Counseling Student With Special Problems

Sage Publications, Inc.
American Educational Research Association

Counseling Students with Special Problems
Author(s): D. David Island
Source: Review of Educational Research, Vol. 39, No. 2, Guidance and Counseling (Apr., 1969), pp.
239-250
Published by: American Educational Research Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1169454
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8: COUNSELING STUDENTS
WITH SPECIAL PROBLEMS
D. David Island*
University of Washington
In this chapter, research reported in the

past three years on counseling students with special problems is reviewed.
Problems termed social-emotional and educational have served as the
primary focus, although some attention was given to physical and intellectual problems. A "special problem" was defined as a category which
described certain behavior observed in a relatively small proportion of
students. "Special problem" was not used to indicate a rigid, unique classification of individuals. In this way, the interaction between an individual's
behavior and his environment was emphasized instead of stressing an
assumed underlying trait or state.
Thus, research on counseling college-bound students, counseling
women, or vocational counseling, for example, was not searched and reviewed, but research on vocational counseling with deaf students or counseling students with attendance problems was considered. Experimental
research articles and studies pertaining to counseling students with special
problems made up the bulk of the material reviewed. Descriptive studies,
theoretical articles, or descriptions of guidance and counseling programs
are not reviewed here.
*Dr. Kenneth B. Hoyt, University of Iowa, served as consultant to Dr. Island on the
preparationof this chapter.
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Vol. 39, No. 2
Special Social and Emotional Problems

Research on counseling students who have special social or emotional
problems was unbalanced and scattered. Research was either scant or
nonexistent on counseling students with many kinds of special social or
emotional problems. For example, counseling for racial and cultural disadvantage or difference and the effects of poverty or affluence received
little attention. Student nonconformity, apathy, alienation, or militancy
was ignored. Sexual problems, value dilemmas and other special concerns
of students were not investigated.
School Phobia
Recent advances in treating school phobia appear positively related
to accurate diagnosis and careful history-taking. In an eight-year study,
Kennedy (1965) found that fifty school phobic cases responded to treatment
with complete elimination of school phobia. The therapy described by
Kennedy involved: 1) quick referral, 2) forced school attendance, 3) brief
structured interviews with parents and with the child, and 4) specific
instructions to parents and school personnel on child management. A
careful selection of subjects for this treatment was no doubt a factor in its
success.
School phobics are almost always treated individually with a specific
treatment. Garvey and Hegrenes (1966) demonstrated that systematic desensitization as a treatment of choice proved successful. For twenty consecutive days, including Saturdays and Sundays, a therapist worked for twenty
to forty minutes with a seven-year old on a step-by-step desensitization
procedure carried out entirely in the school environment. Getting out of a
car at school, going to the steps, walking up the steps, entering school and
approaching the classroom constituted some of the minute stages of therapy.
The entire process was clearly outlined by the authors. No subsequent
manifestations of the phobia have appeared after two years.
The traditional approach to school phobia, typified by differential
diagnosis and individual treatment, may ultimately serve as a model for
counseling students with other special problems.
Behavior Problems and Delinquency
Systematic exposure to identification models who exhibit socially
appropriatebehavior can have a positive influence in changing the behavior
of the juvenile offender. Three recent studies in counseling with delinquents
illustrated variations of social modeling techniques as treatment or as an
aspect of treatment.
Persons and Pepinsky (1966) treated 41 boys at a reformatory matched
with controls on age, intelligence, race, social class background, number of
arrests, type of offense, length of incarceration to date and current adjustment. For twenty weeks, the experimental boys met twice weekly for one
Island
COUNSELING STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL PROBLEMS 241
and one-half hours of group therapy plus one hour of individual therapy.
After each session, each boy anonymously identified another boy in his
group as the peer leader. Pre- and posttreatment measures taken on therapists and subjects included the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, Delinquency
Scale, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory and the Kuder Preference Record.
The therapy, described as encouraging warm interpersonal relationships
with each boy, developing an understanding and supportive atmosphere and
developing insight into behavior, was inadequately outlined and not readily
replicable. Thirty of the 41 experimentals (as compared to 12 of the 41
controls) were considered successfully treated on the basis of behavioral
observations and test scores. Test scores for the thirty successfully treated
boys moved more toward the scores of the therapists than toward those
of the perceived peer leaders. The authors warned that such "convergence"
may not be an inevitable concomitant of successful treatment, but may
be a phenomenon correlated with the subjects judged to be improved.
Sarason (1968) reported pilot studies of counseling with institutionalized delinquents. Control and experimental groups were matched on age,
intelligence, and severity and chronicity of delinquency. Experimental
groups of four boys met for 15 sessions with two graduate students who
served as group leaders-social models. Treatment consisted almost entirely
of role-playing life situations of relevance to the boys, such as applying
for a job, talking with a policeman and dealing with an angry father.
In one experimental group the leader-models acted the roles; then the boys
each role-played what had been modeled. In another experimental group,
only the boys played the roles. Controls received no treatment. Measurements were taken with two self-rating forms of the semantic differential,
Wahler's self description inventory, a cottage behavior rating scale, a
weekly behavior summary, individual diagnoses and review board placement
decisions. Preliminary analysis showed, in general, that the boys who
received the modeled role-playing treatment changed the most in behaviors
and attitudes. High anxiety and neuroticism were correlated with higher
change in the modeling groups. Sarason is to be commended for his explicit
and detailed account of the treatment procedures and for conducting a
continuing sequence of experiments over time, rather than conducting an
ad hoc study.
Truax et al. (1966) treated eight groups of ten patients each which
met twice weekly for 24 one-hour sessions over three months. Four groups
were hospitalized mental patients; four were juvenile delinquents. One half
of the group received Vicarious Training Pretherapy (an audio tape of
excerpts of "ideal" client behavior played for the group); the other half of
the groups received 14 extra sessions, starting after the tenth regular session,
with the therapist absent. The treatment, labeled "group therapy," was
not described. Results of pre-post Q-sorts of positive and negative state-
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ments showed the mean adjustment was in a negative direction for the
juvenile delinquents. Effects of Vicarious Training Pretherapy treatment,
however, suggested that the modeling tape facilitated change as measured
by Q-sort. The use of Q-sorts leaves unanswered how and to what extent,
if at all, the problem-related behaviors of the subjects changed.
Complementing the trend toward the use of modeling procedures are
studies of individual treatment of problem behavior with behavioral techniques, illustrated by Wetzel (1966). One boy's compulsive stealing behavior was virtually eliminated by making a valued relationship with a
friend contingent upon certain behavior. This study highlighted the importance of total staff involvement and participation in the success of any
behavior modification undertaking.
Cultural and Ethnic Groups
Research on counseling black students in public schools has begun to
appear in the literature. Gilliland (1968) found that black adolescents
who were provided small group counseling significantly increased their
scores on the Cooperative English Achievement Tests, Occupational Aspiration Scale, and Vocational Development Inventory; they also improved
their Grade Point Average, compared to nontreated controls. Two experimental groups, one of seven boys and another of seven girls, received
something called "group-centeredcounseling" once a week for the academic
year. The results seemed altogether too sensational to be attributed solely
to "counseling." What actually occurred in the weekly sessions? Impressive
findings like these merit attention and replication, but the treatment was
so vaguely described that replication would prove to be most difficult.
Schaeffer and VonNessen (1968) described a non-experimental study
in which group counseling and crisis-event role-playing were used with
acting-out black adolescent girls. After four group sessions and a few
individual contacts, the girls, according to the authors, developed skills
in handling aggression, had better relationships with peers and teachers,
and were not in any trouble requiring discipline. Unfortunately, no
objective measures, controls or procedures of analysis were reported.
Thoresen (1967) used a behavioral approach in counseling one disadvantaged black youth who was not considered college material. During
the student's first year at a junior college, he participated in weekly individual counseling (involving selective verbal and non-verbal reinforcement
and modeled role-playing), weekly individual tutoring in reading and
writing, and had part-time employment as an assistant in a laboratory;
he was paid one dollar per hour for attending class, taking notes and being
tutored. At the end of his first year the student had a "low B average"
in transfer level courses. This case study does not, of course, demonstrate
exactly what combination of activities may have promoted academic success.
Experimentally designed, longitudinal studies could answer some important
questions raised by this case study.
Island
COUNSELING
STUDENTSWITH SPECIALPROBLEMS 243
These beginnings, while inadequate, represent a significant step in

research into areas such as counseling black students, where counselors
need to know more about what to do and how to do it. Studies of counseling
with ethnic and cultural minorities will undoubtedly increase dramatically
during the next few years.
Additional References: Blakeman (1967); Day (1967); Duncan (1965);
Hosford (1968); Kuntz (1966); Laxer et al. (1967); Mason (1968); Stewart
and Moulton (1966).
SpecialEducationalProblems
Concern with the academic achievement of students has produced
a deluge of writing and research. Since counseling students with special
educational problems has historically been the forte of the counselor, it
is not surprising that the bulk of material found for review in this chapter
falls into this section. During the last three years, the topic of underachievement was the most popular special problem studied (19 of the 39
research articles reviewed were on underachievement). In contrast, little
interest was displayed in counseling students with special educational
problems involving academic attitudes, motivation, aspiration levels and
decision-making. The inclusive characteristic of underachievement as a
construct has interfered with clearly defining other educational problems.
General Academic Achievement
Kramer (1968) in working with college students successfully increased
the oral participation behaviors of a group of college students. Sixty
freshmen in a study skills course were assigned to six groups, three experimental and three control. Each group, led by a male counselor, had three
men and seven women in it and met for six one-hour sessions. In reinforcement counseling, the counselor verbally reinforced responses termed
Questioning, Responsibility and Positive; "traditional counseling" control
groups emphasized reflection, clarification and interpretation. All groups
listened to a social model tape demonstrating desired responses during the
first and fourth interview. The reinforcement group significantly increased
their participation behaviors compared to the traditional group, although
most of the increase was accounted for by one of the three treatment
counselors. This finding pointed out that counselor responses intended
to be reinforcing stimuli were not equally effective. Future investigations
are needed to explore the differential effects of counselor and client characteristics as well as the effects of modeling and expectancy to discover why
some individuals change more than others. Growth curves which plot
ongoing changes of individual verbal responses would provide important
data on such questions.
Brown (1965), using scores on the Survey of Study Habits and Atti-
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REVIEWOP EDUCATIONAL
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Vol. 398,No. 2
tudes, the. Effective Study Test and Grade Point Average, showed that
peer counselors were effective with large groups of college freshmen.
Unfortunately, the treatment was not compared to a control or some
other treatment, nor was information presented on what happened in
group counseling. Despite the serious inadequacies of Brown's report,
using trained peers as counselors deserves further investigation.
Underachievement
The notion of underachievement is very confused and complicated.
The causes and characteristics of underachievement are suggested by a
wealth of labels such as free-floating anxiety, negative self-value, hostility
toward authority, high dependence-independence conflict and negative
interpersonal relations (Taylor, 1964; Thelen and Harris, 1968). Underachievement is usually defined arbitrarily by the investigator. As a result,
depending on definition, underachievement is found both among gifted
students (Ewing and Gilbert, 1967) and low-ability students (LeMay and
Weigel, 1966; McGowan, 1968).
Subject Variability
Different methods of selecting subjects not only yield different types
of underachievers, but also significantly influence outcomes. The study
by Winkler et al. (1965) provided an example of negative findings due
to improper subject selection and poor research design. A group of 121
heterogeneous fourth-graders, defined as underachievers by a derived GPA
and WISC Verbal Scale IQ, participated in one of five experimental
conditions. No differences were found, probably due in part to individual
differences. Some students may have had reading problems; others may
have needed individual personal attention; others may have been motivated
but lacked certain academic skills. Offering a treatment, e.g., "group
counseling," to a mixed group is highly likely to produce no average gain,
since gains by some subjects are cancelled by losses of others. The Winkler
study characterizes much that is published in counseling and offers little
promise of advancing professional knowledge. Such research should be
discouraged.
Dickenson and Truax (1966), in contrast, limited the population
studied to a certain type of underachiever, college freshmen whose ACTpredicted GPA was 2.2 or higher, but whose first semester grades were
between 1.49 and 2.00 (C = 2.00). Of 109 students, 48 accepted an
invitation for group therapy, thus further homogenizing the subjects on
motivation. Students were randomly assigned to treatment conditions.
Compared to the controls, striking GPA improvements were found for the
treated groups after 24 counseling sessions. Homogeneity on relevant
factors may have contributed to the positive finding. This study would
have been a greater contribution if the nature of the treatment had been
Island
COUNSELING
STUDENTSWITH SPECIALPROBLEMS 245
specified, permitting replication, and if the experimenters had controlled

for the Hawthorne Effect.
Benson and Blocher (1967) also selected subjects from a homogeneous
population, tenth-grade underachieving boys with negative feelings and
attitudes toward school. The 28 boys who agreed to participate were
randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. After 18 weeks of
group counseling, thoroughly described but difficult to replicate, the
experimental groups showed GPA improvement that was significantly
greater on the average than the controls.
Chestnut (1965) suggested that since data on underachievers may not
be linear, different treatments may not produce changes within subjects
within the same amount of time. In comparing two types of group counseling for underachieving male college students, Chestnut found that one
group had significantly greater rates of change in GPA after counseling
than the other counseling group or the controls had. Gilbreath (1967),
working with the same students as Chestnut, discovered that treatment
effects were related to personality variables as assessed by the Sterns
Activity Index. Those subjects whose scores indicated strong dependency
needs, guardedness, emotional constriction, submission, orderliness and
deliberation were more likely to improve in GPA if they participated in
counselor-structured group counseling. The converse held true for their
polar opposites who were more likely to improve in GPA in groupstructured counseling. Since assignment to treatment groups was not based
on Stems Activity Index scores, both personality types existed in all groups,
a fact (among many) which may have been partially responsible for
neutralizing the effects of the two treatments.
LeMay and Weigel (1966) looked for possible differential effects in
group counseling by focusing on study skills with high- and low-ability
groups of poorly achieving college freshmen. At the end of one term, the
high-ability experimental groups had a significantly higher GPA than the
low-ability groups and all the controls, although the low-ability experimental groups had a higher GPA than the low-ability controls only. The
effects of treatment over three months were known only for the high-ability
experimentals, who maintained a significantly higher GPA than the highability controls.
Specificity of Treatment and Criterion
The nature of the "treatment" is often insufficiently outlined in the
reports of experiments. Authors and editors, rather than limiting treatment
descriptions to a few sentences or labels, should insist on accurate, extensive
and detailed treatment descriptions including observation schedules and
check lists of activities. The profession should find no comfort in the
widespread notion that one counseling treatment equals another counseling
treatment with the same name or that something labeled "counseling"
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REVIEW OF EDUCATIONALRESEARCH
Vol. 39, No. 2
applies similarly across subjects. Ewing and Gilbert (1967, p. 236) typified,
unfortunately, the usual treatment description in stating:
The nature of the counseling received can be summarized as
a combination of normal counseling procedures, in which the
counselor attempts to be helpful to the client in regard to whatever
problems the client presents, and counseling aimed especially at
assisting students achieve better grades.
However, what actually are "normal procedures" and "helpful attempts?"
Katahn et al. (1966), illustrating the trend toward differential treatment, used systematic desensitization coupled with suggestions and advice
to assist 14 test-anxious, underachieving college students develop skills for
improved academic performance. In a thorough report of the treatment,
Katahn outlined the eight, one-hour sessions which resulted in significant
increases in experimental group GPA and lower anxiety scores, compared
to the controls. Using highly motivated volunteers with specific objectives
in mind, who are exposed to specific brief treatment relevant to their
psychodynamic needs, resulted in positive outcomes.
Thoresen and Neuman (1968) found that group desensitization
methods in general caused significantly greater decreases in mean change
scores than group insight procedures. Two professionals and two subprofessionals (first semester graduate students) each conducted both
treatments to group of three for five sessions over a five-week period. Subprofessional counselors were, in general, as effective as the professionals.
Both treatment groups showed significant decreases on self-report measures,
an observer checklist of anxious behaviors and physiological data when
compared to wait controls and no-contact controls. A one-year follow-up
is presently being completed.
Roth et al. (1967) concluded that control and specificity of therapeutic
approaches could lead to developing more explicit and effective counseling
techniques, which could then be applied differentially to certain kinds of
underachievers.
Improved GPA is a commonly found short-term gain in many underachievement investigations (Benson and Blocher, 1967; Schmieding, 1966;
Dickenson and Truax, 1966; Thelen and Harris, 1968; Katahn et al., 1966;
Leib and Snyder, 1967). Many contradictory and negative findings are
also common (Heller and Gurney, 1968; Hill and Grieneeks, 1966; Chestnut, 1965). Long-range results need greater attention, but unfortunately,
few long-range follow-ups have been published. Goodstein (1967), in
following the original study by Marx (1959), found that initial gain in
GPA was completely negated five years later. In fact, higher proportions
of control subjects graduated than did counseled subjects.
The rationales for length, intensity, frequency and schedule of treatment are also important concerns that are seldom discussed. For example,
Schmieding (1966) exposed his subjects to three counseling sessions of
Island
one-half hour in length over one semester. Why three? At the other
extreme, Dickenson and Truax (1966) held weekly one-hour sessions for
12 weeks. Why 24 sessions?
Additional References: Abel (1967); D'Zurilla (1966); Hendrix (1965);
Katahn (1967); LeMay (1966); Peres (1965); Shepherd (1965).
Implications and Conclusions

This selective review of research on counseling students with special
problems revealed four major trends: 1) a striking increase in the use of
group counseling; 2) increased concern for behavior change outside the
interview and its relationship to treatment; 3) increased specificity of
behavior to be changed; and 4) some use of differential and specific
treatment.
The conspicuous absence of research activity on counseling students
who have neurological, physical and communication disabilities was disturbing. Special problems confronting the very slow or the very rapid
learner also received little attention (Ramsey, 1967; Sulzbacher and Houser,
1968; Bimbrauer et al., 1965; Wiesen and Watson, 1967; Drews, 1965).
To deal more effectively with the complex human concerns of students
with special problems, the profession needs well-designed experimental
studies, others that replicate and follow-up prior well-designed studies,
and some large-scale cooperative studies.
Investigators should consider specific, psychodynamic and behaviorrelated diagnosis before treatment. Specific delineation of treatment is
vital to the achievement of an understanding of what works. A variety of
criterion measures must be considered as well as new ways of analyzing
data. Dickenson and Truax (1966), in examining pre- and posttreatment
results, counted the number of subjects who moved from probation to
nonprobation status. Such data may be more important than determining
whether or not significant increases in average GPA occurred. Helping
one college student raise his GPA from 1.96 to 2.01 may be, for him, the
difference between graduating or not graduating. In the probation-ornonprobation, pass-or-fail, graduate-or-dropout realistic world of the student, the idea of seeking practical and statistical solutions to problems
seems eminently rational.
Research is needed which comes closer to the single-subject, owncontrol design that has long characterized operant conditioning studies.
(See the Journal of Applied Experimental Analysis.) Such a research model
would focus primary attention on the behavior of individuals, baseline,
treatment and follow-up performances, and would move away from the
increasingly limited value of designs requiring large N's concerned only
with mean differences.
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Preus,J. B. The Effect of Four StudentPersonnelServiceson the AcademicPerformance

of UnderachievingArts College Freshmen. Doctor's thesis. Minneapolis: Univ. of
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AUTHOR
Island, D. David Address: University of Washington at Seattle, Washington Title:
Assistant Professor Age: 33 Degrees:B.S., Portland State College; M.A., Univ. of
Minn.; Ph.D., Univ. of Minn. Specialization:Nonverbal Behavior in Counseling.

Counseling Student With Special Problems

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Sage Publications, Inc.

American Educational Research Association

In this chapter, research reported in the

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Special Social and Emotional Problems

COUNSELING STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL PROBLEMS 241

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These beginnings, while inadequate, represent a significant step in

specified, permitting replication, and if the experimenters had controlled

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COUNSELING STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL PROBLEMS 247

Implications and Conclusions

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COUNSELING STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL PROBLEMS 249

the Classroom: Group Contingent Consequences." American Journal of Mental

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Preus,J. B. The Effect of Four StudentPersonnelServiceson the AcademicPerformance

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