Gender Role of Education in Japan

JPAN 2035: Women in Japan and Hong Kong Final Project
Chan Lei Lei, Cherry

2005626134 8th May, 2008
The University of Hong Kong

Faculty of Arts
School of Modern Languages and Cultures
Japanese Studies
<JPAN2035 Women in Japan and Hong Kong>
<Final Project>
Name : Chan Lei Lei, Cherry

Student number : 2005626134
Email address : arlei918@gmail.com
Submission date : 9th May, 2008
Lecturer : Maggie Leung
Paper topic : Gender Role of Education in Japan
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2005626134 8th May, 2008
Gender Role of Education in Japan
1. Introduction
The main research question of this paper is to find out how the gender role changes
in modern Japanese education. Therefore, ‘gender’ and ‘education’ are the two key words
of this paper and their relationship will be closely investigated throughout the paper.
“Education” and “gender” are two very broad topics, but I would like to narrow them
down to fit the scope of this paper. Education in this paper is defined as systematic
teaching of skills, language and knowledge, passing on moral values and judgment which
learned and received accordingly. Gender is a concept with huge debate on its essence,
whether it is biologically inborn or socially constructed. Some feminists even note that
gender identity is an individual’s self-conception, regardless their biological sex.
However, gender in this paper will be simply defined as the two primary sexes, male and
female and gender role is regarded as the social constructed role for male and female.
Education and gender has a two-tier relation. Education is the fundamental part of
gender construction. Being a social institution of the society, education reflects the core
value, belief and ideology of the society. I believe education reinforces gender value and
belief of the society. I want to know how it works in Japan as to understand more about
Japanese society. Moreover, I believe education is not only shaped by the ideology, but
also vice versa, so I also want to know how gender value constructs and reshapes the
education in Japan in a two-tier relation.
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In the following paragraphs, I will briefly introduce the chronological history of
Japanese education from Tokugawa period to the modern Japan. I choose to begin with
Tokugawa period as its legacy has greatly influenced Japanese culture, society formation
and education in the later days. I will study the educational system with the gender values
simultaneously. It will be followed by the study of the gender role taken by ‘mother’ and
‘teacher’ in the educational system which I am especially interested in. After
investigating the traditional value of education, I will put more effort on looking at the
modern educational system and issue of gender equality. Lastly, I will end the paper with
analyzing a Japanese TV drama series as a counter example.
2. Historical Background of Japanese Education
2.1. Heian Period
The first Japanese literature was found in the Nara period (710-794) and
prevalent in Heian period (794-1185), when is considered as a golden era of art and
literature. Some schools were established by the noble people and imperial court. Court
women wrote their life and romance at the Heian court. There works included, “The
Gossamer Years” (蜻蛉日記), “The Pillow Book” and “Tale of Genji”. Common women
were often illiterate; the women who could write were courtiers or ladies-in-waiting in
the imperial court.
2.2. Tokugawa period
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2005626134 8th May, 2008
The education in feudalist Japan always related to passing on social norm and value.
In Tokugawa period (1603-1868), Wong (2004) states that it was probably already one of
the most advanced nations in schooling and training on a global comparison at that period
of time (15)1. The feudalistic social order in Tokugawa period was comprised of four
classes: the samurai, the peasant, the artisan and the merchant. The government
sponsored schools for the samurai, hanko (domain school) and gogaku (local school), and
decentralized private schools for the commoners, terakoya (temple school); alongside
these were numerous forms of apprenticeship and vocational training (Wong 15)2.
In order to sustain and stabilize the social order, the Shogunate encouraged Confucian
learning as Confucianism emphasizes obedience, loyalty and filial piety. For example,
“gorin”, the rigid traditional Confucian concept which means five basic human
relationships, consists of the binary oppositional relationship, lord/subject, father/son,
husband/wife, elder brother/younger brother, and friend/friend. Everyone is supposedly
performing properly as stated of their roles and cannot transgress the rule. According to
Li (1993) “Confucianism was used by the Shogunate government to function as a
political and social binding force to help legitimize the feudal system of the Tokugawa
period” (2)3.
Although the government invested more on the educational facilities, they were
mainly concern about men literacy. Women seldom enter schools and mostly being taught
at home. Furthermore, under the hierarchical classification in Confucianism, women were
1 Wong, Naikei. Educational Reform in Japan and Hong Kong: a Comparative Study of Curriculum
Decentralization. Master Thesis. The University of Hong Kong. March 2004 pp.15
2 Wong, pp.15
3 Li, Yuk Heung. Women’s Education in Meiji Japan and the Development of Christian Girls’ Schools.
Thesis (Ph.D.) University of Hong Kong, 1994 pp.2
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2005626134 8th May, 2008
more easily being subordinated. Their proper role of being a wife, mother and daughter is
to fulfill “three obedience of women”, that is to follow father before marriage, follow
husband after marriage and follow sons when she is old. The notion “a lady with minimal
talent is a virtue” articulates that women are not praised of intelligence, but obedience
and loyalty to their male counterparts in their family. As a result, women were strongly
restricted to participate in social activities and to be educated. Li (1993) pointed out that
women were deprived of legal, economic, social and political rights in the old days (3)4.
As women’s main function in the society was to insure posterity, they only needed to
have the basic knowledge and skills in carrying out housework; the government thinks it
did not need to provide educational facilities for them.
The education for women in Tokugawa period was mainly based on Confucian
philosophy. Books about morals, such as Himekagami (Book of Filial piety for Woman)
and Onna Daigaku (Greater Learning for Women) were chosen to guide women the code
of behavior and attitudes. Stephens (1991) notes that ‘Greater Learning for Women’ has
harsh definition, ‘The only qualities that befit a woman are gentle obedience, chastity,
mercy, and quietness’ and the five maladies of women are ‘indocility, discontent, slander,
jealousy, and siliness’ (17)5. These doctrines arose of the inferiority of women to men.
The general education was carried out at home. According to Li (1993), simple
writing, reading, arithmetic and practical skills of managing household chores were
taught and women in the four different social classes and ranks received different ways of
5 Stephens, Michael Dawson. Japan and Education. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991, pp.17
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2005626134 8th May, 2008
instruction and learning (4)6. Let’s briefly describe what were taught to women came
from different social classes. Girls from samurai were taught by female guardians or
experienced old-maids. Besides the general education of moral teaching and reading, they
also learnt calligraphy, Japanese and Chinese classical literature and music, tea ceremony
and flower arrangement, horse-riding and archery skills. For the other classes, private
educational facilities were established in Tokugawa period to meet the need of the
commoners’ families. The ohariya (sewing house) were private sewing schools funded by
housewives to teach girls sewing and practical skills of household management; the
musumeyado (maid dormitory), a kind of communal institution established by villages in
the countryside, basically taught girls village social manner and imparted knowledge of
conducting traditional festivals and rituals. (Li 4)7. Daughters of the commoners were
often sent to the samurai’s house to serve as maids before marriage where the also taught
the usage of proper language and waka (Japanese poem). According to Li (1994), this
kind of informal educational activity indirectly transmitted knowledge of the way of life,
etiquette and culture of the samurai class to the lower class (5)8. The daughters from a
merchant family were often sent to learn in onna-terakoya (women’s temple school) as
they needed to read and write in order to be shopkeepers’ wives. Some parents sent their
daughter to be geisha. The geisha girls learn dancing and music in order to entertain their
customers.
2.3. Meiji period
Thesis (Ph.D.) University of Hong Kong, 1994, pp.4
7 Li, pp.4
8 Li, pp.5
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Japan entered modernization during Meiji period (1868-1912). The feudal system
was abolished and some western institutions were adopted, such as legal and educational
system. Modern Japanese schooling was introduced in order to suit the modernization
needs. Japan’s first Ministry of Education was established in 1871 which was responsible
for planning strategies to “civilize” the people and develop national wealth. It is followed
by the enactment of the first Education Law (Gakusei) of Japan in 1872 (16)9. Unlike the
class-based schooling offered during the Tokugawa period, the Gakusei envisioned a
unified, egalitarian system of modern national education (Britannica)10. It began to
organize a universal elementary education for its people. The Gakusei divided the nation
into eight university districts, which were further divided into 32 middle-school districts,
each accommodating 210 primary-school districts (Britannica)11. The education system
consisted of eight years of elementary education which divided into four lower and four
upper academic years. Pupils attended schools for five hours a day except on Sunday.
More than fourteen subjects were taught, including spelling, vocabulary, reading,
calligraphy, morals, history, geography, drawing, music and physical education (Li 22)12.
According to Li (1994), the years from 1873 to 1877 were generally designated as the
period of Bumei kaika (Civilization and Enlightenment) (8)13. Many men were sent to
study abroad and many books from the west were translated into Japanese, both helped
Japanese to capture the knowledge and technology from the western world.
10 Encyclopedia Britannica Online http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-47639/education#303201.hook
11 Encyclopedia Britannica Online http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-47639/education#303201.hook
13 Li, pp.8
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2005626134 8th May, 2008
Undergo westernization in Meiji period, Japanese intellectual were influenced by the
idea of egalitarianism and showed considerable concern toward women’s inequality.
Fukuzawa Yukichi, Mori Arinori, and Nakamura Masanao were the first to call for
equality between men and women in Japan (Li 12)14. Fukuzaez Yukichi attacked the
practice of concubinage and supported the family formed with one husband and one wife.
Nakamura Masanao, a famous translator had put effort to promote the education of
women in Japan. He believed that the character and mode of thinking of children were
molded by their mothers, so a well-educated mother might bring up good children in the
future (Li 13)15. More women gained opportunities to enter schools when they were
entitled to receive elementary education in the new universal educational system.
However, the traditional way of thinking about women’s role was being untouched. The
government carried out promotion to encourage parents to send their daughters to
schools. According to Li (1993), Yamanashi Prefecture issued a decree in 1872, stating
that “Education would enable girls to help their husbands’s business in the future.”; and a
similar view was also expressed in an official statement in Ibaragi Prefecture: “Giving
primary instruction to children is the main responsibility of mothers,” and “The
enlightenment of future generations and the prosperity of the country rest on the nature of
mothers. (18)16”
Government’s encouragement did not work so well, the rate of attendance of girls
Thesis (Ph.D.) University of Hong Kong, 1994Li, pp.12
15 Li, pp.13
16 Li, pp.18
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2005626134 8th May, 2008
was remained low during the early years of the Gakusei. From 1873 to 1878, the
enrollment rate of girls rose from 15.1% to 23.5%, while boys’ enrollment rate rose from
19.9% to 57.6% (Li 19)17. Many poor families were unwilling to send their daughters to
school, parents generally considered education unnecessary for girls. If they needed to
send their daughters to schools, they always chose terakoya where practical skills were
taught. They still stuck to the deep-rooted traditional belief.. It is because sending their
daughters to schools would reduce labor force at home and they could not accept the co-
educational system as they still kept the traditional thinking that boys and girls should not
sit or study together after seven years old. Due to economic realities and social inertia,
early implementation of the law had limited success.
2.4. Japan and Education in the 1930-45 Period and the American Occupation
The influence from the west initiated Japanese nationalistic reaction to
modernization and industrialization in the late 19th and early 20th century. . Japan had
borrowed the technology from the west and become industrially powerful, but its
acceptance of western political ideas was just more superficial. Not until after 1945, the
Japan’s defeat did Japan’s hierarchical society took to democracy (Stephens 42). In 1947,
a new US-directed Constitution was written and subsequently two educational laws were
enacted under the auspices of the US Education Mission (Wong 18). The education
reform brought remarkable changes to the schooling structure and curriculum. The aims
of the reforms were to demilitarize the country and democratize the Japanese people. The
Thesis (Ph.D.) University of Hong Kong, 1994, pp.19
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2005626134 8th May, 2008
old multi-track schooling was replaced by a new “6-3-3-4” single-track one. The
curriculum eradicate elements of nationalist education and wartime ideology, a new
subject called “Social Studies” was introduced as part of the effort to “democratize” the
Japanese people (Wong 21). It encourages the gradual growth of certain grassroots
“democratic” movements in and outside schools. Coeducation became generally accepted
and approved by parents.
2.5. Beyond 1947
There were subtle changes in Japanese educational system beyond 1947. According
to MEXT18, in 1948, the upper secondary schools were first established. In 1949, the new
system for universities began. In 1950, the junior college system was established on
provisional basis, the educational opportunities increased. In 1962, colleges of
technology were initiated to provide lower secondary school graduates. In 1964, the
junior college system changed to permanent basis, mainly girls get educated there. In
1991, colleges of technology are able to offer courses in other fields, as well as advanced
courses.
The turning point is in 1967 when the Ministry of Education wanted to centralize the
educational system, new educational reform was discussed to emphasize on “flexibility”
and “diversity” themes that would remain relevant well into the 1990s. The reform was
initiatively not successful, partly because of a lack of support both within and outside the
18 “School Educatoin”. Ministry of Edcuation, Culture, Sports, Science and Techonology

http://www.mext.go.jp/english/org/struct/010.htm
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2005626134 8th May, 2008
government, and partly because it had failed to produce alternatives to the standard 6-3-3
schooling system (Wong 21). In 1984, the government established new organization to
plan the reform. The second reform initiative also proved inconclusive and unsatisfactory.
During the 1990s, more reform proposals were drawn up and refined by the government.
2.6. Girls’ Opportunities in Education by 20th Century
I have picked the data of women enrollments in different levels of education in
1955, 1985 and 2007 (see appendix) from National Woman Center, Gender Statistics
Database19 to compare the change of the situation of women educational attainment
accordingly. In kindergarten, elementary school and secondary school, the percentage of
female students remain the same around 50% in 1955, 1985, and 2007. The percentage of
female students in upper secondary school slightly increased from 42% to 51% from
1955 to 2007 while the percentage of university female enrollment has largely increased
from 10% to 40% within the 52 years. Female students occupy most the seats in junior
collages (from 55% to 90%) and specialized training collages (around 55%) which aim to
provide practical training to people who do not get into universities. The statistic shows
that in early 20th century, primary education was egalitarian while higher education was
selective and elitist. Women have relatively few opportunities to enter higher education
while junior colleagues are mostly enrolled by female students. It may partly because
many women focus their marriage rather than their own career achievement. Girls’
enrolment in the 4-year universities increased as democratic ideology and economic
19 “Gender Statistic Database” Winet. http://winet.nwec.jp/cgi-bin/toukei/load/bin/tk_search.cgi
11
2005626134 8th May, 2008
affluence jointly worked. Parents’ expectations of their daughters have changed when the
family is not depended on agricultural labor force.
Yoriko Meguro20, a Professor of Sociology, Sophia University, Tokyo, Japan notes
that in accordance with the general social norm, parents’ expectations tend to be gender-
specific. The education qualification for boys is considered a resource for their career
success as the breadwinner and the citizens in the public sphere while those for girls was
appreciated as an important for their successful mate-selection which would determine
their marriage, ways of lifestyle in the private sphere. It is greatly related to the belief that
women in Japan are educated to become ‘wise mothers’ to raise good citizens. It assumes
women should contribute to Japan’s nation building as ‘mother’ and place the primary
value on the national and societal interests over individual interests. Women’s role is the
educator of next generation. Although there are more and more women “climbing” to a
high “ladder” benefited from the modern egalitarian and liberalized educational system,
many hidden curriculums still exist in the schools to reinforce gender norm and
differentiated gander roles.
3. Teachers and Mothers
According to White (1983), Japanese mothers and teachers both rely on sensitivity,
intimacy and shared goals as the means by which they can shape a child’s growth (95)21.
20 Yoriko Meguro. Education for Women and Girls in Japan – Progress and Challenges, Prepared for the
UNESCO Regional Seminar: "Towards the Gender Equality in Basic Education: Major Challenges to
Meet Dakar EFA Goals", 28-30 November 2001, Kyoto, Japan
21 WHITE, Merry I. (1987). The Japanese educational challenge: a commitment to children. New York:
12
2005626134 8th May, 2008
In the following paragraphs, I will try to study teacher’s role and mother’s role in modern
Japanese education.
3.1. Teacher’s Role
Japanese Teachers are well respected. They are well paid and have high social status.
According to White (1987), at the beginning of a classroom day, Japanese children rise
and bow, saying Sensei, onegai shimasu, “Teacher, please do us the favor (82)”22. The
Japanese word sensei (teacher) has much deeper meaning of reputation. In the old days,
for example Tokugawa period and Meiji period, teachers were the moral role models who
embodied virtue expected by the students. However, students in modern Japan will not
think that the teacher is a holy guru, but a conveyor of information. Teachers have value
because they impart specific knowledge.
Teaching had been standardized and bureaucratized only since Meiji period. At first
the teaching force was diverse: terakoya instructors, former priests, a few housewives,
and the younger “new teachers” trained at normal schools (White 83)23. The proportion of
female teachers in school is an important indicator of equality in terms of a role model for
both male and female students and also of women's right to work. The number of women
teachers increased in elementary schools, but upper levels were dominated by male
teachers. In the late 80s, women are only 15 percent of high school teachers in Japan,
compared to 50 percent in the U.S. (White 83)24. According to Yoriko, the proportion of
The Free Press. Pp.95

22 WHITE, pp.82
23 WHITE, pp.83
24 WHITE, Merry I. (1987). The Japanese educational challenge: a commitment to children. New York:
The Free Press pp.83
13
2005626134 8th May, 2008
female teachers is the highest in primary schools (65% in 2000) but it decreases as the
level of education goes up. Female teachers in the managing positions are on the rise but
the gender gap is great.
3.2. Mother’s Role
The relationship between the mother and the child in a family is very important in
Japan. According to White (1987), the Japanese family is defined by the relationship
between the mother and the child, not husband and wife (22)25. The responsibility of
educating and up-bringing a child to be healthy, intelligent and wee-behaved belongs to
the mothers. Japanese mothers’ successes are reflected and measured by their children’s
educational success through the numerous entrance exams. There is a psychological
notion called “amae” in Japan means dependence, or the desire to be passively loved. It is
used to describe the key “relationship between love and success” (Wong 32)26. Japanese
believe mother’s love contributes to child’s greatest success. In this sense, motherhood
gains a high status in Japanese society. Goodman (1989) supports this view, but also
suggests that Japanese women’s social roles are significantly restricted by a male-
dominated workplace. Although Japanese mother has the power to make decision on the
issues related to her children, they bare the pressure to perform the image of an ideal
Japanese female who subordinates and scarifies her own interests to supporting her
husband in work and her children in education.
4. Interviews about Female Students’ view of education
25 WHITE, pp. 22
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2005626134 8th May, 2008
4.1 Case 1-Chloe Leung, HKU student Exchanged to Japan
Chloe notes that some of her female classmates only find low rank job even they
have high qualification and many of her female friends go to 2-year University, which is
junior college. However, she observed a higher learning ability of her female classmates
upon male counterparts. As she was studying nutritional science, they always conducted
experiment in laboratory, she found female classmates were more carefully carried out
every single steps while male students were less careful. It may be a gender stereotype
upon students, but it may also due to the gender-oriented education in Japan that shapes
students to perform differently. Beside, Chloe felt that Japanese girls went to exchange or
enter university just because they “wanted to”, but not because of future career, some
may aim at finding “potential husbands”. Her observation conforms to the argument of
Yoriko mentioned in the previous paragraph.
4.2 Case 2-Kishi Chiaki Exchanged to Hong Kong from Japan
Chiaki comes from a middle class family. Her father and mother are both University
Graduates. Her father works while her mother is a housewife. It is the typical husband
and wife relationship. Chiaki said her parents taught her how to behave right in pre-
school stage. They sometimes asked her to perform girlish, but they became less
authoritarian in higher level of education and they did not expect too much on her and her
2 brothers. They gave them freedom to choose their ways of life. In school, Chiaki felt
egalitarian between boys and girls, but more boys were studying in high school than girl.
15
2005626134 8th May, 2008
However, she observed that girls were more active in university in Japan, because many
of them participated in societies, clubs and were more passionate to study. Chiaki said she
wanted to be independent and wanted to work in bank after graduation. She thinks she
will marry at around 30. Chiaki is a new type of Japanese woman which has been largely
emerged in modern Japanese society. They prefer late-marriage and invest time and effort
in their career.
5. Reflection on Japan TV drama (女王の教室 )
As mentioned before, Japanese teachers are expected to be a good role model, as
well as to show intimacy to and care their students. There may be more expectations for
appearances and behaviors on female teachers, for example they should look kind and be
righteousness, they should talk softly and tolerant to bad students, etc. However, the
protagonist in 女王の教室, the sensei is totally a opposite example of traditional
expected teacher model. She claims herself a monster for the students and dresses in
black long coat. She looks mysterious and cruel to the students. What is meant by a good
teacher and good education are being challenged in the context of modern education. The
sensei does not help students to solve their problem, but gives more hardship to the
students in order to train them like in an army. The classroom is not in a harmonious
atmosphere but the confrontation between the sensei and the students. However, the
sensei seems to create a lot of worst scenarios for the students in a good will, and make
they understand whenever there are faults they caused and should not blame the others.
She teaches students how to tackle seduction and make judgment by using extreme
16
2005626134 8th May, 2008
method. The drama shows a kind of education that is more philosophical, such as how to
be truthful to oneself, how to be a real man, rather then practical skill or knowledge. The
drama interesting gives the female sensei masculinity, challenging the female role of
educator.
6. Conclusion
Japan has its advance schooling structure and system; however the traditional gender
value is still prevalent. It affects the educational decision making of women in attaining
higher education. It is applicable in many Confucian countries, for example China.
However, the situation becomes better as many women are aware of their right and
ability. Women have seized many high rank positions in different walks of life, though it
is still much fewer comparing to men. Although the gender roles in education do not have
dramatic change, the trend is progressive towards a more equal and egalitarian route.
_________________________References:__________________________
“Education Establishment of a National System of Education”. Encyclopedia Britannica

Online browed on 6th May, 2008 http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
47639/education#303201.hook
17
2005626134 8th May, 2008
“Gender Statistic Database” Winet. browed on 23rd May, 2008

http://winet.nwec.jp/cgi-bin/toukei/load/bin/tk_search.cgi
Li Yuk-heung. Women’s education in Meiji Japan and the development of Christian girls’
schools. Thesis (Ph.D.), University of Hong Kong, 1994
“School Educatoin”. Ministry of Edcuation, Culture, Sports, Science and Techonology

browed on 23rd April, 2008 http://www.mext.go.jp/english/org/struct/010.htm
Stephens, Michael Dawson. Japan and Education. Basingstoke:Macmillan, 1991
White, Merry I. The Japanese Educational Challenge: A commitment to Children. New

York: Free Press; London: Collier Macmillan, 1987
Wong, Nai-kei. Educational Reform in Japan and Hong Kong. Thesis(M.Phil), University
of Hong Kong, 2004
Yoriko Meguro. Education for Women and Girls in Japan – Progress and Challenges.
November 2001, Kyoto, Japan browed on 23rd April, 2008
www.unescobkk.org/fileadmin/user_upload/appeal/gender/genderequalityJapa
n.doc
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JPAN 2035: Women in Japan and Hong Kong Final Project

Chan Lei Lei, Cherry

The University of Hong Kong

<JPAN2035 Women in Japan and Hong Kong>

Name : Chan Lei Lei, Cherry

Gender Role of Education in Japan

gender identity is an individual’s self-conception, regardless their biological sex.

education in Japan in a two-tier relation.

In the following paragraphs, I will briefly introduce the chronological history of

‘teacher’ in the educational system which I am especially interested in. After

analyzing a Japanese TV drama series as a counter example.

2. Historical Background of Japanese Education

2.1. Heian Period

the imperial court.

2.2. Tokugawa period

relationships, consists of the binary oppositional relationship, lord/subject, father/son,

husband/wife, elder brother/younger brother, and friend/friend. Everyone is supposedly

Li (1993) “Confucianism was used by the Shogunate government to function as a

at home. Furthermore, under the hierarchical classification in Confucianism, women were

did not need to provide educational facilities for them.

musumeyado (maid dormitory), a kind of communal institution established by villages in

2.3. Meiji period

unified, egalitarian system of modern national education (Britannica)10. It began to

each accommodating 210 primary-school districts (Britannica)11. The education system

Undergo westernization in Meiji period, Japanese intellectual were influenced by the

idea of egalitarianism and showed considerable concern toward women’s inequality.

entitled to receive elementary education in the new universal educational system.

government carried out promotion to encourage parents to send their daughters to

schools. According to Li (1993), Yamanashi Prefecture issued a decree in 1872, stating

primary instruction to children is the main responsibility of mothers,” and “The

early implementation of the law had limited success.

The influence from the west initiated Japanese nationalistic reaction to

curriculum eradicate elements of nationalist education and wartime ideology, a new

“democratic” movements in and outside schools. Coeducation became generally accepted

and approved by parents.

2.5. Beyond 1947

provisional basis, the educational opportunities increased. In 1962, colleges of

educational system, new educational reform was discussed to emphasize on “flexibility”

18 “School Educatoin”. Ministry of Edcuation, Culture, Sports, Science and Techonology

2.6. Girls’ Opportunities in Education by 20th Century

I have picked the data of women enrollments in different levels of education in

Database19 to compare the change of the situation of women educational attainment

accordingly. In kindergarten, elementary school and secondary school, the percentage of

enrolment in the 4-year universities increased as democratic ideology and economic

19 “Gender Statistic Database” Winet. http://winet.nwec.jp/cgi-bin/toukei/load/bin/tk_search.cgi

family is not depended on agricultural labor force.

Yoriko Meguro20, a Professor of Sociology, Sophia University, Tokyo, Japan notes

appreciated as an important for their successful mate-selection which would determine

differentiated gander roles.

3. Teachers and Mothers

3.1. Teacher’s Role

because they impart specific knowledge.

The Free Press. Pp.95

the gender gap is great.

3.2. Mother’s Role

educating and up-bringing a child to be healthy, intelligent and wee-behaved belongs to

educational success through the numerous entrance exams. There is a psychological

husband in work and her children in education.

4. Interviews about Female Students’ view of education

4.1 Case 1-Chloe Leung, HKU student Exchanged to Japan

Yoriko mentioned in the previous paragraph.

4.2 Case 2-Kishi Chiaki Exchanged to Hong Kong from Japan

5. Reflection on Japan TV drama (女王の教室 )

As mentioned before, Japanese teachers are expected to be a good role model, as