Main components of the tube head

The glass X-ray tube

The step-up transformer
The step-down transformer
A surrounding lead shield
Surrounding oil
Aluminium filtration
The Collimator
The spacer cone or beam-indicating device (BID)

Focal spot size and the principle of line

focus

X-ray equipment, films and

processing

X-ray generating equipment

Image receptors
Processing facilities

Main components of the control panel

The main on/of switch and warning lights
The timer
An exposure time selectors
Warning lights and audible signals

Circuitry and tube voltage

To generate the high potential difference (kV) to

accelerate the electrons across the X-ray tube via the

step-up transformer
To provide the low voltage current to heat the tube

filament via the step-down transformer

Rectified circuits
Definition-electrical device which converts alternating

current to direct current

Half-wave rectified
Single-phase, full-wave rectified
Three-phase, full-wave rectified
Constant potential

Diagrams of rectified circuits

Advantages of constant potential circuitry

X-ray production per unit time is more efficient
More high-energy, diagnostically useful photons are

produced per exposure

Fewer low energy, harmful photons are produced
Shorter exposure times are possible

Image receptors
Direct action
Indirect- action

Direct-action (non-screen) films

Uses
Sizes
31/41 mm for periapicals
22/35 mm for bitewings
57/76 mm for occlusals

The film packet contents

Outer packet
Black paper
Lead foil

The radiographic film

A plastic base
A thin layer of adhesive
The emulsion on both sides of the base
A protective layer of clear gelatine

Indirect-action film
Uses- extraoral views and intraoral vertex occlusal
radiograph
Construction- different emulsions are sensitive to
blue, ultraviolet ,green or red light

It is essential that the correct combination of film

and intensifying screens is used
For identification metal letters L or R are placed on

the outside of the cassette

Film speed depends on size and

number of crystals
Film sensitivity- this is the reciprocal of
the exposure required to produce an
optical density of 1.0 above background
fog

Film latitude-this is a measure of the

range of exposure that produces
distinguishable differences in optical
density

Film contrast the difference in optical

density between two points on a film that
have received different exposures

Resolution- a measure of the radiographs

ability to differentiate between the

different structures that are close
together
Factors affecting resolution

- image sharpness
- size of crystals
- contrast

Intensifying screens

Action
Cassettes
Film storage
Screen maintenance

Processing
Definition of processing
Processing theory
Diagram

Practical processing methods

Manual
Automatic
Self-developing films

Requirements for manual processing

Absolute light-tightness

Adequate working space

Adequate ventilation
Adequate film storage facilities

Safelights

Processing equipments-tanks,
thermometers immersion, heater,
timer, film hangers
Adequate washing facilities

Manual processing cycle

The exposed film packet is unwrapped

and the film clipped on to a hanger

The film is immersed in developer (at

20 degrees for 5 minutes) and agitated

several times

Rinse the residual developer for 10

seconds

 Immerse the film in the fixer for 8- 10

minutes
Wash the film under running water for
10- 20 min. to remove the residual fixer
The film is dried in a dust free
atmosphere

Constituents of developer solutions and

their functions
Phenidone- bring out the image
Hydroquinone- builds contrast
Sodium sulphite- reduces oxidation
Potassium carbonate- activates developing agents

Benzotriazol- prevents fog

Glutaraldehyde- hardens the
emulsion
Fungicide- prevents bacterial growth

Buffer- maintains pH ( 7+)

Water- solvent

Important points regarding

development
The alkaline developer should be made

up according to manufacturers
instruction
Solutions should be changed every 10-

14 days, irrespective of the number of

films processed during that time
The recommended time is 5 minutes at

Fixers constituents and their functions

Ammonium thiosulphate- removes

unsensitized crystals
Sodium sulphite- preservative
Aluminium chloride- hardener
Acidic acid- maintains pH
Water- solvent

Important notes regarding

fixing
Avoid contamination with developer

and prepare according to

manufacturers recommendations
Films should be fixed for double the

clearing time (the time it takes to

remove the unsensitized silver halide
crystals)

Films may be removed from the fixer

after 2-4 minutes for wet reading but
should be returned to the fixer to
complete fixing
Inadequate fixed films may appear
greenish, yellow or milky and later
brown

Automatic processing
Processing cycle- it is the same as for

manual processing except that the

rollers
squeeze off any excess developing
solution before passing the film on to
the fixer
Infection control measures

Advantages
Time saving
No need for a darkroom
Standardized processing conditions

Disadvantages
Strict maintenance and regular

cleaning are essential

Some models need to be plumbed in
Equipment is relatively expensive
Smaller machine cannot process large
extraoral films

Self-developing films
Advantages

- No darkroom or processing facilities

are needed

- Time saving- the final radiograph is

ready in about a minute

Disadvantages
Poor overall image quality
The image deteriorates rapidly with

time
There is no lead foil inside the film
packet
The flexible film packet is difficult to
use in positioning holders
Relatively expensive