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INTRODUCTION
HISTORYA
Established in 1875, the Bombay Stock Exchange is Asia's first stock exchange.
12th century France the courratiers de change were concerned with managing
and regulating debts of agricultural communities on behalf of the banks.
Because these men also traded with debts, they could be called the first brokers.
A common misbelief is that in late 13th century Bruges commodity traders
gathered inside the house of a man called Van der Beurze, and in 1309 they
became the "Brugse Beurse", institutionalizing what had been, until then, an
informal meeting, but actually, the family Van der Beurze had a building in
Antwerp where those gatherings occurred; the Van der Beurze had Antwerp, as
most of the merchants of that period, as their primary place for trading. The idea
quickly spread around Flanders and neighboring counties and "Beurzen" soon
opened in Ghent and Amsterdam. In the middle of the 13th century, Venetian
bankers began to trade in government securities. In 1351 the Venetian
government outlawed spreading rumors intended to lower the price of
government funds. Bankers in Pisa, Verona, Genoa and Florence also began
trading in government securities during the 14th century. This was only possible
because these were independent city states not ruled by a duke but a council of
influential citizens. The Dutch later started joint stock companies, which let
shareholders invest in business ventures and get a share of their profits - or
losses. In 1602, the Dutch East India Company issued the first share on the
Amsterdam Stock Exchange. It was the first company to issue stocks and bonds.

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The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (or Amsterdam Beurs) is also said to have
been the first stock exchange to introduce continuous trade in the early 17th
century. The Dutch "pioneered short selling, option trading, debt-equity swaps,
merchant banking, unit trusts and other speculative instruments, much as we
know them" There are now stock markets in virtually every developed and most
developing economies, with the world's biggest markets being in the United
States, United Kingdom, Japan, India, China, Canada, Germany, France, South
Korea and the Netherlands.

CAPITALMARKET
The capital market is the market for securities, where Companies and
governments can raise long-term funds. It is a market in which money is lent for
periods longer than a year. A nation's capital market includes such financial
institutions as banks, insurance companies, and stock exchanges that channel
long-term investment funds to commercial and industrial borrowers. Unlike the
money market, on which lending is ordinarily short term, the capital market
typically finances fixed investments like those in buildings and machinery.
Nature and Constituents: The capital market consists of number of individuals
and institutions(including the government) that canalize the supply and demand
for longterm capital and claims on capital. The stock exchange, commercial
banks, co-operative banks, saving banks, development banks, insurance
companies, investment trust or companies, etc., are important constituents of the
capital markets. The capital market, like the money market, has three important

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Components, namely the suppliers of loanable funds, the borrowers and the
Intermediaries who deal with the leaders on the one hand and the Borrowers on
the other. The demand for capital comes mostly from agriculture, industry, trade
the government. The predominant form of industrial organization developed
Capital Market becomes a necessary infrastructure for fast industrialization
Capital market not concerned solely with the issue of new claims on capital, But
also with dealing in existing claims.

DEBT OR BOND MARKET

The bond market (also known as the debt, credit, or fixed income market) is a
financial market where participants buy and sell debt securities, usually in the
form of bonds. As of 2009, the size of the worldwide bond market (total debt
outstanding) is an estimated $82.2 trillion of which the size of the outstanding
U.S. bond market debt was $31.2 trillion according to BIS (or alternatively
$34.3 trillion according to SIFMA).Nearly all of the $822 billion average daily
trading volume in the U.S. bond market takes place between broker-dealers and
large institutions in a decentralized, over-the-counter (OTC) market. However, a
small number of bonds, primarily corporate, are listed on exchanges. References
to the "bond market" usually refer to the government bond market, because of
its size, liquidity, lack of credit risk and, therefore, sensitivity to interest rates.
Because of the inverse relationship between bond valuation and interest rates,
the bond market is often used to indicate changes in interest rates or the shape of
the yield curve.

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Contents
1 Market structure
2 Types of bond markets
3 Bond market participants
4 Bond market size
5 Bond market volatility
6 Bond market influence
7 Bond investments
8 Bond indices

MARKET STUCTURE
Bond markets in most countries remain decentralized and lack common
exchanges like stock, future and commodity markets. This has occurred, in part,
because no two bond issues are exactly alike, and the variety of bond securities
outstanding greatly exceeds that of stocks. However, the New York Stock
Exchange (NYSE) is the largest centralized bond market, representing mostly
corporate bonds. The NYSE migrated from the Automated Bond System(ABS)
to the NYSE Bonds trading system in April 2007 and expects the number of
traded issues to increase from 1000 to 6000.Besides other causes, the
decentralized market structure of the corporate and municipal bond markets, as
distinguished from the stock market structure, results in higher transaction costs
and less liquidity. A study performed by Profs Harris and Piwowar in 2004,
Secondary Trading Costs in the Municipal Bond Market, reached the following
conclusions: (1) "Municipal bond trades are also substantially more expensive

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than similar sized equity trades. We attribute these results to the lack of price
transparency in the bond markets. Additional cross-sectional analyses show that
bond trading costs decrease with credit quality and increase with instrument
complexity, time to maturity, and time since issuance." (2) "Our results show
that municipal bond trades are significantly more expensive than equivalent
sized equity trades. Effective spreads in municipal bonds average about two
percent of price for retail size trades of 20,000 dollars and about one percent for
institutional trade size trades of 200,000 dollars."

TYPES OF BOND MARKETS

The Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association (SIFMA) classifies
the broader bond market into five specific bond markets.
Corporate
Government & agency
Municipal
Mortgage backed, asset backed, and collateralized debt obligation
Funding
Bond market participants
Bond market participants are similar to participants in most financial markets
and are essentially either buyers (debt issuer) of funds or sellers (institution) of
funds and often both.
Participants include:

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Institutional investors
Governments
Traders
Individuals
Because of the specificity of individual bond issues, and the lack of liquidity in
many smaller issues, the majority of outstanding bonds are held by institutions
like pension funds, banks and mutual funds. In the United States, approximately
10% of the market is currently held by private individuals.

STOCK OR EQUITY MARKET

A stock market or equity market is a public market (a loose network of
economic transactions not a physical facility or discrete entity) for the trading of
company stock and derivatives at an agreed price; these are securities listed on a
stock exchange as well as those only traded privately.The size of the world
stock market was estimated at about $36.6 trillion US at the beginning of
October 2008. The total world derivatives market has been estimated at about
$791 trillion face or nominal value, 11 times the size of the entire world
economy. The value of the derivatives market, because it is stated in terms of
notional values, cannot be directly compared to a stock or a fixed income
security, which traditionally refers to an actual value. Moreover, the vast
majority of derivatives 'cancel' each other out (i.e., a derivative 'bet' on an event
occurring is offset by a comparable derivative 'bet' on the event not occurring).
Many such relatively illiquid securities are valued as marked to model, rather

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than an actual market price. The stocks are listed and traded on stock exchanges
which are entities of a corporation or mutual organization specialized in the
business of bringing buyers and sellers of the organizations to a listing of stocks
and securities together. The largest stock market in the United States, by market
cap is the New York Stock Exchange, NYSE, and while in Canada, it is the
Toronto Stock Exchange. Major European examples of stock exchanges include
the London Stock Exchange, Paris Bourse, and the Deutsche Borse. Asian
examples include the Tokyo Stock Exchange, the Hong Kong Stock Exchange,
the Shanghai Stock Exchange, and the Bombay Stock Exchange. In Latin
America, there are such exchanges as the BM&F Bovespa and the BMV.

Contents
1 Trading
2 Market participants
3 History
4 Importance of stock market
o 4.1 Function and purpose
o 4.2 Relation of the stock market to the modern financial system
o 4.3 The stock market, individual investors, and financial risk

TRADING
Participants in the stock market range from small individual stock investors to
large hedge fund traders, who can be based anywhere. Their orders usually end
up with a professional at a stock exchange, who executes the order. Some

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exchanges are physical locations where transactions are carried out on a trading
floor, by a method known as open outcry. This type of auction is used in stock
exchanges and commodity exchanges where traders may enter "verbal" bids and
offers simultaneously. The other type of stock exchange is a virtual kind,
composed of a network of computers where trades are made electronically via
traders. Actual trades are based on an auction market model where a potential
buyer bids a specific price for a stock and a potential seller asks a specific price
for the stock. (Buying or selling at market means you will accept any ask price
or bid price for the stock, respectively.) When the bid and ask prices match, a
sale takes place, on a first-come-first-served basis if there are multiple bidders
or askers at a given price. The purpose of a stock exchange is to facilitate the
exchange of securities between buyers and sellers, thus providing a marketplace
(virtual or real). The exchanges provide real-time trading information on the
listed securities, facilitating price discovery. The New York Stock Exchange is a
physical exchange, also referred to as a listed exchange only stocks listed
with the exchange may be traded. Orders enter by way of exchange members
and flow down to a floor broker, who goes to the floor trading post specialist for
that stock to trade the order. The specialist's job is to match buy and sell orders
using open outcry. If a spread exists, no trade immediately takes place--in this
case the specialist should use his/her own resources (money or stock) to close
the difference after his/her judged time. Once a trade has been made the details
are reported on the "tape" and sent back to the brokerage firm, which then
notifies the investor who placed the order. Although there is a significant
amount of human contact in this process, computers play an important role,

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especially for so-called "program trading". The NASDAQ is a virtual listed

exchange, where all of the trading is done over a computer network. The
process is similar to the New York Stock Exchange. However, buyers and
sellers are electronically matched. One or more NASDAQ market makers will
always provide a bid and ask price at which they will always purchase or sell
'their' stock.The Paris Bourse, now part of Euronext, is an order-driven,
electronic stock exchange. It was automated in the late 1980s. Prior to the
1980s, it consisted of an open outcry exchange. Stockbrokers met on the trading
floor or the Palais Brongniart. In 1986, the CATS trading system was
introduced, and the order matching process was fully automated. From time to
time, active trading (especially in large blocks of securities) have moved away
from the 'active' exchanges. Securities firms, led by UBS AG, Goldman Sachs
Group Inc. and Credit Suisse Group, already steer 12 percent of U.S. security
trades away from the exchanges to their internal systems. That share probably
will increase to 18 percent by 2010 as more investment banks bypass the NYSE
and NASDAQ and pair buyers and sellers of securities themselves, according to
data compiled by Boston-based Aite Group LLC, a brokerage-industry
consultant. Now that computers have eliminated the need for trading floors like
the Big Board's, the balance of power in equity markets is shifting. By bringing
more orders in-house, where clients can move big blocks of stock anonymously,
brokers pay the exchanges less in fees and capture a bigger share of the $11
billion a year that institutional investors pay in trading commissions as well as
the surplus of the century had taken place.

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Market participants
A few decades ago, worldwide, buyers and sellers were individual investors,
such as wealthy businessmen, with long family histories (and emotional ties) to
particular

corporations.

Overtime,

markets

have

become

more

"institutionalized"; buyers and sellers are largely institutions (e.g., pension

funds, insurance companies, mutual funds, index funds, exchange-traded funds,
hedge funds, investor groups, banks and various other financial institutions).
The rise of the institutional investor has brought with it some improvements in
market operations. Thus, the government was responsible for "fixed" (and
exorbitant) fees being markedly reduced for the 'small' investor, but only after
the large institutions had managed to break the brokers' solid front on fees.
(They then went to 'negotiated' fees, but only for large institutions. However,
corporate governance (at least in the West) has been very much adversely
affected by the rise of (largely 'absentee') institutional 'owners'.

IMPORTANCE OF STOCK MARKET

Function and purpose
The main trading room of the Tokyo Stock Exchange, where trading is currently
completed through computers. The stock market is one of the most important
sources for companies to raise money. This allows businesses to be publicly
traded, or raise additional capital for expansion by selling shares of ownership

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of the company in a public market. The liquidity that an exchange provides

affords investors the ability to quickly and easily sell securities. This is an
attractive feature of investing in stocks, compared to other less liquid
investments such as real estate. History has shown that the price of shares and
other assets is an important part of the dynamics of economic activity, and can
influence or be an indicator of social mood. An economy where the stock
market is on the rise is considered to be an up-and-coming economy. In fact, the
stock market is often considered the primary indicator of a country's economic
strength and development. Rising share prices, for instance, tend to be
associated with increased business investment and vice versa. Share prices also
affect the wealth of households and their consumption. Therefore, central banks
tend to keep an eye on the control and behavior of the stock market and, in
general, on the smooth operation of financial system functions. Financial
stability is the raison d'etre of central banks. Exchanges also act as the
clearinghouse for each transaction, meaning that they collect and deliver the
shares, and guarantee payment to the seller of a security. This eliminates the risk
to an individual buyer or seller that the counterparty could default on the
transaction. The smooth functioning of all these activities facilitates economic
growth in that lower costs and enterprise risks promote the production of goods
and services as well as employment. In this way the financial system contributes
to increased prosperity. An important aspect of modern financial markets,
however, including the stock markets, is absolute discretion. For example,
American stock markets see more unrestrained acceptance of any firm than in
smaller markets. For example, Chinese firms that possess little or no perceived

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value to American society profit American bankers on Wall Street, as they reap
large commissions from the placement, as well as the Chinese company which
yields funds to invest in China. However, these companies accrueno intrinsic
value to the long-term stability of the American economy, but rather only shortterm profits to American business men and the Chinese; although, when the
foreign company has a presence in the new market, this can benefit the market's
citizens. Conversely, there are very few large foreign corporations listed on the
Toronto Stock Exchange TSX, Canada's largest stock exchange. This discretion
has insulated Canada to some degree to worldwide financial conditions. In order
for the stock markets to truly facilitate economic growth via lower costs and
better employment, great attention must be given to the foreign participants
being allowed in.

GROWTH OF INDIAN STOCK EXCHANGE

The second world war broke out in 1939. It gave a sharp boom which was
followed by a slump. But in 1943, the situation changed radically, when India
was fully mobilized as supply base. On account of the restrictive controls on
cotton, bullion, seeds and other commodities those dealing in them found in the
stock market as the only outlet for their activities they were anxious to join the
trade and their number was swelled by numerous others. Many few associations
were constituted for the purpose and stock exchanges in all parts of the country
were floated. In Delhi two stock exchanges- Delhi stock and share brokers
association limited and the Delhi stocks and shares exchange limited-were

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floated and later June 1947 amalgamated into Delhi stock exchange association
limited.

MAJOR STOCK EXCHANGES IN INDIA

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ROLE OF CAPITAL MARKET

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Financial market is a market where financial instruments are exchanged or

traded and
Helps in determining the prices of the assets that are traded in and is also called
the price discovery process.
1. Organizations that facilitate the trade in financial products. For e.g. Stock
exchanges
(NYSE, NASDAQ) facilitate the trade in stocks, bonds and warrants.
2. Coming together of buyer and sellers at a common platform to trade financial
products is termed as financial markets, i.e. stocks and shares are traded
between buyers and sellers in a number of ways including: the use of stock
exchanges; directly between
buyers and sellers etc.
Financial markets may be classified on the basis of:

types of claims debt and equity markets

maturity money market and capital market
trade spot market and delivery market
deals in financial claims primary market and secondary market

Indian Financial Market consists of the following markets:

Capital Market/ Securities Market

Primary capital market
Secondary capital market
Money Market
Debt Market

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Primary capital market- A market where new securities are bought and sold
for the first time

Types of issues in Primary market

Initial public offer (IPO) (in case of an unlisted company),
Follow-on public offer (FPO),
Rights offer such that securities are offered to existing shareholders,
Preferential issue/ bonus issue/ QIB placement
Composite issue, that is, mixture of a rights and public offer, or offer for sale

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(offer of securities by existing shareholders to the public for subscription).

Difference between
Primary market Secondary market
Deals with new securities Market for existing securities, which are already
listed
Provides additional capital to issuer companies No additional capital generated.
Provides liquidity to existing stock leading stock exchanges:

Bombay Stock Exchange Limited

Oldest in Asia
Presence in 417 cities and towns in India
Trading in equity, debt instrument and derivatives
National Stock Exchange
New York Stock Exchange NYSE)
NASDAQ
London Stock Exchange

Functions of Stock Exchanges

Liquidity and marketability of securities

Fair price determination
Source of long-tern funds
Helps in capital formation
Reflects general state of economy

Basics of Stock Market Indices:

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A stock market index is the reflection of the market as a whole. It is a

representative of
The entire stock market. Movements in the index represent the average returns
obtained
By the investors. Stock market index is sensitive to the news of:
Company specific
Country specific
Thus the movement in the stock index is also the reflection of the expectation of
the
Future performance of the companies listed on the exchange

Capital market and money market:

Financial markets can broadly be divided into money and capital market.

Money Market: Money market is a market for debt securities that pay off in
the short term usually less than one year, for example the market for 90-days
treasury bills. This market encompasses the trading and issuance of short term
non-equity debt instruments including treasury bills, commercial papers,
bankers acceptance, certificates of deposits, etc.

Capital Market: Capital market is a market for long-term debt and equity
shares. In this market, the capital funds comprising of both equity and debt are
issued and traded. This also includes private placement sources of debt and

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equity as well as organized markets like stock exchanges. Capital market

includes financial instruments with more than one year maturity.

CAPITAL MARKET STRUCTURE

Significance of Capital Markets

A well functioning stock market may help the development process in an
economy
through the following channels:
1. Growth of savings,

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2. Efficient allocation of investment resources,

3. Better utilization of the existing resources.
In market economy like India, financial market institutions provide the avenue
by which long-term savings are mobilized and channeled into investments.
Confidence of the investors in the market is imperative for the growth and
development of the market. For any stock market, the market Indices is the
barometer of its performance and reflects the prevailing sentiments of the entire
economy. Stock index is created to provide investors with the information
regarding the average share price in the stock market. The ups and downs in the
index represent the movement of the equity market. These indices need to
represent the return obtained by typical portfolios in the country.
Generally, the stock price of any company is vulnerable to three types of news:
Company specific
Industry specific
Economy specific
An all-share index includes stocks from all the sectors of the economy and thus
cancels
Out the stock and sector specific news and events that affect stock prices, (law
of portfolio diversification) and reflect the overall performance of the
company/equity market and the news affecting it. The most important use of an
equity market index is as a benchmark for a portfolio of stocks. All diversified
portfolios, belonging either to retail investors or mutual funds, use the common

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stock index as a yardstick for their returns. Indices are useful in modern
financial application of derivatives.
Capital Market Instruments some of the capital market instruments are:

Equity

CORPORATE SECURITIES
SHARES
The total capital of a company may be divided into small units called shares.
For example, if the required capital of a company is US $5,00,000 and is
divided into 50,000 units of US $10 each, each unit is called a share of face
value US $10. A share may be of any face value depending upon the capital
required and the number of shares into which it is divided. The holders of the
shares are called share holders. The shares can be purchased or sold only in
integral multiples. Equity shares signify ownership in a corporation and
represent claim over the financial assets and earnings of the corporation.
Shareholders enjoy voting rights and the right to receive dividends; however in
case of liquidation they will receive residuals, after all the creditors of the
company are settled in full. A company may invite investors to subscribe for the
shares by the way of:
Public issue through prospectus
Tender/ book building process
Offer for sale
Placement method

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Rights issue

STOCKS
The word stock refers to the old English law tradition where a share in the
capital of the company was not divided into shares of fixed denomination but
was issued as one chunk. This concept is no more prevalent, but the word
stock continues. The word joint stock companies also refers to this
tradition.

DEBT INSTRUMENTS
A contractual arrangement in which the issuer agrees to pay interest and repay
the
Borrowed amount after a specified period of time is a debt instrument. Certain
features
Common to all debt instruments are:
Maturity the number of years over which the issuer agrees to meet the
contractual obligations is the term to maturity. Debt instruments are classified
on the basis of the time remaining to maturity
Par value the face value or principal value of the debt instrument is called
the par value.
Coupon rate agreed rate of interest that is paid periodically to the investor
and is calculated as a percentage of the face value. Some of the debt instruments
may not have an explicit coupon rate, for instance zero coupon bonds. These

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bonds are issued on discount and redeemed at par. Thus the difference between
the investors investment and return is the interest earned. Coupon rates may be
fixed for the term or may be variable.
Call option option available to the issuer, specified in the trust indenture,
to call
in the bonds and repay them at pre-determined price before maturity. Call
feature acts like a ceiling f or payments. The issuer may call the bonds before
the stated maturity as it may recognize that the interest rates may fall below the
coupon rate and redeeming the bonds and replacing them with securities of
lower coupon rates will be economically beneficial. It is the same as the
prepayment option, where the borrower prepays before scheduled payments or
slated maturity of Some bonds are issued with call protection feature, i.e. they
would not be called for a specified period of time o Similar to the call option of
the issuer there is a put option for the investor, to sell the securities back to the
issuer at a predetermined price and date. The investor may do so anticipating
rise in the interest rates wherein the investor would liquidate the funds and
alternatively invest in place of higher interest
Refunding provisions in case where the issuer may not have cash to
redeem the
debt instruments the issuer may issue new debt instrument and use the proceeds
to repay the securities or to exercise the call option. Debt instruments may be of
various kinds depending on the repayment:

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Bullet payment instruments where the issuer agrees to repay the entire
amount
at the maturity date, i.e. lump sum payment is called bullet payment
Sinking fund payment instruments where the issuer agrees to retire a
specified portion of the debt each year is called sinking fund requirement
Amortization instruments where there are scheduled principal repayments
before maturity date are called amortizing instruments

Debentures/ Bonds
The term Debenture is derived from the Latin word debere which means to
owe a Debt. A debenture is an acknowledgment of debt, taken either from the
public or a particular source. A debenture may be viewed as a loan, represented
as marketable security. The word bond may be used interchangeably with
debentures. Debt instruments with maturity more than 5 years are called bonds

Yields
Most common method of calculating the yields on debt instrument is the yield
to maturity method, the formula is as under: YTM = coupon rate + prorated
discount (face value + purchase price)/2

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Main differences between shares and debentures

Share money forms a part of the capital of the company. The shareholders are
part proprietors of the company, whereas debentures are mere debt, and
debenture holders are just creditors.
Shareholders get dividend only out of profits and in case of insufficient or no
profits they get nothing and debenture holders being creditors get guaranteed
interest, as agreed, whether the company makes profit or not.
Shareholders are paid after the debenture holders are paid their due first
The dividend on shares depends upon the profit of the company but the
interest on debentures is very well fixed at the time of issue itself.
Shares are not to be paid back by the company whereas debentures have to be
paid back at the end of a fixed period.
In case the company is wound up, the shareholders may lose a part or full of
their capital but he debenture holders invariably get back their investment.
Investment in shares is riskier, as it represents residual interest in the company.
Debenture, being debt, is senior.
Debentures are quite often secured, that is, a security interest is created on
some assets to back up debentures. There is no question of any security in case
of shares.
Shareholders have a right to attend and vote at the meetings of the
shareholders whereas debenture holders have no such rights.

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DERIVATIVES
What are derivatives? A derivative picks a risk or volatility in a financial asset,
transaction, market rate, or contingency, and creates a product the value of
which will
change as per changes in the underlying risk or volatility. The idea is that
someone may
either try to safeguard against such risk (hedging), or someone may take the
risk, or may engage in a trade on the derivative, based on the view that they
want to execute. The risk that a derivative intends to trade is called underlying.
A derivative is a financial instrument, whose value depends on the values of
basic underlying variable. In the sense, derivatives is a financial instrument that
offers return based on the return of some other underlying asset, i.e the return is
derived from another instrument. The best way will be take examples of
uncertainties and the derivatives that can be structured around the same.
Stock prices are uncertain - Lot of forwards, options or futures contracts are
based on movements in prices of individual stocks or groups of stocks.
Prices of commodities are uncertain - There are forwards, futures and
options on commodities.
Interest rates are uncertain - There are interest rate swaps and futures.
Foreign exchange rates are uncertain - There are exchange rate derivatives.
Weather is uncertain - There are weather derivatives, and so on.

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Derivative products initially emerged as a hedging device against fluctuations in

commodity prices, and commodity linked derivatives remained the sole form of
such products for almost three hundred years. It was primarily used by the
farmers to protect
Themselves against fluctuations in the price of their crops. From the time it was
sown to the time it was ready for harvest, farmers would face price
uncertainties. Through the use of simple derivative products, it was possible for
the farmers to partially or fully transfer price risks by locking in asset prices.
From hedging devices, derivatives have grown as major trading tool. Traders
may execute their views on various underlying by going long or short on
derivatives of different types.

DERIVATIVES PRODUCTS
Some significant derivatives that are of interest to us are depicted in the
accompanying graph:
Major types of derivatives
Derivative contracts have several variants. Depending upon the market in which
they are traded, derivatives are classified as 1) exchange traded and 2) over the
counter.
The most common variants are forwards, futures, options and swaps.

Forwards:
A forward contract is a customized contract between two entities, where
settlement takes place as a specific date in the future at todays predetermined

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price. Ex: On 1st June, X enters into an agreement to buy 50 bales of cotton for
1stDecember at Rs.1000 per bale from Y, a cotton dealer. It is a case of a forward
contract where X has to pay Rs.50000 on 1st December to Y and Y has to
supply 50 bales of cotton.

Options:
Options are of two types call and put. Calls give the buyer the right but not the
obligation to buy a given quantity of the underlying asset, at a given price on or
before a given future date. Puts give the buyer the right, but not the obligation to
sell a given
quantity of the underlying asset at a given price on or before a given date.

Warrants:
Options generally have maturity period of three months, majority of options that
are traded on exchanges have maximum maturity of nine months. Longer-traded
options are called warrants and are generally traded over-the-counter.

Leaps:
The acronym LEAPS means Long-term Equity Anticipation Securities. These
are options having a maturity of up to three years.

Baskets:
Basket Options are currency-protected options and its return-profile is based on
the average performance of a pre-set basket of underlying assets. The basket can

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be interest rate, equity or commodity related. A basket of options is made by

purchasing different options. The payout is therefore the addition of each
individual option payout

Swaps:
Swaps are private agreement between two parties to exchange cash flows in the
future according to a pre-arranged formula. They can be regarded as portfolio of
forward contracts. The two commonly used Swaps are
i) Interest Rate Swaps: - A interest rate swap entails swapping only the interest
related cash flows between the parties in the same currency.
ii) Currency Swaps: -A currency swap is a foreign exchange agreement
between two parties to exchange a given amount of one currency for another
and after a specified period of time, to give back the original amount swapped.

FUTURES, FORWARDS AND OPTIONS

An option is different from futures in several ways. At practical level, the option
buyer faces an interesting situation. He pays for the options in full at the time it
is purchased. After this, he only has an upside. There is no possibility of the
options position generating any further losses to him. This is different from
futures, where one is free to enter, but can generate huge losses. This

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characteristic makes options attractive to many market participants who trade

occasionally, who cannot put in the time to closely monitor their futures
position. Buying put options is like buying insurance. To buy a put option on
Nifty is to buy insurance which reimburses the full amount to which Nifty drops
below the strike price of the put option. This is attractive to traders, and to
mutual funds creating guaranteed return products.

FORWARDS
A forward contract is an agreement to buy or sell an asset on a specified date for
a specified price. One of the parties to the contract assumes a long position and
agrees to buy the underlying asset on a certain specified future date for a certain
specified price. The other party assumes a short position and agrees to sell the
asset on the same date for the same price, other contract details like delivery
date, price and quantity are negotiated bilaterally by the parties to the contract.
The forward contracts are normally traded outside the exchange.
The salient features of forward contracts are:
1. They are bilateral contracts and hence exposed to counter-party risk
2. Each contract is custom designed, and hence is unique in terms of
contract size,
3. expiration date and the asset type and quality.
4. The contract price is generally not available in public domain
5. On the expiration date, the contract has to be settled by delivery of the
asset, or net settlement.
The forward markets face certain limitations such as:

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Lack of centralization of trading

Illiquidity and
Counterparty risk

FUTURES
Futures contract is a standardized transaction taking place on the futures
exchange. Futures market was designed to solve the problems that exist in
forward market. A futures contract is an agreement between two parties, to buy
or sell an asset at a certain time in the future at a certain price, but unlike
forward contracts, the futures contract are standardized and exchange traded To
facilitate liquidity in the futures contracts, the exchange specifies certain
standard quantity and quality of the underlying instrument that can be delivered,
and a standard time for such a settlement. Futuresexchange has a division or
subsidiary called a clearing house that performs the specific responsibilities of
paying and collecting daily gains and losses as well as guaranteeing
performance of one party to other. A futures' contract can be offset prior to
maturity by entering into an equal and opposite transaction. More than 99% of
futures transactions are offset this way. Yet another feature is that in a futures
contract gains and losses on each partys position is credited or charged on a
daily basis, this process is called daily settlement or marking to market. Any
person entering into a futures contract assumes a long or short position, by a
small amount to the clearing house called the margin money
The standardized items in a futures contract are:
Quantity of the underlying

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Quality of the underlying

The date and month of delivery
The units of price quotation and minimum price change
Location of settlement

Stock futures contract

It is a contractual agreement to trade in stock/ shares of a company on a future
date. Some of the basic things in a futures trade as specified by the exchange
are:
Contract size
Expiration cycle
Trading hours
Last trading day
Margin requirement
Advantages of stock futures trading
Investing in futures is less costly as there is only initial margin money to be
deposited
A large array of strategies can be used to hedge and speculate, with smaller
cash outlay there is greater liquidity
Disadvantages of stock futures trading
The risk of losses is greater than the initial investment of margin money

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The futures contract does not give ownership or voting rights in the equity in
which it is trading
There is greater vigilance required because futures trades are marked to market
daily

INDEX DERIVATIVES
Index derivatives are derivative contracts that has index as the underlying. The
most popular index derivatives contract is index futures and index options.
NSEs market index - the S&P CNX Nifty are examples of exchange traded
index futures. An index is a broad-based weighted average of prices of selected
constituents that form part of the index. The rules for construction of the index
are defined by the body that creates the index. Trading in stock index futures
was first introduced by the Kansas City Board of Trade in 1982.
Advantages of investing in stock index futures
Diversification of the risks as the investor is not investing in a particular stock
Flexibility of changing the portfolio and adjusting the exposures to particular
stock index, market or industry

OPTIONS
An option is a contract, or a provision of a contract, that gives one party (the
option holder) the right, but not the obligation, to perform a specified
transaction with another party (the option issuer or option writer) according to
the specified terms. The owner of a property might sell another party an option
to purchase the property any time during the next three months at a specified

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price. For every buyer of an option there must be a seller. The seller is often
referred to as the writer. As with futures, options are brought into existence by
being traded, if none is traded, none exists; conversely, there is no limit to the
number of option contracts that can be in existence at any time. As with futures,
the process of closing out options positions will cause contracts to cease to
exist, diminishing the total number. Thus an option is the right to buy or sell a
specified amount of a financial instrument at a pre-arranged price on or before a
particular date.
There are two options which can be exercised:
Call option, the right to buy is referred to as a call option.
Put option, the right to sell is referred as a put option.

Factors affecting value of options you would understand this while using
the
Valuation techniques, but the terms are introduced below:
Price value of the call option is directly proportionate to the change in the
price of the underlying. Say for example
Time as options expire in future, time has an effect on the value of the
options.
Interest rates and Volatility in case where the underlying asset is a bond or
interest rate, interest rate volatility would have an impact on the option prices.
The statistical or historical volatility (SV) helps measure the past price
movements of the stock and helps in understanding the future volatility of the
stock during the life of the option

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Commodity Derivatives
Commodity Derivatives are the first of the derivatives contracts that emerged to
hedge against the risk of the value of the agricultural crops going below the cost
of production. Chicago Board of Trade was the first organized exchange,
established in 1848 to have started trading in various commodities. Chicago
Board of Trade and Chicago Mercantile Exchange are the largest commodities
exchanges in the world It is important to understand the attributes necessary in a
commodity derivative contract:
a) Commodity should have a high shelf life only if the commodity has
storability durability will the carriers of the stock feel the need for hedging
against the pricerisks or price fluctuations involved
b) Units should be homogenous the underlying commodity as defined in the
commodity derivative contract should be the same as traded in the cash market
to facilitate actual delivery in the cash market. Thus the units of the commodity
should be homogenous
c) Wide and frequent fluctuations in the commodity prices if the price
fluctuations in the cash market are small, people would feel less incentivised to
hedge or insure against the price fluctuations and derivatives market would be
of no significance. Also if by the inherent attributes of the cash market of the
commodity, the cash market of the commodity was such that it would eliminate
the risks of volatility or price fluctuations, derivatives market would be of no

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significance. Taking an oversimplified example, if an investor had purchased

100tons of rice @ Rs. 10/ kg in the cash market and is of the view that the
prices may fall in the future, he may short a rice future at Rs. 10/ kg to hedge
against the fallin prices. Now if the prices fall to Rs. 2/ kg, the loss that the
investor makes in the cash market may be compensated by squaring of the short
position thus seliminating the risk of price fluctuations in the commodity market
Commodity derivative contracts are standardized contracts and are traded as per
the investors needs. The needs of the investor may be instrumental or
convenience, depending upon the needs, the investor would trade in a derivative
product. Instrumental risks would relate to price risk reduction and convenience
needs would relate to flexibility in trade or efficient clearing process.

Commodity Derivatives in India

Commodity derivatives in India were established by the Cotton Trade
Association in1875, since then the market has suffered from liquidity problems
and several regulatory. However in the recent times the commodity trade has
grown significantly and today there are 25 derivatives exchanges in India which
include four national commodity exchanges; National Commodity and
Derivatives Exchange (NCDEX), National Multi Commodity Exchange of India
(NCME), National Board of Trade (NBOT) and MultiCommodity Exchange
(MCX)

NCDEX

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It is the largest commodity derivatives exchange in India and is the only

commodity exchange promoted by national level institutions. NCDEX was
incorporated in 2003 under the Companies Act, 1956 and is regulated by the
Forward Market Commission in respect of the futures trading in commodities.
NCDEX is located in Mumbai
MCX
MCX is recognized by the government of India and is amongst the worlds top
three bullion exchanges and top four energy exchanges. MCXs headquarter is
in Mumbai and facilitates online trading, clearing and settlement operations for
the commodities futures market in the country.

Over the Counter Derivatives (OTC Derivatives)

Derivatives that are privately negotiated and not traded on the stock exchange
are called OTC Derivatives.

Interest Rate Derivatives (IRD)

In the OTC derivatives segment, interest rate derivatives (IRDs) are easily the
largest and therefore the most significant globally. In markets with complex risk
exposures and high volatility Interest Rate Derivatives are an effective tool for
management of financial risks. In IRDs, the parties are trying to trade in the
volatility of interest rates. Interest rates affect a whole spectrum of financial
assets loans, bonds, fixed income securities, government treasuries, and so on.
In fact, changes in interest rates have major macroeconomic implications for

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various economic parameters exchange rates, state of the economy, and

thereby, the entire spectrum of the financial sector.

Definition of IRDs
Interest Rate Derivatives (IRD) are derivatives where the underlying risk
interest rates. Hence, depending on the type of the transaction, parties either
swap interest at a fixed or floating rate on a notional amount, or trade in interest
rate futures, or engage in forward rate agreements. As in case of all derivatives,
the contract is mostly settled by net settlement, that is payment of difference
amount.

Types:
The basic IRDs are simple and mostly liquid and are called vanilla products,
whereasderivatives belonging to the least liquid category are termed as exotic
interest rate derivatives. Some vanilla products are:
1) Interest Rate Swaps
2) Interest Rate Futures
3) Forward Rate Agreements
4) Interest rate caps/floors

Interest Rate Swaps These are derivatives where one party exchanges or
swaps the fixed or the floating rates of interest with the other party. The interest
rates are calculatedon the notional principal amount which is not exchanged but
used to determine thequantum of cash flow in the transaction. Interest rate

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swaps are typically used bycorporations to typically alter the exposure to

fluctuations on interest rates by swappingfixed rate obligations for floating and
vice-a-versa or to obtain lower rates of interest thanotherwise available.Interest
rate swaps can be a) fixed-for-fixed rate swap, b) fixed-for-floating rate swap,
c)floating-for-floating rate swap and so on. As the names suggest interest rates
are beingswapped, either in the same currency or different currency and there
could be as manycustomized variations of the swaps, as desired.This can be
further explained simply. For instance if there are two borrowers in themarket
where Borrower A has borrowed at a fixed rate but wants a floating rate
ofinterest and Borrower B has borrowed with floating and wants a fixed rate of
interest.
Such a scenario they can swap their existing interest rates without any further
borrowing.This would make the transaction of the two borrowers independent
of the underlyingborrowings. For instance if a company has investments with a
floating rate of interest of4.7% and can obtain fixed interest rate of 4.5% then
the company may enter into a fixedfor-floating swap and earn a profit of 20
basis points.

Forward Rate Agreements (FRAs) These are cash settled forward

contracts on interest rate traded among international banks active in the
Eurodollar market.These are contracts between two parties where the interest
rates are to be paid/ receivedon an obligation at a future date. The rate of
interest, notional amount and expiry date isfixed at the time of entering the
contract and only difference in the amount is paid/received at the end of the

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period. The principal is called notional because while itdetermines the amount
of payment, actual exchange of principal never takes place. Forinstance if A
enters an FRA with B and receives a fixed rate of interest say 6% onprincipal,
say P for three years and B receives floating rate on P. If at the end of
contractperiod of C the LIBOR rate is 6.5% then A will make a payment of the
differentialamount, (that is .5% on the principal P) to B. The settlement
mechanism can be furtherexplained as follows:For instance at a notional
principal of USD 1 million where the borrower buys an FRAfor 3 months that
carries an interest rate of 6% and the contract run is 6 months. At thesettlement
date the settlement rate is at 6.5%. Then the settlement amount will becalculated
in the following manner:Settlement amount = [(Difference between settlement
rate and agreed rate)*contract run* principal amount]/[(36,000 or 36500) +
(settlement rate*contract period) That is, in the above problemSettlement
amount = [(6.5-6)*180*USD 1 million]/[36,000 + (6.5%* 90)(Note: 36,000 is
used for currencies where the basis of calculation is actual/360days and 36,500
is used for currencies where the basis of calculation of interest isactual/365
days)

Interest Rate Caps/Floors:Interest rate caps/floors are basically hedging

instruments that can give the investor both benefits of fixed rate interest and
fluctuating rate interest.The person providing an interest rate cap is the
protection seller. The seller assures the borrower or the buyer that in case of
high volatility in the interest rates, if interest ratemoves beyond the cap the
borrower will be paid amount beyond the cap. In case themarket rates do not go

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beyond the cap limit, the seller need not pay anything to theborrower. In such a
situation as long as the interest rates are within the cap limit borrowerenjoys the
floating rates and if rates move above the cap limit he will be compensatedwith
the requisite amount by the protection seller and the borrower will pay fixed to
thecapped rate of interest. The same is the case when a person enters a Interest
Rate Floor transaction. In case of Interest Rate Cap transaction the borrower is
expects the market interest rates to go up in the future and hedge against the
movement of the market rates. Interest Rate Caps/Floors transactions are ideally
of one, two, five or ten years and the desired level of protection the buyer seeks
are 6%, 8% or 10%.

FACTORS AFFECTING CAPITAL MARKET IN INDIA

The capital market is affected by a range of factors. Some of the factors which
influence capital market are as follows:A. Performance of domestic companies:The performance of the companies or rather corporate earnings is one of the
factors which has direct impact or effect on capital market in a country. Weak
corporate earnings indicate that the demand for goods and services in the
economy is less due to slow growth in per capita income of people . Because of
slow growth indemand there is slow growth in employment which means slow
growth in demand in the near future. Thus weak corporate earnings indicate
average or not so good prospects for the economy as a whole in the near term.

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In such a scenario the investors ( both domestic as well as foreign ) would be

wary to invest in the capital market and thus there is bear market like situation.
The opposite case of it would be robust corporate earnings and its positive
impact on the capital market. The corporate earnings for the April June quarter
for the current fiscal has been good. The companies like TCS, Infosys,Maruti
Suzuki, Bharti Airtel, ACC, ITC, Wipro,HDFC,Binani cement, IDEA, Marico
Canara Bank, Piramal Health, India cements , Ultra Tech, L&T, Coca- Cola, Yes
Bank, Dr. Reddys Laboratories, Oriental Bank of Commerce, Ranbaxy, Fortis,
Shree Cement ,etc have registered growth in net profit compared to the
corresponding quarter a year
ago. Thus we see companies from Infrastructure sector, Financial Services,
Pharmaceutical sector, IT Sector, Automobile sector, etc. doing well . This
across the sector growth indicates that the Indian economy is on the path of
recovery which has been positively reflected in the stockmarket( rise in sensex
& nifty) in the last two weeks. (July 13-July 24).
B) Environmental Factors:Environmental Factor in Indias context primarily means- Monsoon. In India
around 60 % of agricultural production is dependent on monsoon. Thus there is
heavy dependence on monsoon. The major chunk of agricultural production
comes from the states of Punjab, Haryana & Uttar Pradesh. Thus deficient or
delayed monsoon in this part of the country would directly affect the
agricultural output in the country. Apart from monsoon other natural calamities
like Floods, tsunami, drought, earthquake, etc. also have an impact on the

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capital market of a country. The Indian Met Department (IMD) on 24th June
stated that India would receive only 93 % rainfall of Long Period Average
(LPA). This piece of news directly had an impact on Indian capital market with
BSE Sensex falling by 0.5 % on the 25th June. The major losers were
automakers and consumer goods firms since the below normal monsoon
forecast triggered concerns that demand in the crucial rural heartland would take
a hit. This is because a deficient monsoon could seriously squeeze rural
incomes, reduce the demand for everything from motorbikes to soaps and
worsen a slowing economy.
C) Macro Economic Numbers:The macroeconomic numbers also influence the capital market. It includes
Index of Industrial Production (IIP) which is released every month, annual
Inflation number indicated by Wholesale Price Index (WPI) which is released
every week, Export Import numbers which are declared every month, Core
Industries growth rate (It includes Six Core infrastructure industries Coal,
Crude oil, refining, power, cement and finished steel) which comes out every
month, etc. This macro economic indicators indicate the state of the economy
and the direction in which the economy is headed and therefore impacts the
capital market in India. A case in the point was declaration of core industries
growth figure. The six Core Infrastructure Industries Coal, Crude oil, refining,
finished steel, power & cement grew 6.5% in June , this figure came on the
23rd of July and had a positive impact on the capital market with the Sensex and
nifty rising by 388 points & 125 points respectively.

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D) Global Cues:In this world of globalization various economies are interdependent and
interconnected. An event in one part of the world is bound to affect other parts
of the world, however the magnitude and intensity of impact would vary. Thus
capital market in India is also affected by developments in other parts of the
world i.e. U.S, Europe, Japan , etc. Global cues includes corporate earnings of
MNCs, consumer confidence index in developed countries, jobless claims in
developed countries, global growth outlook given by various agencies like IMF,
economic growth of major economies, price of crude oil, credit rating of
various economies given by Moodys, S & P, etc An obvious example at this
point in time would be that of subprime crisis & recession. Recession started in
U.S. and some parts of the Europe in early 2008 .Since then it has impacted
all the countries of the world- developed, developing, less- developed and even
emerging economies.
E) Political stability and government policies:For any economy to achieve and sustain growth it has to have political stability
and pro- growth government policies. This is because when there is political
stability there is stability and consistency in governments attitude which is
communicated through various government policies. The vice- versa is the case
when there is no political stability .So capital market also reacts to the nature of
government, attitude of government, and various policies of the government.
The above statement can be substantiated by the fact the when the mandate

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came in UPA governments favor ( Without the baggage of left party) on May
16 2009, the stock markets on Monday , 18th May had a bullish rally with
Sensex closing 800 point higher over the previous days close. The reason was
political stability. Also without the baggage of left party government can go
ahead with reforms.
F) Growth prospectus of an economy:When the national income of the country increases and per capita income of
people increases it is said that the economy is growing. Higher income also
means higher expenditure and higher savings. This augurs well for the economy
as higher expenditure means higher demand and higher savings means higher
investment. Thus when an economy is growing at a good pace capital market of
the country attracts more money from investors, both from within and outside
the country and vice -versa. So we can say that growth prospects of an economy
do have an impact on capital markets.
G) Investor Sentiment and risk appetite:Another factor which influences capital market is investor sentiment and their
ris appetite .Even if the investors have the money to invest but if they are not
confident about the returns from their investment , they may stay away from
investment for some time.At the same time if the investors have low risk
appetite , which they were having in global and Indian capital market some four
to five months back due to global financial meltdown and recessionary situation

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in U.S. & some parts of Europe , they may stay away from investment and wait
for the right time to come.

CAPITAL MARKET EFFICIENCY

An efficient capital market is a market where the share prices reflect new
information
accurately and in real time. Capital market efficiency is judged by its success in
incorporating and inducting information, generally about the basic value of
securities, into the price of securities. This basic or fundamental value of
securities is the present value of the cash flows expected in the future by the
person owning the securities. The fluctuation in the value of stocks encourage
traders to trade in a competitive manner with the objective of maximum profit.
This results in price movements towards the current value of the cash flows in
the future. The information is very easily available at cheap rates because of the
presence of organized markets and various technological innovations. An
efficient capital market incorporates information quickly and accurately into the
prices of securities.In the weak-form efficient capital market, information about
the history of previous returns and prices are reflected fully in the security
prices; the returns from stocks in this type of market are unpredictable. In the
semi strong-form efficient market, the public information is completely
reflected in

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security prices; in this market, those traders who have non-public information
access can earn excess profits. In the strong-form efficient market, under no
circumstances can investors earn excess profits because all of the information is
incorporated into the security prices. The funds that are flowing in capital
markets, from savers to the firms with the aim of financing projects, must flow
into the best and top valued projects and, therefore, informational efficiency is
of supreme importance. Stocks must be efficiently priced, because if the
securities are priced accurately, then those investors who do not have time for
market analysis would feel confident about making investments in the capital
market. Eugene Fama was one of the earliest to theorize capital market
efficiency, but empirical tests of capital market efficiency had begun even
before that.
Efficient-market hypothesis
In finance, the efficient-market hypothesis (EMH) asserts that financial
markets are "Informationally efficient". That is, one cannot consistently achieve
returns in excess of average market returns on a risk-adjusted basis, given the
information publicly available at the time the investment is made. There are
three major versions of the hypothesis: "weak", "semi-strong", and "strong".
Weak EMH claims that prices on traded assets (e.g., stocks, bonds, or property)
already reflect all past publicly available information. Semi-strong EMH claims
both that prices reflect all publicly available information and that prices
instantly change to reflect new public information. Strong EMH additionally
claims that prices instantly reflect even hidden or "insider" information. There is

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evidence for and against the weak and semi-strong EMHs, while there is
powerful evidence against strong EMH. The validity of the hypothesis has been
questioned by critics who blame the belief in rational markets for much of the
financial crisis of 20072010. Defenders of the EMH caution that conflating
market stability with the EMH is unwarranted; when publicly available
information is unstable, the market can be just as unstable.

Historical background
The efficient-market hypothesis was first expressed by Louis Bachelor, a French
mathematician, in his 1900 dissertation, "The Theory of Speculation". His work
was largely ignored until the 1950s; however beginning in the 30s scattered,
independent work corroborated his thesis. A small number of studies indicated
that US stock prices and related financial series followed a random walk model.
[5] Research by Alfred Cowles in the 30s and 40s suggested that professional
investors were in general unable to outperform the market. The efficient-market
hypothesis was developed by Professor Eugene Fama at the University of
Chicago Booth School of Business as an academic concept of study through his
published Ph.D. thesis in the early 1960s at the same school. It was widely
accepted up until the 1990s, when behavioral finance economists, who were a
fringe element, became mainstream. Empirical analyses have consistently found
problems with the efficient-market hypothesis, the most consistent being that
stocks with low price to earnings (and similarly, low price to cash-flow or book
value) outperform other stocks. Alternative theories have proposed that
cognitive biases cause these inefficiencies, leading investors to purchase

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overpriced growth stocks rather than value stocks. Although the efficient-market
hypothesis has become controversial because substantial and lasting
inefficiencies are observed, Beechey et al. (2000) consider that it remains a
worthwhile starting point. The efficient-market hypothesis emerged as a
prominent theory in the mid-1960s. Paul Samuelson had begun to circulate
Bachelier's work among economists. In 1964 Bachelier's dissertation along with
the empirical studies mentioned above were published in an anthology edited by
Paul Cootner. In 1965 Eugene Fama published his dissertation arguing for the
random walk hypothesis, and Samuelson published a proof for a version of the
efficient-market hypothesis. In 1970 Fama published a review of both the theory
and the evidence for the hypothesis. The paper extended and refined the theory,
included the definitions for three forms of financial market efficiency: weak,
semi-strong and strong (see below). Further to this evidence that the UK stock
market is weak-form efficient, other studies of capital markets have pointed
toward their being semi-strong-form efficient. A study by Khan of thegrain
futures market indicated semi-strong form efficiency following the release of
large trader position information (Khan, 1986). Studies by Firth (1976, 1979,
and 1980) in the United Kingdom have compared the share prices existing after
a takeover announcement with the bid offer. Firth found that the share prices
were fully and instantaneously adjusted to their correct levels, thus concluding
that the UK stock market was semi-strong-form efficient. However, the market's
ability to efficiently respond to a short term, widely publicized event such as a
takeover announcement does not necessarily prove market efficiency related to
other more long term, amorphous factors. David Dreman has criticized the

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evidence provided by this instant "efficient" response, pointing out that an

immediate response is not necessarily efficient, and that the longterm
performance of the stock in response to certain movements is better indications.
A study on stocks response to dividend cuts or increases over three years found
that after an announcement of a dividend cut, stocks underperformed the market
by 15.3% for the three-year period, while stocks outperformed 24.8% for the
three years afterward after a dividend increase announcement.
RISK V/S. RETURN

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem.
Itmay be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Research Design is a arrangement of the conditions for collection and analysis
of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
the economy in procedure. The research problem having been formulated in
clear cut terms helps the researcher to prepare a research design. The
preparation of such a design facilities in conducting it in efficient manner as
possible. As the aim of the research in this project is to find the reasons behind
starting of regional stock exchanges, their growth and downfall. Diagnostic
Research aims at determining the frequency with which something occurs or its
association with something else.

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DATA COLLECTION: -The data will be collected by both primary as well

as :-secondary sources.
PRIMARY DATA-:Primary data which are collected afresh and happens to be
actual in character. So, the Structured Interviewed Method will be used for
collection of primary data by visiting various brokers and professionals.
SECONDARY DATA Secondary data refers to the information, which has already
been collected. So, the sources of secondary information will include various
newspapers, magazines, journals, books and internet etc.

SAMPLING DESIGN:A Sample Design is a definite plan for obtaining a

sample from a givenpopulation. It refers to the technique or procedure, the
researcher would adopt inselecting items from a sample and is determined before
data are collected.

SAMPLE SIZE
Sample size refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. Due to constraints like time and money, the sample size
selected for the research is twenty five brokers and professional etc.

SAMPLING DESIGN
Data has been presented with the help of bar graph,pie charts,line graphs etc

SAMPLING PLANNING

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Sampling plan is a technique for obtaining the sample from given population
probability sampling method is selected,under which everyitem in the universe has
an equal chance the probability sampling used in the project will be Simple
Random Sampling.

LIMITATION OF STUDY
Some of the person were not so responsive.
Possibility of error in data collection because many of investors may have not given
actual answers of my questionnaire.
Sample size is limited to 25 members of brokers and professional.

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Chapter-3

EMTEC SOFTWARE INDIA PRIVATE LIMITED

ADDRESS: EMTEC SOFTWARE INDIA PVT LTD

#56 Sai Arcade, First Floor Marthahalli Outer Ring Road Bangalore560103

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HEAD OFFICE: NEW JERSEY

LOGO

HISTORY:Emtec, established in 1964, provides technology-empowered

business solutions for world-class organizations in the enterprise, federal, state,
and local government, and education markets. With offices in 14 cities in the
U.S., Canada, and India, Emtec is big enough to address our client needs but
small enough to care. Our local offices, highly-skilled associates, and global
delivery capabilities ensure the accessibility and scale to align clients
technology solutions with their business needs. Emtecs singular mission is to
create Clients for life - long-term relationships that deliver rapid, meaningful,
and lasting business value. Our offerings span the entire IT lifecycle:
from Consulting through Packaged, Custom and Cloud Applications as well as a
variety of Infrastructure Services.
The EMTEC brand was launched from a company steeped in history and
experience. BASF, the inventor of the first magnetic tape for audio recording,

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was a pioneer in the media industry.

In the late nineties, after years of

innovations in the production of consumer tape products, including audiocassettes, floppy discs and video-cassettes, BASF magnetic became EMTEC
magnetic.
Turning the companys focus to mobile storage products, the EMTEC brand
became a huge success in Europe, symbolized by the powerful red spiral logo.
By 2006, EMTEC had produced the number- one selling brand of flash drives in
France and the number-three selling brand of flash drives in Europe for five
years and counting. Today, EMTEC is distributed in over 50 countries and
prides itself on a 75 year history of creating innovative products that embody
the human spirit to preserve, protect, and share the most valuable moments of
daily life. Whatever the technology or the media, EMTEC commits to providing
hassle-free, creative and stylish solutions that make technology easy to use and
serve our customers memories, ideas and emotions.

VISION: To become a leading ICT solution provider in the region.

MISSION: The unique expertise and diverse technology that Emtec brings
to the table combined with their proven track record for success made it a very
easy choice to continue our relationship

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PRODUCTS

MOVIE CUBE

HARD DRIVES

MP3 PLAYERS

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USB FLASH

MEMORY CARDS

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ACC
ESSORIES

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RECOR
DING MEDIA

SERVICES

Consulting services
Packaged applications
Cloud technologies
Application outsourcing
Infrastructure services

Emtec provides a broad array of professional services to suit the needs of our
clients. Organized around five practice areas Consulting, Package and
Custom Application Services, Cloud, and Infrastructure Emtec specializes in
helping world-class organizations leverage technology to achieve business

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objectives. With an average of 15 years experience, our consultants bring real

world experience, critical thinking, and a passion for client success to every
engagement

DEPARTMENTS OF THE COMPANY

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FINANCIAL AND
ACCOUNTING
SALES AND
MARKETING

HUMAN CAPITAL
MANAGEMENT

OUTSOURCING
ORGANISATIONSTRUCTURE

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CEO
DIRECTOR
PRESIDENT
CHAIRMAN
CO-CHAIRMAN
CHIEF EXECUTIVE
OFFICER
CHIEF OPERATING
OFFICER
COMPETITORS
IBM
HP
DELL

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CLIENT FOR LIFE

Emtecs track record ofsuccess demonstrates our vast IT and domain expertise
across a broad range of sectors We have demonstrated experience serving
commercial clients in numerous industries, including financial services,
marketing, retail, manufacturing, healthcare and gaming. In the Public Sector,
we offer specific services and solutions geared toward education, state and local
governments and US & Canadian federal governments as well as not-for-profit
organizations. We deliver on our commitments. Our rich legacy and multidecade client relationships demonstrate our commitment to the success of our
clients.

LATEST THINKINGWe are extremely proud of our consultants and the

work we have done over the years. Emtec offers our insights, thoughts on
trends, what we have learned, and our past successes with you. We are
passionate about what we do and are happy to share it.
Scroll through articles and interviews where our associates have been
highlighted. Download our white papers to gain insights on the technologies,
tools and methodologies we use every day. Browse through our recent work to
learn about our many projects and satisfied clients. Lastly, subscribe to our blog
to get the latest practical insights on tools, technologies, methodologies and the
latest trends from our experienced team of consultants.

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Emtec is committed to assisting its clients in empowering IT into an investment

that delivers true value to their respective organizations. Our Executive Team
includes world-leading experts in IT strategy, implementation, management, and
support. True engagement with management is Emtecs core value. Our clients
ability to access decision makers at all levels ensures the necessary flexibility
and critical alignment to make projects successful. Our global team of
consultants, engineers, deployment and integration specialists, training and
support personnel stay ahead of the curve through a continuous and rigorous
program of education, certification, and training. Our rewarding culture results
in highly committed, experienced, and motivated associates who have solved
client problems before. And our partnership strategies ensure that our solutions
integrate the most appropriate IT products and systems - whether proven
performers or state-of-the-art innovations.

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