LESSON 2.

1 FORCES AND NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION

Forces and Motion
Forces push, pull, press and move things. Forces gave size or strength and also direction. A force
always acts on an object in a particular direction. A force always acts on an object in a particular direction.
If the object is free to move, the force makes it move and speed up, or accelerate, in the direction of the
force. When something cannot move, such as a nut in the jaws of a nutcracker, the force can change its
shape or even break it apart altogether. When a a force pushes against a surface, the result is pressure. The
bigger the force, and the smaller the surface area, the higher the pressure.
One way of measuring force is by the way if affects an object. You get a idea of force every time you pick
up something, by feeling how much lifting effort you put into overcoming its weight. Bathroom scales
how much your body weight squashes or stretches a coiled spring. To measure movement, we use speed.
This is how far an object moves in a certain time. Velocity is speed in a certain direction. A change in
velocity is called acceleration when getting faster, and deceleration when becoming slower.
A force is defined as a push or pull that changes an object's state of motion or causes the object to deform.
Newton defined a force as anything that caused an object to accelerate -- F = ma, where F is force, m is
mass and a is acceleration.
FOUR BASIC FORCES OF NATURE
The familiar force of gravity pulls you down into your seat, towa-rd the Earth's center. You feel it as your
weight. Why don't you fall through your seat? Well, another force, electromagnetism, holds the atoms of
your seat together, preventing your atoms from intruding- on those of your seat. Electromagnetic
interactions in you-r computer monitor are also responsible for generating light that allows you to read the
screen.
The remaining two forces work at the atomic level, which we never feel, despite being made of atoms.
The strong force holds the nucleus together. Lastly, the weak force is responsible for radioactive decay,
specifically, beta decay where a neutron within the nucleus changes into a proton and an electron, which
is ejected from the nucleus.
Isaac Newton envisioned gravity as a pull between any two objects that was directly related to their
masses and inversely related to the square of the distance separating them. His law of gravitation enabled
mankind to send astronauts to the moon and robotic probes to the outer reaches of our solar system. From
1687 until the early 20th century, Newton's idea of gravity as a "tug-of-war" between any two objects
dominated physics.
But one phenomenon that Newton's theories couldn't explain was the peculiar orbit of Mercury. The orbit
itself appeared to rotate (also known as precession). This observation frustrated astronomers since the
mid-1800s. In 1915, Albert Einstein realized that Newton's laws of motion and gravity didn't apply to
objects in high gravity or at high speeds, like the speed of light.
In his general theory of relativity, Albert Einstein envisioned gravity as a distortion of space caused by
mass. Imagine that you place a bowling ball in the middle of a rubber sheet. The ball makes a depression

in the sheet (a gravity well or gravity field). If you roll a marble toward the ball, it will fall into the
depression (be attracted to the ball) and may even circle the ball (orbit) before it hits. Depending upon the
speed of the marble, it may escape the depression and pass the ball, but the depression might alter the
marble's path. Gravity fields around massive objects like the sun do the same. Einstein derived Newton's
law of gravity from his own theory of relativity and showed that Newton's ideas were a special case of
relativity, specifically one applying to weak gravity and low speeds.
When considering massive objects (Earth, stars, galaxies), gravity appears to be the most powerful force.
However, when you apply gravity to the atomic level, it has little effect because the masses of subatomic
particles are so small. On this level, it's actually downgraded to the weakest force.
If you brush your hair several times, your hair may stand on end and be attracted to the brush. Why? The
movement of the brush imparts electrical charges to each hair and the identically charged individual hairs
repel each other. Similarly, if you place identical poles of two bar magnets together, they will repel each
other. But set the opposite poles of the magnets near one another, and the magnets will attract each other.
These are familiar examples of electromagnetic force; opposite charges attract, while like charges repel.
The force holding the nucleus together is called the strong force, alternately called the strong nuclear
force or strong nuclear interaction. In 1935, Hideki Yukawa modeled this force and proposed that protons
interacting with each other and with neutrons exchanged a particle called a meson -- later called a pion -to transmit the strong force.
One other nuclear phenomenon had to be explained: radioactive decay. In beta emission, a neutron decays
into a proton, anti-neutrino and electron (beta particle). The electron and anti-neutrino are ejected from
the nucleus. The force responsible for this decay and emission must be different and weaker than the
strong force, thus it's unfortunate name -- the weak force or the weak nuclear force or weak nuclear
interaction.

TYPES OF FORCES
Applied Force

An applied force is a force that is applied to an

object by a person or another object. If a person is
pushing a desk across the room, then there is an
applied force acting upon the object. The applied
force is the force exerted on the desk by the
person.

Gravity Force
(also known as Weight)

Normal Force

The force of gravity is the force with which the

earth, moon, or other massively large object
attracts another object towards itself. By
definition, this is the weight of the object. All
objects upon earth experience a force of gravity
that is directed "downward" towards the center of
the earth. The force of gravity on earth is always
equal to the weight of the object as found by the
equation:
Fgrav = m * g
where g = 9.8 N/kg (on Earth)
and m = mass (in kg)
(Caution: do not confuse weight with mass.)
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The normal force is the support force exerted
upon an object that is in contact with another
stable object. For example, if a book is resting
upon a surface, then the surface is exerting an
upward force upon the book in order to support
the weight of the book. On occasions, a normal
force is exerted horizontally between two objects
that are in contact with each other. For instance, if
a person leans against a wall, the wall pushes
horizontally on the person.

Friction Force

The friction force is the force exerted by a surface

as an object moves across it or makes an effort to
move across it. There are at least two types of
friction force - sliding and static friction. Though
it is not always the case, the friction force often
opposes the motion of an object. For example, if a
book slides across the surface of a desk, then the
desk exerts a friction force in the opposite
direction of its motion. Friction results from the
two surfaces being pressed together closely,
causing intermolecular attractive forces between
molecules of different surfaces. As such, friction
depends upon the nature of the two surfaces and
upon the degree to which they are pressed
together. The maximum amount of friction force
that a surface can exert upon an object can be
calculated using the formula below:
Ffrict = Fnorm
The friction force is discussed in more detail later
on this page.

Air Resistance Force

The air resistance is a special type of frictional

force that acts upon objects as they travel through
the air. The force of air resistance is often
observed to oppose the motion of an object. This

Fair

force will frequently be neglected due to its

negligible magnitude (and due to the fact that it is
mathematically difficult to predict its value). It is
most noticeable for objects that travel at high
speeds (e.g., a skydiver or a downhill skier) or for
objects with large surface areas. Air resistance
will be discussed in more detail in Lesson 3.
Tension Force

The tension force is the force that is transmitted

through a string, rope, cable or wire when it is
pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends.
The tension force is directed along the length of
the wire and pulls equally on the objects on the
opposite ends of the wire.

Spring Force

The spring force is the force exerted by a

compressed or stretched spring upon any object
that is attached to it. An object that compresses or
stretches a spring is always acted upon by a force
that restores the object to its rest or equilibrium
position. For most springs (specifically, for those
that are said to obey "Hooke's Law"), the
magnitude of the force is directly proportional to
the amount of stretch or compression of the
spring.

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

LAW I: LAW OF INERTIA (Keep on keeping on)
The first law of motion says that an object continues to move in the same direction, at the same speed,
unless forces act on it. Kick a ball, and the forces of gravity and air resistance (as the ball pushes its way
through molecules of air) makes it slow and fall down.
LAW II: LAW OF ACCELERATION (More means faster)
The second law of motion says that the greater the force on an object, the faster the object picks up speed.
That is, acceleration of an object is proportional it the force acting on it. So kick harder, and the ball gets
faster.
LAW III: LAW OF INTERACTION (Bouncing back)
The third law of motion says that when an object hits another, the second object produces an equal force
but in the opposite direction. In other words, for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. If
two soccer balls hit each other, rolling at equal speeds in exactly opposite directions, they bounce apart
and roll back the way they came.

LESSON 2.2 WORK, POWER, AND ENERGY

Work is the amount of energy necessary to move an object. A person can push against a brick wall until
they sweat. But unless they moved the wall even a tiny bit they did no work. But at the same time,
if you scoot the computer mouse even a part of an inch, you have done work. Work in the scientific sense.
Don't try to convince your parents or your teachers that you have done a lot of work by playing video
games.
A classic analogy used to describe power and energy is based on water towers. Water in the tower is
energy and the flow of water out of the tower is power. Energy can be stored, like water. It can also flow.
When energy flows, it can do work like moving stuff or lighting a house. The speed at which energy
flows is called power. The same amount of energy can be released at high power (which will occur
quickly) or at low power (which will take more time).
Energy is measured in Joules. A ton of wood might have 18 billion Joules of energy stored in it. Power is
measured in Watts, which are just Joules per second. So if you burned that ton of wood in a week, your
furnace would be putting out 18 GJ/week, which converts to 29.7 thousand Watts. If you burned it in a
month, the furnace would be running at 6.8 thousand Watts. In the end, no matter how quickly you did it,
you still used 18 GJ of energy. By the way, the amount of energy required to lift an apple 1 meter is about
1 Joule.

LESSON 2.3 SIMPLE MACHINES

The wheel has always been considered a major invention in the history of mankind. But it really would
not work as well as it does had it not been for the axle. An axle is a rod or pole centered in the wheel that
allows the wheel to turn around it. The wheel then spins in a balanced circle to be used as transportation
on a bike or to turn the hands of a clock. Gears are a form of the wheel and axle.
The lever is a long tool such as a pole or a rod put under an object to lift it. The lever is more efficient
when combined with a fulcrum. The fulcrum is another object, perhaps a rock, used to brace under the
long tool. This gives the long pole something to push down against. The location of the fulcrum helps
determine how well the lever will perform work. The closer the fulcrum is to the object being lifted, the
higher the person can lift the object. The longer the lever, the higher the object can be lifted.
The inclined plane is simply a ramp. One end is higher than the opposite end. This allows things to go
from a low place to a higher place. Or vice versa. It takes less work to move an object up a ramp then it
does to lift that object up the verticaldistance. Gravity makes it easier to move an object down a ramp than
up that ramp.
Some people might see the wedge as just an inclined plane, although it is actually two inclined planes.
However, the use of a wedge is actually different in nature. The wedge is used to separate an object apart.
This is needed to cut, tear or break something in two. A wedge can also be used to keep things together or
secure things from movement.

The pulley is actually a version of a wheel and axle that is combined with a rope, chain or other cord to
allow moving something up and down or back and forth. The pulley can be combined with other pulleys
to reduce the amount of work necessary to lift huge amounts of weight or to lower them down. It can also
make moving something such as a flag up the pole convenient to do from the ground. It changes the
direction of the force necessary to do the work. I pull down on the rope, but the flag goes up.
The screw is really a twisted inclined plane. It allows movement from a lower position to a higher
position but at the same time it moves it in a circle. That makes it take up less horizontal space. A screw
can also act to hold things together in some cases.

LESSON 2.4 HEAT: CHAOTIC FORM OF ENERGY

Today, there are a variety of types of thermometers. The type that most of us are familiar with from
science class is the type that consists of a liquid encased in a narrow glass column. Older thermometers of
this type used liquid mercury. In response to our understanding of the health concerns associated with
mercury exposure, these types of thermometers usually use some type of liquid alcohol. These liquid
thermometers are based on the principal of thermal expansion. When a substance gets hotter, it expands to
a greater volume. Nearly all substances exhibit this behavior of thermal expansion. It is the basis of the
design and operation of thermometers.
As the temperature of the liquid in a thermometer increases, its volume increases. The liquid is enclosed
in a tall, narrow glass (or plastic) column with a constant cross-sectional area. The increase in volume is
thus due to a change in height of the liquid within the column. The increase in volume, and thus in the
height of the liquid column, is proportional to the increase in temperature. Suppose that a 10-degree
increase in temperature causes a 1-cm increase in the column's height. Then a 20-degree increase in
temperature will cause a 2-cm increase in the column's height. And a 30-degree increase in temperature
will cause s 3-cm increase in the column's height. The relationship between the temperature and the
column's height is linear over the small temperature range for which the thermometer is used. This linear
relationship makes the calibration of a thermometer a relatively easy task.
The calibration of any measuring tool involves the placement of divisions or marks upon the tool to
measure a quantity accurately in comparison to known standards. Any measuring tool - even a meter stick
- must be calibrated. The tool needs divisions or markings; for instance, a meter stick typically has
markings every 1-cm apart or every 1-mm apart. These markings must be accurately placed and the
accuracy of their placement can only be judged when comparing it to another object that is precisely
known to have a certain length.
A thermometer is calibrated by using two objects of known temperatures. The typical process involves
using the freezing point and the boiling point of pure water. Water is known to freeze at 0C and to boil at
100C at an atmospheric pressure of 1 atm. By placing a thermometer in mixture of ice water and
allowing the thermometer liquid to reach a stable height, the 0-degree mark can be placed upon the
thermometer. Similarly, by placing the thermometer in boiling water (at 1 atm of pressure) and allowing
the liquid level to reach a stable height, the 100-degree mark can be placed upon the thermometer. With
these two markings placed upon the thermometer, 100 equally spaced divisions can be placed between
them to represent the 1-degree marks. Since there is a linear relationship between the temperature and the

height of the liquid, the divisions between 0 degree and 100 degree can be equally spaced. With a
calibrated thermometer, accurate measurements can be made of the temperature of any object within the
temperature range for which it has been calibrated.
SOURCES OF HEAT
The sun is a part of our solar system. Thus, it is a natural source of heat energy. Sunlight is important for
the existence of all living organisms on the planet. This form of heat energy is also called solar energy.
The heat energy that is found from the Earth is called geothermal energy. Sustainable and clean
geothermal energy can be found in the hot water and rocks present in the shallow ground. It is also found
in the molten rocks available in the extreme depth of the Earth.
The air around us is a very common source of heat energy for heat pumps. Exhaust air is also a good heat
source for heat pumps in buildings, both commercial and residential.
Heat energy can be generated by the burning of fuels. Fuel can be defined as any combustible substance
that can burn and provide energy. A few examples of fuels are wood, kerosene, coal, charcoal,
gasoline/petrol and oil.
Electricity is a form of energy that can be converted into heat energy, thus, it's considered a source. For
example, the clothes iron that is used in our domestic household uses electrical energy to generate heat.
Waste heat recovery is a process in which heat energy that is excess for certain industrial processes is
diverted to use in other work applications. There are many industrial applications that generate large
amount of excess heat. Waste heat recovery boilers are used to channel this excess heat into other useful
work applications.
Waste or effluent water is a possible source of heat energy as it has a constant high temperature
throughout the year. For example, untreated and treated water from sewers and industrial waste water and
condenser heat that is generated from refrigeration plants are used in making of electricity and other
industrial processes.

Energy exists in many forms, such as heat, light, chemical energy, and electrical energy. Energy is the
ability to bring about change or to do work. Thermodynamics is the study of energy.
First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy can be changed from one form to another, but it cannot be created
or destroyed. The total amount of energy and matter in the Universe remains constant, merely changing
from one form to another. The First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation) states that energy is always
conserved, it cannot be created or destroyed. In essence, energy can be converted from one form into
another. Click here for another page (developed by Dr. John Pratte, Clayton State Univ., GA) covering
thermodynamics.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that "in all energy exchanges, if no energy enters or leaves the
system, the potential energy of the state will always be less than that of the initial state." This is also
commonly referred to as entropy. A watchspring-driven watch will run until the potential energy in the

spring is converted, and not again until energy is reapplied to the spring to rewind it. A car that has run
out of gas will not run again until you walk 10 miles to a gas station and refuel the car. Once the potential
energy locked in carbohydrates is converted into kinetic energy (energy in use or motion), the organism
will get no more until energy is input again. In the process of energy transfer, some energy will dissipate
as heat.Entropy is a measure of disorder: cells are NOT disordered and so have low entropy. The flow of
energy maintains order and life. Entropy wins when organisms cease to take in energy and die.