of the formulae (1) and

another proof, taken from Serret's Trigonometry.
shall give
Taking the formulae

cc
sin
= n sin - cos n
II
r= i
,.=i
The
investigation of this Article

l.
rir
'
tl
i
.
sin-'
sm 2
x
sm"
r=ttt
cosx= n
der hoheren Analysis, Vol.
is
due
(2r-l)7r
-
J'
2n
to SchlOmilch, see his
Compendium
INFINITE PRODUCTS
346
which hold
even values of
for
the formula 1
= cos'- a
^-r-=
sin-
we transform them by means
n,
7-5
tan 2 jdj
into the forms
tan2
= n cos'
sin x
tan n
n
II
of
r= i
tan
'
.rir
2
tan
r hn
z4
,
= cos' x-.nil
x
2
n
cos
Now
it
a?
n "'- l
tan 2
^^'*
has been shewn in Art. 96, Ex.
that as
(1),
increases
from
to J 7r,
diminishes, and
,,
sin a\
~ -T-
<
sin /3y
increases, hence
~ -a \ <
~ tan
/.,
#7
a'
tan 2 /?;'
where the absolute value of each expression
Suppose n so large that + xjn <îr, then +
and + cos
< 1,
it
its
sin
be taken.
to
is
flc
or
sc
71/
7b
ih
-<+-<+ tan -,
the signs being so taken that each expression has
arithmetical value; the two expressions for sin x shew that
+
and
sin
x< + x
x
n
+ sin x > + cos n - x
and the two expressions
cos
for cos
x<
now we know
cos
#> +
CO
that cosn -
verges to zero as n
is
1
cos' -
r2 7rV
-=i(*-2),
r= i
x2
1
11
r2 7r-
'
x shew that
n
r =i
and
11
r =i
- -,
(2r-l)-W
1
V
11
r =\
= 1 en
where
2ren is
indefinitely increased
1| tt
2
.
a number which con-
we have
therefore
INFINITE PRODUCTS
347
'
6 n are numbers which converge to zero when n

definitely increased; we thus obtain the expressions (1) and
where
If
is in-
(2).
we bad used the formulae

sin- /
sin.r
#r=4(-i
= nsm
n IIr=i
x = cos
COS
#r={w-l) s
II
/ 1
sm-
for
an odd value of
rir
'
sin-./'
,2r-lw
which hold
j-
n,
and the formulae
sin
tan 2 -
= cos" x-
.?
afr=|(-i)l
cos.r
tan -
= cos"-x
r= i
tan 2 -
r=i(n-l)l
tan'
n
? 7T
\,
II
r =i
|,
,
2r-l7r
obtained from them, similar reasoning would have led to the same results.
We
285.
next consider the case of a complex variable
shall
= x + iy; we
find, as in Art. 282,
= w sin z-cos z.
sin 2
R=
where
sin 2
where n
is
an even
integer,
limits for the value of R.
m
-
n
and r = \{n
2)
we have
to
determine
Let p denote the modulus of sin -,
then as in Art. 281, since the modulus of the sum of any numbers
is less than the sum of their moduli, we see that the modulus
of {It
j is
less
than
\..{i +
--\-i.
INFINITE PHODUCTS
343
Now we know
that e Apt
/
I
p"
this is less
m-
a
cosec 2 '^J_ll
^+i + m+
'"'
(R
is
any positive number,
than
__r^
. .
+ cosec 2
thus the modulus of (R
^
n
sin2 - cosh 2
1-
nj_ h
--r\
than
or than e
between zero and
1) lies
+ cos
rm+
1) is less
r)_-t
\vi
if
therefore the modulus of
less
is
than
/'"
orthan
+ Ap
and
>
R1
hence the modulus of
i"""
m
- sinh 2 y
~ = sin 2 - + sinh 2 ^
n
n
n
n
Now
hence the limiting value of p 2 n2 is x2 + y2 therefore the limit of

the modulus of (R 1), when n is increased indefinitely, lies between
,
zero
and
please,
e 4m
by taking
now
^n
may be made
large enough, thus
as near unity as
\R 1| may
we
be made as
we please, by taking
When n is inlarge enough.
definitely increased, each of the sines in the expression for sins
becomes ultimately equal to its argument, therefore
small as
sin z
=z
2
(
IT*
2VJ1
32
W""
The formula
may be
proved in a similar manner.
286.
We
remark about the formulae
satisfy the condition of absolute
x S
2
2
since the
two
series
if-
1
and
n2
(1)
and
(2),
that they
convergency given in Art. 281,

4a'
7 X ,-n
tt
(2r
l)
are
convergent.
INFINITE PRODUCTS
349
Each quadratic factor in either product may be resolved

two factors linear in x, thus
into
sin
2x\
2x\
/,
2x\
/,
(1+s-
2x
(,
which may be written in the forms
sin*
= a;lf
fl
(3),
nfn-^-)
2r -
cos x-
(4).
Itt/'
In these latter forms, the products are semi-convergent, since

the products
rW
r-Try
oo
"1
are divergent, the series
2r-.br/
aa
S~
2r-lir)
"I
being divergent.
semi-
convergent product has the property analogous to that of semiconvergent series, that a derangement of the order of the factors
affects the value of the
formulae (3) and
product
(4), as correct,
we
only
are entitled to consider the
when
it
is
understood that
an equal number of positive and of negative values of r are to be

taken
thus (3) and (4) must be regarded as an abbreviation
;
of the forms
sinx
287.
= xL n=w
It has
n
(
II 1
-n \
-),
cosx =
n
(
II
1
L n=00
?"7>V
-11 \
been shewn by Weierstrass
1
,
=
2x
2r
17T.
that the divergent
product
+
,( 1+ !\(i
IT
J
may be made
^(i + )...
2lTj
convergent, by multiplying
thus the product
each
factor
exponential factor;
is
absolutely convergent.
1
See the Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy, for 1876.
by an
350
INFINITE PRODUCTS
We
shewn
have, as has been

e
-7.
in Art.
230
(1)
= 1 ___ + _^_ (1+M

nrr
Y.n-tr-
where u n converges to zero as n is indefinitely increased therefore, if e be an arbitrarily chosen positive number, u n < e, for all
values of n which exceed some fixed value
dependent on e. We
have now
|
(i
V
+ \ .- = (i +
The
series of
*.)
nir)
which the general term
x-^
is
u - . + * 3Va +
nir
2w 7T
1
j
- wn -
(1
absolutely convergent, since the series
< e,
4
H/
is
+ Un)\
2
%,
ri
n
are convergent,
1 + un < 1
e, for all sufficiently large values of n.
in
accordance with the theorem proved in Art. 281, the
Therefore,
infinite product of which the general term is
and un
|
or
1 H
e
j
nn
,
is
absolutely convergent.
If/O) denote the

fi
l
(l
V
-)
nir J
limit of the absolutely

convergent product
e~, and/(J\
z)
' that of fl (l
^
1
) e,
we have
n7r J
/(*)/(- z) = *^.
z
The above
result
may
be employed to evaluate the limiting
value of the expression
(V
when
m and
n are made
has a definite
,+
-)
Mr
~i
indefinitely great, but so that their ratio
finite limit.
If sn denotes the series 1 _1
+ 2" +
mi z = z L<f> (z)
3_1
. . .
n
;
+ rr1 we
,
see that
INFINITE PRODUCTS
351
known that the limit, when n is infinite, of s n loge n

number 05772156..., called Euler's constant, hence
the limiting value of s n s m when m and n are infinite, is that of
now
is
well
it is
a finite
loor,
We
have therefore,
where
/;
= Lm/n,
n become
288.
(1) or (3),
We
=k
L(f> (z)
and the value of
is
Z(/> (2)
only
when
and
infinite in a ratio of equality.
The formulae (2) or (4), for cos x, may be deduced from

=
by means of the formula cos x sin 2xj2 sin x.
have
sin2#
2 sin #
2x
n
_
oo
/,
1
\
2x\
+ -
2*
rir)
n
_
A,
x
''I";
the factors in the numerator, for which r is even, cancel with

those in the denominator, hence if we consider the product in the
2n
numerator
2x\
n (1+--J,
be the limit of
to
and
that
the
in
rwj
-2\
n.
denominator to be the limit of
-n \
00
we
see that cos
y
2#
II
-oo V
+^
^s
~f~
- rir J
when n
is
infinite,
\
)
Itt/
which agrees with
(2) or (4).
condition of convergence of the products shews that taking 2n
The
instead of n, in one of the products, does not affect the limiting

value of that product when n is indefinitely increased.
289.
We may deduce
of cos x, or vice versa,

cos x
=sin
{\ir
sm*= n
From
x).
/,
(l
the product formula for sin x from that
by means of the formulae
2r-lirJ
- 00
\2r-l7r
11
_,
for
0,
a;
we
corresponds to r
see that
2r
-=-.* n
1
2r
-oo
we must have
sin
a;
=#
IT
-oo V
?'W
ar
1
V
^7T.
taking the limit of

IT _
= =
_oo2r 1
a;
hence
x),
(2rir-2x
n
=
where the factor
#=cos (^ it
we have
the formula (4)
+ -tt-2x\ =
-oo V
sin
1,
352
INFINITE PRODUCTS
The product formulae
290.
made
for sin
x and cos x may be easily

which those functions
to exhibit the property of

periodicity
possess.
>-5(l + )'
Let
then
""
n7r
7T
/ V
nir 1
__.m + -Vi + 27T/

V.Yi + = ^-Wi-
V
\
W+
7T/ \
7T
Itj-/
n+
-1tt/
+ (n + l);
/(a );
?i7T
.
a;
now when w is indefinitely increased, we have Lf(x + 7r) = Lf (x),

which is the equation sin (x + it) = sin x the formula (4) may
;
be made, in a similar manner, to exhibit the property

cos (x
The
function sina? vanishes
correspond to the factors
+ 7r) = cos #.
when #=0, +w,
1
ljr-
2.TT
TT
#,
in the
2tt...,
and these values
formula (3); also
it
has
been proved in Art. 235, that sin x does not vanish for any imaginary value
of a?, thus if it be assumed that sin x can be expressed in the form of an
infinite
n,
product
ir, 2-rr,
using the theorem
the values of
a, b, c...
must be
0,
6c...
2tt.... The
value of
SIR V
00
-=lj we
is
then determined by putting x=0, aud
obtain the formula (1) or
(3).
This
is
of
course worthless as a proof of the formula, since we have no right to assume

without proof that sin x is capable of expression in the required form.
291.
(1)
and
It is important to notice the forms which the formulae

(2) take in the case of an imaginary argument iy\ we
obtain in that case, the expressions for sinh
y,
cosh y as infinite
products
sih,= y
(i+g(i +1|i)(i +3 $)
(5,,
353
INFINITE PRODUCTS
The formulae
were
(1), (2), (5), (6)
obtained by Euler, by means of
first
the identity
1
n=m 1
2 2m
-I=m(2 -l)
71
2= 1 +
putting
>
it
2z cos
m M
2-2cos^
=1
2
|
becomes
2x +
(1+-) -fi+
U+-.
m
if in
now made
be
which
to increase indefinitely, this
the formula
is
(5).
rrrsr
r-;
I.
2wi /
7)iJ
becomes
This evaluation of the limit requires an exact
investigation, as in Art. 285.
The formula (1) was deduced by changing x into ix. The formulae (2), (6)
were obtained in a similar manner, from the expression for z 2m + l in factors.
Examples.
292,
1)
In vestigate Wallis' expression for
it.
In the expression for sin x in factors, put

approximate formula
^H)H)
where n
is
large
this
may be
n tt;
x=\n, we have
then the
(I"*)-
written
2.4.6... 2
r\
VWa+i)- 1>8 -5 _ {2n _ iy
which
(2)
We
Wallis' formula.
is
Factorise cosh y
have
putting y = 0^
coshy
cos a,
cos x
cos a.
cosa=2sin^(a + iy) sm^(a ii/)
a>
\2
a2
l-COSa = â2 n(l-^ ),

liCTT
1
,
hence
cosh y cos a
1
-'-o.s a
=(>)v( i+
therefore
^)0-^K^.)(
= 2.sinHa.(
coshy-cosa
J
"
n. t.
+^.>
H
1
|l
I
^
,
(2ftr
rJ
+ a) 2J
|l+
T
\
i+
^>
^
2
1,
(27r-a) J'
23
354
INFINITE PRODUCTS
Writing ix for
we have
y,
cos^-cosa = 2sin 2 2
Aa.('l--! )lI
fi
I
(2nir+o)J
il
aVTl
(2 a) 2/'
Prove that
(3)
= % rr -tan-*
We
have sin(#+t>) = (a' + i>/)
n il-^-^-i
. cot
(tank
-^.
taking logarithms, this
becomes
r
log (sin x cosh y
+ i cos a; sinh y) = log (# + iy) + 1 log \ 1 -
~%
i.
=^L \
equating the imaginary parts on both sides of the equation, we have

tan
_1
(tanh y cot x) = tan
let
-1
*-
2 tan
-1
xl +y i
n i it l "^
.
>
x=y=\j.J%
we have then
QO
2 tan -1 -s
-tan -1
,=xtt
*
2
;
tt-
/
(
tanh
V2
1 \
cot-rr
>/2/
Representation of the exponential function by an infinite product.
292
A representation of the
exponential function e*, in the

has been given by Mathews 1
Let us assume that z is the limiting sum of a convergent series
ll)
case in which
2 k n log
=i
(1
<
1,
We
zn ).
find then that
&x
= 1,
and
6'
for
w> 1,
where 8
each such value of
is
d>
any proper integral

giving one term.
nkn = 2 (- If 8ks
factor of n,
From
= 2 (-
l)
nlS
this
8ks
it
and
8'
n/8,
follows that
and the values of all the numbers kn are to be determined from

the set of equations of which this is the type. It can be shewn by
induction that
If u
(1)
If
(2)
then kn
1
= 2m
is
then kn
= 1/2.
the product pipa ...p?, of
p,
different
odd primes,
= (-iy/n.
Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, Vol. xiv. p. 228.
INFINITE PRODUCTS
n = 2 m p lP
(3)
If
(4)
If n
K=
= (- 1 Y 2'"-
then kn
...p^,
355
has the square of an odd
/??.
number
as factor, then
o.
That, with the values of kn so determined, the series
%kn \oge (l + z n)
when
converges
is
consequently
by the
z
j
infinite
<
The exponential
1 is easily seen.
function
such that |s|<l,
represented, for all values of z
product
n (i + z nfn = (i+ z) (i + z-)
i/i
+ z )~
3
(i
il3
(i
+ z'y'
...;
or,
= (1 z)
since 1
where
ll2
(l
2
+z) V2 (l + z )
the product of
jd is
fi
l!2
...,
we have by
unequal odd primes, and
division
all
values of p
of this form are to be taken.
and
Series for the tangent, cotangent, secant,

00
Since sin z
293.
=z
H
i
multiple of
z2 \
/
I
n 2 7r 2 J
we
have,
tt,
oo
loge sin z
\oge z
+ Z log,
cosecant.
when z
iJ
sin (z
not a
Z2 \
Let A be a positive real number

changing z into
subtracting the two expressions, we have
log,,
6
is
+ h,
+ h)
sin z
= l0g
(1
-)
+ 2
{log, f
~A_) + log,
Now, employing the theorem given
ft
in Art.
(1
249
+ _A
(1
>,
we have
h2
232
and
INFINITE PRODUCTS
356
where
v
1
diminished.
w n all converge to zero when h is indefinitely

Moreover, z having any fixed value which is not
vn
a positive or negative integral multiple of

v1
sufficiently small values of h the numbers v
or
zero
and
than an arbitrarily chosen positive
z ?nr
since the moduli of z
z + nir are greater
,
Wj
number
. . .
1
e,
are
all
sin (z
,
3
~1
+h)
less
than some fixed number independent of

We have now
1
for all
77-,
n.
v.2
...
357
INFINITE PRODUCTS
where n > r +
general term
and
1,
is
then follows that the series of which the
it
is
?17T|
Tn
2
\Z
term
which the general
+ mr
is
see that the
is
convergent.
modulus of the sum

X
term
which the general
&
We now
Similarly the series of
convergent.
of the series of
~\~
iv
~
?
%,
mrf + h^
(z+ mrf
(z
hh
"
is
v
-^,
*4*
not
does
exceed a number ^h (1 + e) A (z), where A (z) is a positive number

dependent only on z this modulus diminishes indefinitely as h is
;
indefinitely diminished.
1
Since
where
|
1z
,-,
+ 2
-r
It
now
follows that
converges to
T loge
sin (z
h,
+ h)
= cos h + sin h cot z = 1 + h cot z
.
sin z
converges to zero with
LT
+ "),
we have
= C0t2(l + f)(l + O,
where
1
'
converges to zero with h

1
L r log
h=0 h
hence
+ h) =
smz
sin (z
- -^
cot
z>
It has now been shewn that when z is any

number which is not an integral multiple of it,
11111
real or
complex
co\,z is
the
sum
of the convergent series
++ Z
+
- +
+ 7T Z 7T-+-T5z+lir zlir
1
or
+ 2*2-^-,
WTT7l
for
it is
is
semi-convergent, and in the
absolutely convergent, except for z
which values the
= 0, w, +
may appreciate the necessity for the investigation

if/(z) be the sum of an infinite convergent series
..., we are not entitled to assume that
we remark that
+ u 2 (z) + ... + u n (z) +
j /(+*) -/(*) _g L
-
I,
,,
27r, ...,
series is divergent.
In order that the student

in the text,
(7),
(8).
= lZ~
In the form (7) the series

form (8)
/(T .
.
l=0
u r {z + h)-u r (z)
A
INFINITE PRODUCTS
358
Suppose
R m (z)
is
the remainder of the series after
terms, then
/ (2) = Ml 0) + *2 0) + + m (*) + ^m (4
=
(z+h)+u2 (+A) + ... + , (z + k) + R m (z+h)
/(s+/i)

?< 1
z /(+*) -/() = g z
A
7l=0
now
since the given series
small
when
that
L m
Mr
(g
+ 7t)-M r (^)
is
R m (z), R m (z+h)
it
only when
is
it
,l
indefinitely
it
does that
are entitled to employ the derived series to represent the derived function
If for
of f(z).
example
Rm (z)
were of the form
L Rm{z+h)
which does not converge to zero when

between the values A.
From
294.
RM = A
obtain,
sinwiz, we
should find
cos mz,
m is indefinitely increased,
but oscillates
the expression
"IT- J
we
become
does not however necessarily follow
m\zl d oes th e
same, and
/i
/l=0
convergent,
;
R m (z+h)-Rm (z)
/l=0
m is indefinitely increased
h=o
we
1111
by a method similar
0"7T"
to that of the last Article, the
infinite series
tan z = ijZ
\TT
5
-^-TT
tt H
+ 77
+ (2m-l)TT
We may
using the
1
is
find a series for cosec z
cot \z cot z,
(10);
v
"
absolutely convergent
by means of either
= \ cot \ z
-I-
series for the cotangents
1111
cosec z
tt
2ir
7T
lit
Zir
of
\ tan \ z
find on substituting the
cosec z
we
of these formulae,
first
^ 9) '
(2m l)-7r- 4>z-
295.
the series (9) is semi-convergent, but (10)

for all values of z except \tt, f vt
the formulae cosec z
. .
1-
z-(2,,i-l)-7r
= %z% j=
i
00
tan z
or
77
4nr
4nr
lir
ott
Sir
359
INFINITE PRODUCTS
hence cosec z
_!__i
z
+ it
L. + _L_ + _i_:,_i
it
2tt
=
1
=-+S
cosec g
or
^r
(2"
L.
f
^
W-J-i-Tr
c-
-rr
...
(11)>
'Stt
(12).
TT-)
+ \tt we
In the formula (11), change z into z

secs
L_ +
z+Stt
( ly
i; 2z
2tt
have then
1
)-(
\^J-4tt
2r
L_)+...(i3)
4-7T/
/1K
this series,
when
is large,
,(-iy- (2r-l)vr
has
its
(_ iy--i
therefore the series
value -^ The cotangent and tangent
Using the expressions
general term approaching the
is
/11X
only semi-convergent.
may also be obtained as follows

+ h) and sinz as infinite products, we
series
for sin
(z
find
by division
sm(z + k)_f
sin z
h\(^-z^-lfi-^hz
2
2
7T z
/ \
22
z) \
tt
-s-
we assume that the product on the right-hand side can be expanded in powers
of h, by multiplication, and put the left-hand side in the form cos h + sin h cot z,
then expand in powers of h, and equate the coefficients of h on both sides of
the equation, we find
if
2z
cotz=-+
Z
-=
Zi
7T
5+
2
2z
,
22
,
-2-7T-
(8).
The justification for our assumption that the infinite product may be arranged
in a series of ascending powers of h, the coefficients of which are the infinite
by ordinary multiplication, would require an investigation of
the conditions that such a process gives a correct result to do this would
however require certain general theorems for which we have no space. The
scries obtained
tangent series
cos;
If the
obtained in a similar manner from the infinite product
may be
cos (z+ h)
_ V
/
-4.g 2
7r
cotangent of
z is
-4A2 -8A A
-43
/ 3 2 7r 2
)\
-4z2 -4A 2 -8/^ \

3 2 tt 2 -4z2
/""
expressed in the form
--=4:
Bw-lMy
(1
" -*-)
m2
7rV
and this expression be transformed into partial fractions, the denominators of
which arc the factors in
211
5
2
J
7r
r,
?n.
),
we should obtain the
similar remark applies to tanz, sees, cosec
z.
The
scries
have been obtained
by Glaisher, directly, by carrying out this transformation.

1
series (8)
See Quarterly Journal, Vol. xvn.
INFINITE PRODUCTS
360
Expansion of
and
the tangent, cotangent, secant
cosecant
in powers of the argument.
We
296.
have shewn in Art. 293 that
- +Rm,
COt*=--2
z
vir~ z*
;
where \R m is a number which may be made as small as we

Now if the modulus of z is
please by taking m large enough.
less than r7r, we have
\
1
r-ir-
z-
r-ir~ \
Z*
Z*
r~ir-
rV
2-
r^s
we suppose that the modulus of z is less than ir, we may

each
of the fractions l/(r2 7r2 z 2 ) in this manner, and we
expand
have, arranging the result in powers of z, as we are entitled to do
hence
if
since each of the series
cotz
2z (
is
absolutely convergent,
z-^ + ^ +
---
1 \
2z* 1 1
^)-^{v + +
2zm
~1
1 1
+ J_
+ "+
22W
'
^J2W
,,.271
$2W denote
let
the
sum
may be made
Ave
-f
11
~^ +
'
-^Hi
>
...
1-
+ - + em
we
as small as
\-
is
number which
by making
large
where e^
please,
2z 3
2z
o
^2
enough
2z- n
.
+
+ -,
2z
2z*
IT"
We
see that
e2
> e4 >
e6 ...,
than
e2
62 H
7T
multiplied by the
convergent
series, since
-e
4
4
+ ...+
22 2 "- 1
e, H
....
7i
hence the modulus of
77"
is less
7T
2^ 3
22
ii
have then
1
'-
is
1 \
Wl 2
1 \
^)----

1
then &,
---
7
4
sum
of
2\ z
+
-^
7T"
\
2\ z*\-
which
7T
mod. z <tt, therefore the modulus of
INFINITE PKODUCTS
en
may be made as
We
enough.
we
small as
have therefore the
361
please,
by making
infinite series for cot
large
z,
cot*
---&-^S
which holds
for
7T
77"
values of z
all
particular for all real values of z
From
-- 7 # -
(15),
7T
such that mod. z<tt, and in
between +
tt.
the theorem
tan Z
?
we may
(2,-1)^-4^
+ Rm''
obtain, in a similar manner, the series for tan z in ascend-
This series may however be deduced from (15),

ing powers of z.
= cot z 2 cot 1z we find
means
of
the
by
identity tan z
;
tan*
7T
7T"
which holds
.
2(2*-l)z*
2(2*--l)z
a
i
=
-!S,+
4
between
-l)2
^
ip
+... (16),
77
the modulus of z
if
for real values of z
2(2
+ -^
is less
than
\ir,
and
in particular
\ir.
Substituting for cot \z, cot z their values from (15), in the
formula cosec z = cot \z cot z, we have
cosecz
=+
which holds
297.
(2-l)^+^.^S + -.^S6+
i
mod. z
if
<
ir.
To obtain a formula
formula
..(17),
for sec
z,
in
powers
of z,
we use the
sec^-47r^_ 4 ^
3__
3v _ 4a + 5v._ 4a
.
+ (- 1)^ (2m
2
7r
(2i-l)
supposing the modulus of z to be

expanding each fraction
sec z
"
tt
(L
2m-lj"
c-rr-n
(2i
less
1)
*"
1_
g*
7^+'
1) \
-4W
OT
'
than \tt\ we have on
s
7r
(l
f
33
i__
l+1
l-'
(2m-!/-""
'!"
"*"
53
3 2 " +1
"'
INFINITE PRODUCTS
362
Now
let 2,,
m denote the sum to infinity of the infinite series

1
12n+l
g2+l
~
+
and let the remainder after the

have
92
=-
secz
2,
7T
94
2 S +
+ 7T
2
""'
gm+1
first
terms be
.2n
+
+ -Sm^S^+i
7T
22
2
of
be the greatest of the numbers
e'
2
e,
e 1; e s , ...,
+...;
then the modulus
H
7T
77
then we
92-/1+2
...
"
+ - ê
+ R w + -e
7T
TT*
let
+i,
22 e 3
. . .
than
is less
92
94
IT
7T
e'
times the
sum
of
96
7T
which last series is convergent when the modulus of z is less

than %rrr.
We have thus shewn that the remainder of the series we have
obtained for sec z is a number of which the modulus diminishes
as
increases, hence we have for sec z the infinite
indefinitely
series
92
96
94
+ -,*%+-.*%+
eec^-Sx
7T
77"
7T
which holds
if
It
is
298.
W( e z_l),
mod. z <
(18),
far.
a well-known theorem in Algebra, that the function

z
e has its principal value, can be expanded in a
where
series of the
form
J + ""
Z
Z+ - +( ~ 1)
Z
-2 + 2'l ~~l
(2n)!
5 n ... are certain numbers called Bernouillis
2^, 5
1
where
...
numbers, and that this expansion holds

which the series is convergent.
2
If we multiply by e - 1 we have
-{+il++wi+-H
I
beincr taken so small that
for all
-i' +
values of z for
n-^ + -
both the series on the right-hand
INFINITE PRODUCTS
363
we may multiply them
side are absolutely convergent,
together,
and arrange the product in a series of powers of z the resulting

series will be absolutely convergent, hence equating the coefficients
of the powers of z above the first, on the right-hand side, to zero,
we have a series of equations
;
?l
2
_1A +
2 2
!
A
3
the general type of which
Bn
?i +
'
Bn _,
By means
be calculated
"l
(-!)
we
The
(-I)"-*
ff,
(2rt-l)!2!
(2?i)
'
+ (-!)
of these equations, the numbers
(2n+l)!
lt
B>,
...
may
find
t' X> 2 30
299.
is
3!(2-2)!
(2)!
AA+A
l?l
X>
-D3 42'
z,
30'
-5 06'
-6
2 7;l0
'
-7
~ 6> C
'
the expansions of cot z, tan z,

be expressed in terms of Bernoulli's
in
coefficients
cosec^, in powers of
may
numbers.
We
hence,
have
if
cot z
mod. 2
is
=i
-=-
=i
+ -
small enough,
2 2 7?
2 2w 7?
2 4 7?
COt ^
Also cosec ^ = cot \z

cosecz
=-
4!
2!
cot z
-"^)-
"
(2m)!
hence we have the series
2(2
-^-^
= -1 + 2(2-1)5,
= +
-z+^ 4-1)B,
2
2!
S
,
3
...
9 /92U-1
i \ 7?
<
^+
'" (20 >
(2n)l
Again, since tan z
= cot 2 2 cot 2z, we

g
have the series
-l)B
^,+ _L_^_J
2-(2'-l)B
tan*--
2 (2
+ 2'(2-l)l
JF
+r
+-(21).
(2/i)!
It has
if
mod. z <
The
been shewn that the series (19) and (20) are convergent
7r, and that (21) is convergent if mod. z<\tt.
series in (19), (20), (21)
must be
identical with those in
364
INFINITE PRODUCTS
hence equating the
(15), (16), (17), respectively;
(19) to those in (15), we have

o
92
94
2
B"x
S4 = .- B,,
$> =
4
2\
7T
IT
hence using the values of

3
7I
S,
thus
Bn
o4 =
$2n may
IT*
90'
x ,
7T
B.2
...
ir
7T
&=,
we have
&
9450'
in
a'
~(2n)\
in Art. 298,
&- 945'
coefficients
22 1 ^271
^71,
(2)
be calculated by means of the formulae which give
The
series (19)
and
a ready means of calculating the tangent or

few terms of the series are
(21) give
cotangent of an angle, the
first
cot.r=
x
1
3
v
tan^= A-+- +
The
90,
- +315
2x5
17js 7
90 may
7)1
771
calculation of tan
2x 5
t*.
45~945"
cot
71
be carried out as follows
tan (m/n 90) =
cot(wi/?i90)
2
2mn/(n - m x -6366197723675
n/m
+m/n x
3
+m
/ x -0186886502773
+ mb
l',v>
-m/n
- wi3 /n 3 X
x -0001975800714
-0000012366527
- mu/u x -0000000764959
17
- i 15 /n 15 x
+ m 19 /n w x
21
- i 9/?t9 x
13
16
+m
-0065510747882
- m >liv> x -0003450292554
- m 7 /?i7 x -0000202791060
f
+m /n? x -0000216977245
+mn /nu x -0000024011370
+mn/n x -0000002664132
+m jnw X -0000000295864
+m /n x -0000000032867
17
-3183098861837
x -2052888894145
x -0018424752034
+ m (n
x -636619772367581
- 4mn/(4?i2 - m2 ) x
-2975567820597
il
/n
-m
13
/>*
13
x -0000000047597
-0000000002969
- 7n l7 /n 17 x -0000000000185
- m 19/ 19 x -0000000000011
-0000000003651
x -0000000000405
+ m23 /n x -0000000000045
2:i
+to 25 //i 25 x -0000000000005

In these expressions, the terms
formulae (10) and
(8),
are
first
82
n 2 -Az2
2z
'
ir'
Z-7,, which occur
in the
calculated separately, the series being then
more rapidly convergent.

These series are taken from Euler's Analysis of
however given by him to twenty places of decimals.
the Infinite
they are
INFINITE PRODUCTS
365
and
Series for the logarithmic sine
We
300.
cosine.
have shewn in Art. 285 that
--(i-3(i-^"(*-b3p)*--
where 6 m
as
we
'
may be made
m are numbers whose moduli
please by taking
large
enough
+ log
as small
taking logarithms,
we
have
log sin z
log cos
log z
log [\
log
(l
^j
+ log
(l
^_ J +
(l
+ ...
J
...
4z 2
\
2?/4
-7TV
expanding the logarithms, we have, assuming that

first
case and
<
'
z
|
< it
in the
in the second case, so that the logarithms
may
be expanded in absolutely convergent series of powers of z,

.
l0g
sin z
IT
=-
w = / 1
i. (l*
n= x / 1
log cos .
=- 2
(j-
+ 2^ +
1
^+
...
Now
~~
nence
S 2"
1-"
5 2M
111
p
;i
2 7i
5_,t
"
1 \
/n
^) iS= + l0g (1
1
g^)
""
_ 2
22n saB
-1
22
a
- *->
.
,,
^+log(l
2 2 " vl 8n
2n '
22n
1>'
"
..
*<)
"
366
INFINITE PRODUCTS
we have
therefore
sin
log COS Z
where
e 2n
r)
=-2
The modulus
W7r3w
values of
1
"*"'
"">
92w
2 2W
"*"
of
-em
than
77'
sin z
log
10g
m '),
terms in the two series
+ "Jan +
iaii
I
2n
I
than cf%lL
m
less
is
mr
an d that of
m
\
~[- where
,
sin^
e, 1/ are
the greatest
22M-J tt-2'J
Z?,
z 2n
=2
log COS Z
$2W =
respectively; hence
7j 2n
Since
(1
gXn
mr~n
is less
e.2n
are the remainders after

1
_ z*
-^- . + 2 ^^T% + log
12
2 m zm
z-
_<
2:
2n
rr- /San
we have
the following infinite series for
log cos
z,
"12!
^2
4!
"iT(S0l"
(22)
'
where mod. z<tt,
logcoB--2(2^1)^r 2(*-l)^r ...

_ 2--J(2 "- 1) 5.
--
2?i
t^v,
w (2)
where mod. z < \ir

The first few terms of the
I02
log COB *
series (22), (23) are
=-
'
2835
ISO
a-"
To
2
12
-;
"Tk
45
hence also
logtan^ = log^
zi
+3+
7^4
3d
Q2Z6
+ 28^ + ....
(23),
INFINITE PRODUCTS
The
log
may
series (22), (23)
and cosines;
sines
1 |
log
form than in
We have
( 1
5-
be employed to calculate tables of logarithmic
best to calculate separately the
is
it
367
as
we thus obtain
first
logai'ithms,
the series in a more convergent
(22), (23).
logsin^
= lo g . + log_ +
tott
log^-^-S^-^^-^J^j,
2
to \
_
S
logcos-^-=log^l-^j-
Br
f/2 2r -l
7T
2 '-
^-r--^
yi
1\
m 2r
--j^F|.
Multiplying the logarithms on the right-hand side of these equations by the
modulus "4342944819, we get the ordinary logarithms of
90,
sin
cos
90 to
the base 10; the formulae thus found are
L (cos m/n 90) =
Z(sinm/w90) =
m + log (2?i - to) + log (2?i + to)
log
log
- 3 log n + 9-594059885702190
n-
to)
+ log (n + to) 2 log n
+ 10-000000000000000
- m /n X -101494859341892
-to 2 /?? 2 x -070022826605901

- to 4 /^ 4 x -001117266441661
- to4 /?j 4 X -003187294065451
- m r'/n6 x
- m8 /?i8 x
-000039229146453
- to 6 /?*6 x
-000001729270798
- m10/?* 10
x -000000084362986
- w 8 /n 8 X -000016848348597
- m 10 /n 10 x -000001480193986
-to 12 /?* 12 x -000000004348715
-TO 12 /n 12 x -000000136502272
-000209485800017
- ?>i 14 /?i 14 x -000000000231931
-to 14 /?* 14 x -000000012981715
m
-m
-
-m
16
18
16
x -000000000012659
-to 16/?i 1g
x -000000001261471
18
x -000000000000702
-m
x -000000000124567
20
x -000000000000039
-TO 20//i 20 x -000000000012456
/rc
20
18
/n
18
- to22/?*22 x -000000000001258
- to24 /?* 24 x -000000000000128
-
These
to 26 /?* 26 x
-000000000000013
were given by Euler, the decimals being given to twenty places.
series
Examples.
301.
We
Find
(1)
ill
2n~ 2 Sir 4 2(2n-l)~ 2 2(2n-l)~*.

,
have
sin.r
lo
g
also
the values of
sin
x
.
/
x
x
1
a;
1
=2 log 1-3 \ = _-2 2____2-^-...,
n J
n
27r 4
n*
2
\n
/.
xl
]og-^l0g (l- J +
x4
'
-n
2 2
/.r \
-...y-^-- my.^-...
\
(x
a-
368
INFINITE PRODUCTS
x2
hence, equating the coefficients of
we have
~2
2>i
= \ tt 2
,
and
2?i
~4
= Jg tt 4
o g oo S
,=
4x~
<//e
8x*
infinite series
x2 and xi we
2(27i-l)-
-J6 ^.
^-^ + ^-^ + 5^j^ +

we thus
find for the
The sum might have been obtained
for cosh ttx in factors,
by taking logarithms and
sum
differentiating.
that the sztm of the squares of the reciprocals of all

(3)
are not divisible by the square of any prime is 15/7r 2.
Let
is
a,
/3,
y,
...
denote the prime numbers
of the series.
directly from the expression
Shew
sum
'
find
In the theorem (10), put 2z = ixn',
tanh \ttx.
-f + |-...).-(| -g)-m;,
2(2n-l)-2 =
wmi
S
I
therefore equating the coefficients of
(2)
x* in the two expressions for log
Again
4a- 2
I",
2, 3,
5, ...,
numbers wh ich
then the required
equal to the infinite product
K)K)K)this is equal to
or to
1+ ^ + ? +
-)
l+
h + h + -)
1
and this
22
is
24
is
1.1
+
32
42+
34
ii + T~
4+
equal to
1^2
or to ?- -j which
1+
(
equal to 15/V
? ^ -)
"*
"'
2
.
Jn infinite straight line is divided by an infinite number of points into

(4)
Prove that if a point be taken such that y is its
portions each of length a.
distance from the straight line, and x the projection on the straight line of its
distance from one of the points of division, the sum of the squares of the
reciprocals of the distances of this point
sinh
,
cosh
all the points
tt
ay
from
- -
a
2n-x
27ry
cos
of division
is
INFINITE PRODUCTS
The
s
a,
/
(
-.
is
2iy _oc \x -ly
summed
to be
series
-.
+ na
x + iy + naj
-5
or
which reduces to the given
sin
result.
cos 2 0\
+ X~6~]""
,
Provee that
l
+ sin^=J(^ +
00
integral values,
and x
4.
Prove that
5.
Prove that
2^|l-^42^| |l_i__Z.|
00
Prove that 2 2
00 00
3.
XVII.
Prove that
2
,,
a\
1
*/,/,, cos <9\ /.1
cos(i7r sin 6)=Itt cos- 8 1 +
-g p J
2.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
]
therefore
is
irixai)'
^ sin
irLr+iy)
equivalent to
is
2niy
sin
2u/a
J
which
r^,
_ y 2 + (x + nay'
The sum of the series
[a
hi/a
2iyc
369
...
(A'
+ 4) \X-tJ)
- n2
where
i,
/ have
all
unequal
not an integer.
is
367
l+ ?
&
Prove that
I+
7.
10
-^(l-^
If
express X <> + Ja) in terms of ^

find the limit
H. T.
when
m is
(.r),
and
infinite of
fx
(&'+) in terms of X
'
(x),
and thence
'
'
{
2 m i!
"lzD J2m + 1.
24
370
CHAPTER XVII
EXAMPLES.
If
8.
denotes the products of,,

_2
^^
r np
-
tbat
...
^, ^,
taken r at a time, shew
2n-4
Wî p^(2^y p^
n-2n-2
7r
Prove that
9.
Sum
10.
12
2 2 .4 2
.3 2 .5 2
2 2 .4 2 .6 2
77
the series
1
Shew
11.
.3 2
l2
g2
l4
.3 4
sum
that the
+ 3 4 .5 4 + 5 4 .7 4
of the products of the fourth powers of the
reciprocals of every pair of positive integers is
/
1
Prove that
12.
7T
P +P"
+Ti ~*
+l
l2
l+2
Prove that the
13.
\ /
l+32+
sum
U+l
4+52
tt
2
'
of the series
"H2T3747
\1 2 3/
.
4+32
\3 4 5/
.
fa** -**.
Shew
14.
that
(to
i.s
to
1.
|-7r
Za {^-(m-l)
-1)(2
Shew
15.
that the
}^
sum
to2 -1)
- (m - 1 ) 2}
(r
w 2 -l)
>2 m2 - (m - 1
of the
series
^s~ro
+ #-
2
) }
0+ z5
5.,
3-+ar
5-
:,
...
is
A'-'
sech^7rx.
Prove that
16.
tan -1
Prove that
17.
log 12
where
=tan _1 tanh *.>.
*-tan _1 -|.r + tan -1 \x-
Sr is
the
sum
2 log
= ^2 + ^4 +
^+
6
+ Z S2n +
fit
of the reciprocals of the rth powers of all
numbers whioh
are not prime.

18.
The
side
are measured
angles
BC of a
CClt Cid,
square
BACU BAC BAC

2
A BCD
C2C3,
3
is
produced indefinitely, and along it

be the
each equal to BC if d u d 2
shew that sin $i sin 6 2 sin 3
;
= V 27rcosech7r.
/
19.
If 2, 3, 5,
...
are all the prime numbers,
K)H)H)
shew that
--
ad
inf.
CHAPTER XV11
EXAMPLES.
22
and
32
52
=7r2/15
+i'ii'Sf+i
2
5*
.,
j vi
Express the doubly
-r,
j>
m=co n=0.
'j.
'
= **l 105
SM^-p+TF+I
20.
371
mx
cos JL m
cos
2 (-1 )" + -
2
m =i
infinite series
{Euler.)
?t
,,
n?/
mn(m- + n-)
the form of a singly infinite series of cosines of multiples of y.
Prove that
21.
n I S ^4-4^ = (sinh 2
[
\/2
+ cos 2
-2
\/2
cos 2a cos
a/2 cosh
+ cos
where n has
all
a/2
2a)/4(a
positive and negative, excluding
integral values,
/3
4
)
zero.
Prove that
22.
111
+
1
"^
^
7 fl+a in 11 io
1.2.3.4^5.6.7.8^9.10.11.12
If
23.
+9
(ix)
ft
11
= (l +
13
+ 17
15
19 21
-4
g 2-
J:
7r >
7T
23
96
(2
+ ^2)
'
^\
(l
+ )( l + ~)
X
3C
tan -1 - + tan~ 1 r +tan _1
a
oc
'-
=A+iB, shew
= tan~
that
13
x
-7,
A
and hence shew that

tan
x*
x>
x*
= tan"MI
+
+ tan-''J,
23
tan-i'T 2 + tan-J
V
24.
26.
eft
+i
n-A'
V2
tanh!
7i
5
.
+ tanh
irX
72 /
Prove that
25.
an
^|~
_ 7r y/2
4 + .s4
Prove that
sinh
7r.y
a/2 4- sin 7rx a/2
4T3 cosh ivx a/2 - cos tt^ a/2
=-
^-r.
+ dy
{nir
2 ^4
'
= cosec 2 6.
Prove that
+ e0-1
d + e"
f
+ 4(&-c)
'"[
.r
+ 4r2
-a+(6-c)
a
J
J
j
4 (6
97r 2
c)^ +
4r2
+ (6-c) 2
| J
J
(6
-c)
#+ 4.r2
25rr 2 +(6-c) 2 /
and
eb
+ x_
ec-z
e*-e
-^
1+
L.,
6-
\
11
;
C/
-c)a?
+ 4(6
"4-a
+ 4a?2
+l 6-c)
+ 4r2
+ 4(6-r).v
ICtt + (6 - of
(AVer.)
242
372
CHAPTER XVII
EXAMPLES.
27.
If
(n~+m)*
1
4
(Zn-mf
(+i)
1_
'
(3n-m)
bn + m
(3n+m) 2+
(n + m)
(n- wi)
bn m
Zn+m
_1_
1_
(n-m) 3
?_ +
>_ + _2
3n ?n
n+m
*~(n-m) 2
t
L_ +
P=nm
(Zn+m) 3
_+
_l
_L_
(3n + m)
(Zn-rnf
'
prove that
p_^
2-n'
_ (2F + 2)tt
^~
2.4.n2
~ (6 + 6&)
'
2.4.6. m
(24ft*+32ff + 8)tt-*
3
!
2.4.6.8.%*
& = tan-.
2n
where
28.
7t
Prove that the
odd numbers not
sum
of the series
by 3 are taken,
divisible
(Euler.)
-^ + == tt+
is
m which
w /18
all
(Euler.)
>J'i.
Prove that the sum of the squares of the reciprocals of

29.
which are not divisible by 3 is 47r 2 /27.
30.
'
numbers
all
(Eider.)
Prove that
BJphff+sinhc
sinhc
y\ /
_/
"\
c,/
3
2cy+.y \ /
2<?y-?A /
ir
i
+cV
4tt 2
+ cV
_ 2aj-i/ \
9ff2
+ cV
and
cosh3/-cosb_c
1 - coih c
_ / _tf\ /
cV V
"V
2cy-y
4tt 2
\ /
+ c 2;
2\
+ cV
2<^+#
4tt 2
2ey-y 2 \
8
+ cV
16jt
(Euler.)
Prove that when n
31.
COt2
+COt2 | +
+
cot*|^
2,i
2n cot*^
is
odd
+ cot^"= H n-l)(n-2),
^=
+ cot*^
r
2n
J
"" (n-l)(?i-2)(n?+3n-\3).
1+
^-J
i+Wj
is
equal to
n-l
\ n
(cosh
according as n
where r
is
7rajr
is
+ cos
n-2
J
7T/3.'/;),
or
even or odd, ar
an odd number.
ji r
,,
cosh7ra;
denoting sin
(cosh
nax + cos nftx),
cos r- respectively,
(Glaisher.)
CHAPTER XVII
EXAMPLES.
373
l
is
+ ^2rj( 1 +327J
equal to
n-l
-;
oi'V
(cosh
2nax - cos -2irp.v), or
according as n
even or odd,
is
a,
-2
IT (cosh 2nax - cos2tt3.v),

)ir"
2il
3 having the same meaning as in the last
r
TO-1
-,-.
sinh
nx
'
(Glaisher.)
question.
34
1
1
+ a*
Prove that
+ 22
+ -
+ 32n
+X
'l
'
7r
jwc2"- 1
a,
3 having the same meaning

35.
Shew
~x*+y*
equal to
2
i
si
nh
2 tt a.r
+ 3 si n 27r3.v
cosh 2nax - cos
2t7/3^
as in the last question.
r=
+
r =i
(ax + by + r(a 2 + b 2 )
\(x+raf + (y + rbf
1
2.r 2n
'
(Glaisher.)
that
ax + by
is
* ~J
ax + by-r(a? + b 2 )\
2
(x^rtf+{f^rbj )
CHAPTER
XVIII.
CONTINUED FRACTIONS.
the irrationality of
Proof of
Let f(c) denote the sum
302.
1-ql.c +
x6
1.2.c(c +
then
/(o
+ 1) -f(c) =
/(o + l)
+ l)//(c)
1.2.3.c(c + l)(c + 2)^'"
l)
/(c)
hence
therefore /(c
it.
^fip +
2);
/(c + 2)
+ l)/(c + l)'
*2
2
c(c
can be expressed as a continued fraction of
the second class

1
+ 1) x"-/(c + 1) (c + 2) x /(c + 2) (c + 3)
111_
Let
af/c (c
1-
= , and
write # for
tf
4
tf
1.2
or cos #,
and j\c
+ 1)
a;
tan
x2
a?
1-3-5-7- ""
x
for
sin#
,v.
an expression
1.2.3.4
becomes
ton
tana;
hence
the series /(c) becomes
#,
*asa
continued fraction of the second
class.
Lambert's proof of the irrationality of it depends on the

continued fraction found in the last Article. Put x = \ir, and if
1
303.
possible let \ir
m and n are integers;

m m m m
1 =
= m\n,
where
we have then
n -3?i
5n7n'
Published in the memoirs of the Academy of Berlin
in 1761.
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
now
375
after a certain term, the denominators of the fractions mjn,
m /Sn,
2
exceed the numerators by a number greater
...
m'/Bn,
than unity, hence, by a well-known theorem 1 the continued fraction on the right-hand side of the equation has an irrational limit,
and cannot therefore be equal to unity. Hence ^tt cannot be equal
to a fraction m/n in which m and n are integers, and therefore it is
,
This result
irrational.
theorem of Art. 251
much wider
of course included in the
is
that
(3)
tt is
a transcendental number.
Transformation of the quotient of two hypergeonietrio
The
304.
F (a,
/3,
7,
fraction
F(a,
/3
1,
x)/F(a,
1,
/3,
series.
7, x),
where
x) denotes the hypergeometrical series
1+ 1.
*+
X+ ~"
1.2.7(7+1)
can be transformed into the continued fraction

x
i\j.-)Oc
ttjOO
h/Ôu
r^r-f=i^*"
where
( 7 -/3)
1
7(7 + 1)'
j/3 + l)( y + l-a)

(
y + l)( 7 +
+ 2)(7 + 2-ct)
'"' m -'
(7 + 3)( 7 + 4)
- a)
(/3 4- n) (7 + n
H "
(7 + 2^-1) (7 + 2/0"
2)
+ l-/3)
7 + 2)( 7 + 3)
+ n-l)(y + n-l-/3)
(y + 2n-2)(y+2n-l)
(a
(j
As an example
(q + l)(7
Cs
'
'
of the use of this transformation, taking the
series
(
= sin
<f>
= l,
and putting a
cos
*--
<
cos
<f>
1.2.
7,
1.3
tz
sin2
<
-I-
2
</>
</>
in the
...}-,
above formula of
1.2.
3.4.
^ sin 6r v
, sin 
^~
sin
<
cos
2
TTT-2
.-.
rz
The second convergent gives
2.4
4
-7 sin
- sin 2
find
sin
= 0, 7 = ^, # = sin
/3
we
transformation,
< j
<f>
1-fsin ^
Snellius' formula for
_
"
3 sin 20
2 (2
+ cos 2<f>)
See Chrystal's Algebra, Vol. n.
'
p. 484.
<f>,
376
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
Eider's Transformation.
Other
305.
theorem
+u +u
Ui
which
may be
series
transformed by means of Euler's
may
w4
-f
u +wu
= Mi
1
111
7T
W7T
=
cot
,
. . .
uu 4
ttittg
u2
U3 +
us
l(
'
also
As an example
-
we obtain from the theorem
of this method,
+m
2n
m -f 2n + m
the theorem
7r
vrvrr
m) (n + m)
m
(n
m + n-2m+ 2m + 2m +
2
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
ni)- (2n + m)
2m + n2m +
{2n
XVIII.
Investigate the theorems in Examples (1) to (13).
'
a
2.
tanh x _
~
tan
nx=
x 2 x2
1+ 3+ 5 +
ntznx
1-
when x<\tv, n being

_
3.
4.
tan#=
tannx =
(w
tan _1 A
a
6.
tan
2^
-l)tan
'
tan
2
2
-4)tan
'
#(
-9)tan 2 #
'-
5-
(?i
v
2
= x -x
1+ 3+
tan-2 x
.r
.*?
'-
>(n
- 9) tan%
5-3 tan 2 .v
Ax2
5+
4.r2
\x 2
\-x2 +
3-3.r2 +
b-bx2 +
7-
1 6) tan
4) tan a; (n
3- 3 tan s2 x- 5-5tan 2 tf-
j?
n tan x i(n -l)
Jtan
unrestricted.
l-tan 2 #;
(n
-
3-
5.
See Chrystal's Algebra, Vol. n.
p. 487.
"
CHAPTER XVIH
EXAMPLES.
7.
o.
Lriri
7T
9.
tan
_
x-
/2'vXf
in
1 9
pot
13
1_
_ 3jB 2 +
+ 1~ tauh 2 a;
3)
2
(jj
+ 4) tanh 2 a; ..*.
5-
+-i(2>i-l)2
(n-\)nn(n
H ?i-l+
1+
Til-i,
\)
= 1 + x l+x - lx
-
l-x-
+-
2 (2 + a?) 2 (2 -a?)
a?
1+a;
+ .r)
3(3
J
+ a;-
11111
x-l+ 1+ 3x-2 + 1+
sing
q
(n
377
x 1+x l-x
1 a; 1+a;
7rA'
_^ +
17T
*#-
-cosec- =
n
n
cos
9.r
-
1+
_ n tanh x
singa?
11.
5a?-
2+
'^^-5 r= '^ l^r=
- nl
Bin
Bin
siD2
sin2 ^
^y79~
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
1
Prove that
cos mx cos ma
=
cos x cos a
if
m is a positive
integer
coseca{2sinacos(w l).+2sin 2acos(wi- 2)x+.
+ 2 sin (to 1) a cos x+ sin ma}.

2.
Prove that
if
m and
are positive integers
?i
a
1
...
=
2 1 r sin ma cot^x ^
smnx 2n
2
sin mo;
where a =
{Hermite.)
and that the expressions are also equal to

= 2 (
k
)
sin
ma cot (x a),
lfh
- 2(-l) sin?H,acosec(A- a),

2n
fc
or
according as
3.
m + n is
{Hermite.)
Prove that
cot (x
- a) cot {x /3)
where
4.
even or odd.
.4
If
.4,
B,
C be
cot(.x-- A)
= cot (a -/3) cot (a -y)
= cosJwtt + 2/1
cot
(a?
a),
{Hermite.)
cot(a-X).
the angles of a triangle, and
x, y, z
are real quantities
determined by the equations

cosh
(sin
B sin C) * = cos- A,
cosh y (sin Csin.4)2=cos.5,
coshz(sinJsin.5)- =cos0,
then any three points so situated that the distances between each pair are
proportional to x, y, z, respectively, lie on a straight line.
x>i, shew that tan
5.
If
6.
\
Prove that -
>
7
p=m k=n-i 2pkn
P=1
a;=o
is
-, ,
and
<
...
equal to the greatest integer in
mn.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
Prove that
7.
4b 2
tan -1
5
2
(2a + b) + 3b
+ tan -i
4& 2
2
2
(2a + 3b) + Zb
nb 2
is
379
equal to tan
+ nab + b 2
2
1
+
(l
|) + cot- (2'- + |) + cot-
series cot"
tan A sec
If
8.
4b'
2
2
(2a + 2/j-l&) + 3//
and hence shew that the sum of the
,+tan -1
(3
+ |)+
is
intiuite
cot~4.
B + tan B sec A = tan C,
prove that
ta n
sec
A + tan B sec B + tan C sec (7+2 tan A
tan
5 tan C 0.
Trace a connection between this result and the known theorem that
sin
where
.4, 2?,
If
9.
sin
A cos A+ sin 5 cos B + sin

Care the
m and
n be any numbers, prove that
+
(7/i
1
71
COS #)
n(n + l)(?i + 2)(w + 3)

+ n) (m + n + l) (m + n + 2) (m + n + 3)
7/1-1-71' 1
'
'
'
+.
(i
10.
#'
{7/i(m+l)(m
A + 2) + 7i(n+l)(
A + 2)cos.a;}
1
C-2 sin .4 sin 2? sin C=0,
x2
n(n+l)
(m + n)(m + n+l) 2!
= (Wl +
Ccos
angles of a triangle.
+ )(m + + lXm + + 2)3!
Prove that
COS(a
cos(a+/3), cos(a + i3 + y), cos(a + /3 + y + S)
cos a,
COS
+ /3),
C0s(a + /3 + y),
COs(a + /3 + y + 8),
+ y),
cosQ3 + y+S)
cos/3,
COS/3,
cosy,
COs(y+S)
cosy,
COS S
a,
+ y),
COs(/3 + y + S),
C0s(/3
cos(/3
cos(y+S),
cos
S,
= 0.
11.
is
Prove that the determinant
+ X)
1,
cos A,
sin A,
cos (3A
1,
cos
i?,
sin B,
cos (32?+ A")
1,
cos C,
sin C,
cos(3C+A
1,
cos D,
sin D,
cos (32? + X)
r
)
equal to 2 sin (/t+.S'+A) multiplied by the product of the sines of half the
between A, B, C, 2), and also by a numerical factor, S denoting
differences
KA+B+C+D).
12.
Prove that,
if
cos(4r-y-z)sin(y-z) + cos(4y-z x)xin(z - x) + cox(4z - x- i/)*m (x - y) = 0,

and no two of the three x, y, z are equal, or differ by a multiple of tt, then
cos 2x + cos
2.y
+ cos 2z = 0.
380
Prove that,
13.
y and S be two values of 6 between
if
and
jt,
which
sin 20 cos 2 (a
then a and
20 cos (y+8) + sin 2y cos

2
is
cos a cos
cos
(2)
sin
sin (y
Shew
15.
(0+y)
sin ra
(0
= 0,
(S
+ <) + sin 2S cos 2 (y + <) =0.
+ y) + sin a sin sin y cos (a + 0+y)=O.

(a +
+ a) sin (a-j-0)=sin 2n sin20 sin 2y.
y sin
that
+ a cos a+0
-
y) cos y*-
N
\
y) cos
2a
sin
+ 30
-+3y
'-
'
'1
~
2
<9)
a,
(1)
,
2 sin (0
+ sin 20 cos2 (a +
tan 0, tan 7 are the three values of tan - obtained when

o
given, prove that
If tan
14.
<9)
sin
tan
+ /3)+sin 2a cos2 (/3 +
r + a cos a + # cos 2o + 3j3+3y-
where the summation 2

the angles
COs2(a +
sum formed by a
cyclical interchange of
if
.2 cos - 2 cos
made
1+
in taking the
>
22
= 1 +-2 cos
,
?<
the error
+ y) + 2sin(2a + + y)
+ y) + 2cos(2a + + y)'
a, 0, y.
Prove that,
16.
refers to the
sin2(a +
1+
nth convergent to u instead of u
is
2(iSl)
a
cos -1 h u
Prove that the series
17.
has for
v4 u2 cot
its
sum
+ K^fL~
ii
880
^-
toco
}'
Shew that the equation tan 2 = 02, where a is

imaginary roots unless a<l, and that then it has one
18.
real,
cannot have
pair of imaginary
roots.
19.
Shew that the antiparallels through A, B, C to any three lines AO,
BO, CO with respect to the angles A, B, C of the triangle ABC meet in a
and 0' on the
point 0', and that the six feet of the perpendiculars from
sides lie on a circle.
If GL, GM, GN be perpendiculars to the sides BC, CA, AB from the
centroid
G,
and
any point on the circumference
of the
circle
shew that
(4a2
is
constant.
+ 62 +c2 AP* + (a 2 +4:b

)
+ c2 )
BP + (a + b + 4c CP
2
LMN,
If
20.
^
If
21.
\>x>0, and
be real, and
angle whose tangent
P be
(2 ; +1)2
any point on a
circles escribed to the triangle
AP
-t
2
-
oc
^,^ tan-
circle passing
ABC, prove
BP
+ cos^ cos B- cos C)+ - cct-
(1
CP2
-\
If
22.
tan -1
mean the
least positive
shew that
is z,
(-l)*tan-i
if
381
(1
|.s,nh3-sec^-j.
through the centres of the three
the relation
cos A + cos B -cos C)
-cos .4 -cos B + cos C) = l + cos 4+cos

J
j-(l
u n = A cos0 + Z>sin
where
nd,
and
B+ cos C.
are independent of n,
prove geometrically the equation
u n + 1 -2u n cosd + u n _ 1 = 0.
Prove that
2 6 sin 7 d + sin 16
2 6 cos7 <9- cos
= tan 6 tan 2
7(9
^ + \ tan
fd -
23.
If Oi,
G u G2 iVl5 jV2 A> -P2 De respectively the two positions
2
of the circumcentre, centroid, nine-points centre, and orthocentre of a triangle
in the ambiguous case, prove that
;
201
a, b,
= 3G G2 cosec A =4#, N2 = P P2 sec A

X
being the given parts.
AB'C, BC'A', CA'B' are drawn through the angular points

a triangle, making equal angles 5 with .4J5, BC, CA respectively;
and lines AC'B", CB"A", BA"C" making equal angles 6 with AC, CB, BA
Lines
24.
A, B,
C of
Shew that the triangles A'B'C, A"B"C" are equal in all

respectively.
2
- cot cot Cf. Shew
respects, the area of each being A sin 6 (cot 6 cot A
"
also that if
A , A be the tangents to the circumcircles of these triangles
from the point A, with a similar notation for the tangents from
then will
aTA = cTc", bTB'=aTA ", cTc = bTB".
'
25.
Sum
where the value n =
26.
and
C,
the series
"f[.l
without
'
4.11
omitted, and p, q are positive integers to be increased
is
limit.
Shew
that, if a
= 2rr/17,
the quantities
cos a + cos 3 a + cos 3 a + cos 3" a, and cos 3a + cos 3 5 a + cos 3 6 a + cos3 7 a
2
are the roots of the equation z 2 +

%z l, and explain how the process thus
indicated can be continued to obtain the value of cos a.
are nine consecutive vertices of a regular polygon

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, 11,
of seventeen sides inscribed in a circle whose centre is 0; a, fi,
are the
y, 8
382
upon OA of the middle points of the chords BE, CK, DF, OR

shew that the common chord of the two circles on a/3 and yS as
diameters passes through 0, and is of length \0A.
projections
respectively
If a, /3, y, 8 be the distances of the nine-points centre from those of

27.
the inscribed and escribed circles of a triangle ABC, shew that
1
P + y + 8-Ua
2 + /3 2 + y2 -f S 2 =/Z 2
and that
where
y + 8 + a-UP
(13-8
L,
tan
Prove that
A cos^cos
O),
+4
=,/H.
9
sin
if /be the centre of the inscribed circle of a triangle ABC,

centres of the escribed circles, the circles inscribed in the
touch the circle ABC, and the tangents of the
INL,
Prove that
29.
and
cos
-0,
the radius of the circumcircle.
is
28.
a + p + y-118
+ a + j3-lly
N the
M,
ILM
triangles IMN,
angles of the triangle formed
equal to
2 cos
by the three points
of contact are respectively
Â +cos hB + cos | C- sin \B - sin iC-2

1 cos ^B-cos^C+ sin jiB + sin C
and two similar expressions.

30.
Shew
that
if
x be not an
2
integer, the series
2x+m+n
2
(x + m)
(x+n)
and n receive in every possible way unequal values, zero or

and - /, vanishes when / increases indefinitely.
integers lying between /
in
which
31
Shew that
An
sm
cos
sin m 6 cos n 6 can be
(m
+ ^d +
v
expanded
when m and n are positive

Shew also that
Sm
111
A^cos (m+n-2)d + A
v
in the
cos
form
(m + n-A)d + &c.
integers.
(p+2)A s+2 +(m-ri) A p+1 + (m+np) A p =0,

except in the case of the last terms of the series,
32.
The circumference
equal parts at the points
of a circle
Pu P P
2
when both
whose centre
A,
is
;ind
is
and n are even.
is
divided into
an y internal point.
Prove that
tan
P q0 + tan P,Q0 +
x
tan
Pn Q0 = n tan P'Q'O,
where P' is a point on the circle such that Q0P' = n Q0P and Q'
on Q(J such that (if the ordinates QR, Q'R' cut the circle in R, R')
.
Q0R' = n. QOR.
is
a point
Prove that,
and if pu p<n
33.
to m,
if
m^ m
m s are the integers less than and prime

2
are the different prime factors of m,
>
sin wi$
PiPiPaPt
Pi Pi
md
2 8 nsin
sum
sin
nsin
PiPiPs
of the products
pa sin q(a + -^J
for all positive integral values of p, q, r

s
>
of
3, is
md
Pi
Prove that the
md
n sin md
n sin
nsin( + =
34.
383
zero unless s is a multiple of
3,
sin r
(
+y
which are such that p + q + r = s, when

and is - j sin sa, when s is a multiple
3.
Prove that
35.
1
+
"-i{ -T+T-K
where
.r
a- f ,
431
= tan20.
OAUBBIDOS: PRINTED
l:V
.J.
B.
l'KACE, M.A.,
AT THE UNIVERSITY I'BESS.
OF o
E
Rah
THE LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
Santa Barbara
THIS
I0OM 11/86
Series
9482
BOOK IS DIE ON THE LAST DATE

STAMPED BELOW.

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CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Fetter Lane, E.C. 4

NEW YORK G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS

TORONTO: J. M. DENT AND SONS, Ltd.

All rights reserved

sadleirian professor of pure mathematics, and

at the University Press

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

taken the opportunity afforded by the need for a new

have inserted a theory of the lengths of circular arcs, and of

of that part of the

work which deals

with Analytical Trigonometry has been re-written. Proofs of the

hoped that the proof there given of the

modern Analysis has hitherto not been

Christ's College, Cambridge,

PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

this edition a few errors in the text

have been corrected.

Christ's College, Cambridge,

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

the present treatise, I have given an account, from the

modern point of view, of the theory of the

of such applications of these functions as have been

usually included in works on Plane Trigonometry.

that the work will assist in informing and training students of

Mathematics who are intending to proceed considerably further in

be found useful by those whose range of reading

Chapter in, of the circular functions,

Algebra and Trigonometry, and appear to me to be those from

deduced in such a way that the proofs may be quite

general, in that they apply to angles of all magnitudes.

be seen that this method of treatment exhibits the formulae

of two angles, in the simplest

merely as the expression of the fact that the projection of

of the projections of the sides on

The theorems given

in Chapter vii have usually been deferred

until a later stage, but as they are merely algebraical consequences

no reason why they

this is a case in which, in

of the text books

in use, the passage from a finite series to an infinite one

without any adequate investigation of the value of the remainder

perhaps be thought that, at this

might have proceeded to obtain the infinite product

arrangement, however, and

in order that the geometrical appli-

might not be too long deferred, the investigation of these

practical application to the solution of triangles

In Chapter xn, I have deliberately omitted to give any

a treatise on Geometry than to one on

at Chapter XIII, contains an exposition of the

principles of the theory of complex quantities

hitherto, the very

elements of this theory have not been easily accessible to the

on Algebra. The subject of Analytical Trigonometry

by Euler, before the researches of Cauchy, Abel,

Gauss, and others, had placed the use of imaginary quantities

and especially the theory of

and products, where

complex quantities are involved, on a firm scientific basis.