Room Acoustics

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration
Room Acoustics
Introduction
Suitable methods for the analysis of sound fields, or of sound

transmission, at high enough frequencies that the wavelengths are small
compared to typical distances traversed by the sound.
Energy-based methods can be used for the analysis of vibrations and

acoustics problems in such circumstances.
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
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Room Acoustics
Overview Of Energy Methods
We can choose between a number of different methods to describe

acoustic fields.
For example, an exact description of the sound field as the sum of

eigenfunctions (modes) may be used.
For the case of a sound field in a room, the modal density grows quickly,
however, with frequency
This implies that exact descriptions of the sound field ordinarily become
unreasonably difficult at even low to moderate frequencies
In order to make such an analysis possible at high frequencies, various

energy-based methods have been developed instead.
These are based on ignoring the wave character of the sound field, and,
instead, on treating the field as the superposition of independent sound rays
which can be regarded, locally, as propagating plane waves.
Laws of geometrical acoustics

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Room Acoustics
In an energy-based analysis, the field is characterized by its total energy
content, and sound rays by their local energy density or (alternatively) by
their intensity.
If there are several sources, these are treated as incoherent, which
implies that the sources' contribution to the sound field at a certain point
can be added on a power basis
Because the wave character of the sound is not considered, energybased methods cannot describe such phenomena as interference and
diffraction.
In order to classify different acoustic problems and assess whether an

energy-based method is suitable, we can resort to a dimensionless
number called Helmholtz' Number (He).
That number is defined as
He = kl
(1)
in which k = 2/ is the wave number and l a typical dimension (units of

length) for the considered system.
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Room Acoustics
For sound in a room, k corresponds, to the wave number for airborne
sound, e.g. for bending waves in a plate k should be interpreted as the
bending wave number.
Helmotz' number gives a measure of the size of the system as measured
in sound wavelengths.
In order for a standing wave (a mode) to arise in a system, it is necessary
that the system be at least a half wavelength large in some direction.
This means that if He is much bigger than p, we can expect a large
number of modes in the system, so that energy-based methods are
applicable.
When He is about the same order of magnitude as p, the system's
behavior is dominated by a relatively small number of modes and an exact
description of the field is possible.
The case in which He is much smaller than p is special, and means that
the sound wavelength is much larger than the dimensions of the system, in
which case it is no longer reasonable to speak in terms of wave propagation.
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Room Acoustics
In low frequency region, the system's behavior can be modeled as an
equivalent discrete mechanical system consisting of masses, springs, and
viscous dampers.
Three different frequency regions

no-modes region
few-modes region
many-modes region
Table 1 Classification of finite acoustic systems with low or moderate damping (i.e.,
resonant systems), using the Helmholtz number.
Classification
Frequency
Region
Character
No-Modes Region
He
Wave propagation is ignored. The system can be

modeled as a discrete mechanical system.
Few-Modes Region
He
A few eigenmodes dominate. A complete

mathematical description of the field is possible.
Many-Modes Region
He
A large number of eigenmodes control the behavior.

Analysis is only practicable using energy-based
methods.
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Room Acoustics
Balance of Energy in Simple and Coupled Acoustical Systems
Consider a bounded linear acoustic system

Assuming that the law of conservation of energy is applicable to acoustical
energy, then the following balance equation can be written for the system
dE
= W in W dis
dt
(2)
where E(t) is the total acoustic energy in the system and W(t) refers to power.
For energy-based analyses and applications in the many-modes region,
a number of adjacent frequency bands (octave and third-octave bands)
are normally used. It implies that energy and power are calculated from
the primary acoustic quantities (e.g., sound pressure), first after those
latter have been band-passed filtered. The assumption of linearity also
implies that the system dissipation can be characterized by means of a
loss factor in accordance with
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Room Acoustics
W dis
= E
(3)
in which is the systems loss factor. Putting equation (3) into (2) yields
dE
+ E = W in
dt
(4)
A means of determining the loss factor, and hence even the damping, of an
acoustic system, is to first excite the system using a source within a certain
frequency band (e.g., white noise in an octave band). When the system has
thereafter attained a stationary condition, we suddenly turn off the source
and measure how the energy decays in time. Assume that we turn off the
source at t = 0, and the systems energy content in the stationary state is E0.
For t > 0, equation (4) reduces to
dE
dt
+ E = 0
(5)
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Room Acoustics
This equation has the solution
E (t ) = E 0 e t, t >0
(6)
An event of the type described by equation (6) is called, in acoustics, a

reverberant event. By studying the reverberant event, it is possible to
experimentally determine the loss factor of an acoustic system as a function
of frequency. Characteristic time T in acoustics is normally defined as the
time it takes for the energy in the system to decay to a value 10-6 (60 dB)
times the original value E0; it is ordinarily called the reverberation time, and
that particular definition goes back to the early work in the area of room
acoustics by W C Sabine.
we will consider the energy balance for the case of two coupled acoustic
systems (1 and 2). That result will later be applied to the study of sound
transmission between two rooms. That gives
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Room Acoustics
dE1
= W1,in W1,dis
dt
dE 2
= W 2,in W 2,dis
dt
(7)
(8)
Referring to figure 9-1, the terms on the right-hand side are now divided up
into different contributions. The power input to system 1 can be written in
the form
W1,in = W11 + W 21
(9)
in which W11 is the power input into system 1 from a source in system 1, and
W21 is the power input into system 1 from system 2. Moreover, the dissipation in
system 1 can be expressed as
W1,dis = 1E1 + W12

(10)
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Room Acoustics
W22
W11
W21
E1
1
System 1
E1
System 2
E2
E2
2
W12
Figure 1 Two coupled acoustic systems: E indicates total energy and W power transport.
The first term in equation (10) represents the portion of the energy loss from
system 1 that is completely lost, i.e., converted to thermal energy or radiated to
the surroundings. In the same way, and using analogous symbols, we obtain
for system 2 the relations
W 2,in = W 22 + W12
(11)
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Room Acoustics
W 2 , dis = 2 E 2 + W 21
(12)
Putting equations (9) to (12) into (7) and (8) yields the differential equations
dE 1
+ 1 E 1 + W 12 = W 11 + W 21
dt
(13)
dE 2
+ 2 E 2 + W 21 = W 22 + W 12
dt
(14)
Equations (13) and (14) constitute a pair of coupled differential equations that
describe how the energy builds up in the two coupled systems after a pair of
external sources are turned on.
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Room Acoustics
Relation between Wave Theory and Energy-Based Methods
A complete field description can, be simplified to an energy-based
description.
In that regard, we shall define the concept of a diffuse field and derive
the relation between energy density and incident intensity for such a
field.
Assume that the field, in the immediate vicinity of some arbitrary point in
the room, can be regarded as the superposition of propagating plane
waves.
Case for a parallelepiped (rectangular prismatic) room.
For an arbitrarily-shaped room, it is a reasonable assumption in the
many-modes frequency region.
Our assumption implies that the sound field, for a specific harmonic
component, can be expressed as
r r
p=
p n e i ( t kn r )
(15)
n
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Room Acoustics
An energy-based analysis presupposes that the field can be regarded as
built up of independent sound beams that may locally be considered as
plane waves.
Since we are concerned with energy quantities, we determine , which takes
the form
2
p =
pne
r r 2
ik n r
=
m
r r r r
i k m r i k n r
p mp ne
(16)
In order to obtain independent (uncorrelated) waves, a spatial averaging of

the field is carried out. Assume that we average equation (16) over a
sufficiently large volume; the cross terms will then disappear because
1 ikx
e
dx 0
l
for a sufficiently large value of l.
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Room Acoustics
The conclusion can therefore be drawn that, after averaging a sufficient
volume (with a diameter of the same order of magnitude as a wavelength),
one obtains
p 2
p n2
(17)
Equation (17) means that the waves can be added in an energy sense
and considered uncorrelated.
In practice, our result implies that we must spatially average whenever we
carry out measurements in connection with energy-based methods.
An alternative to spatial averaging, when broad-band sources are
investigated, is averaging over frequency, i.e., taking measurements by
frequency band.
That is directly evident from equation (16), since the phase of the
exponential function depends on the product kr
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Room Acoustics
In acoustics, rooms that have that character, i.e., are bounded by hard walls
with little sound absorption, are called reverberant rooms. The opposite is
a room with completely absorbing walls a so-called anechoic room.
Assume that we have a sound field that fulfills equation (17), and that,
moreover, all plane waves incident on a point in the room have the same
strength and are uniformly distributed over all possible angles of incidence.
A sound field that fulfills these criteria, and in which all points in the room
are equivalent in the sense that they have the same energy density, is
called an ideal diffuse field. The rms sound pressure in such an ideal diffuse
field is
1
~2
~
p d2 =
p n2 = (same strength of all waves p0 ) =
2 n
N~
p 02
(18)
where N is the number of plane waves incident on a point in the room. The
energy density is obtained by dividing that equation by 0c2, so that
d = ~p d2 0 c 2
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Room Acoustics
We first regard a plane wave that is incident from a certain direction against S.
The power that meets S is
~
p 02
S cos n
Wn =
0c
(19)
where n is the angle of incidence relative to the walls normal direction. The
total incident power is obtained by adding up all the contributions from the
diffuse field.
Wd =
~
p02
Wn =
S
0c
cos n
(20)
The summation in equation (20) is only over the modes n that are incident on
the wall. When the number of modes is large, we can approximate equation
(20) by an integral over all space angles constituting a hemisphere adjacent to
the wall.
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Room Acoustics
kn
k1
k2
n
Figure 2 Diffuse sound field incident upon a wall.
Because the density of waves (number/space angle) is N / 4, then against

every small space angle increment , there are a number of waves N /4
. For large N, one therefore obtains
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Room Acoustics
~
p 02
S cos Nd / 4
Wd
0c
(21)
That integral can be solved by first expressing the space angle increment,
making use of , in the form d = 2sin d, and then carrying out the
integration over the interval 0 to /2. The result is
Wd
N ~
p 02 S
4 0c
(22)
With the aid of equation (18), we can re-express that result in the form
~
pd2 S
d cS
Wd =
= (or, in terms of energy density) =
4 0c
4
(23)
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Room Acoustics
in which the equality applies in the limit as the number of modes becomes
infinite. We define the diffuse intensity Id as the power, as expressed in (23),
per unit area, incident on a boundary surface (wall).
Id =
dc
(24)
The result in equation (24) depends, however, on the dimension number

of the enclosed space. Repeating our derivation for the cases of twodimensional and one-dimensional rooms, respectively, we obtain
Id =
dc
, for 2 - D
(25)
dc
(26)
and
Id =
, for 1 - D
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Room Acoustics
If equations (24) through (26) are to be applied to other types waves than
airborne sound, it is important to note that the speed of sound is to be
interpreted as that speed at which energy propagates, the so-called group
velocity. For sound waves in liquids and gases, that is normally the same
as the ordinary sound speed (phase velocity).
Room Acoustics
we study sound fields in room with hard walls in the many-modes region.
Additionally, all sound absorption is assumed to occur at reflections
against the various surfaces in the room.
Sabines formula
Sabines formula provides a relation between the reverberation time
T and the acoustic damping (absorption) of a room. the relation
between reverberation time T and the systems loss factor
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Room Acoustics
T = ( 6 ln 10 )/
(27)
In order to obtain the rooms loss factor, we use equation (3)
dis
(28)
We assume that the sound field in the room can be regarded as an ideal
diffuse field with energy density d. The total acoustic energy in the room
can then be written in the form E = V d. If the surface has the absorption
coefficient (), then
W n,dis = n I n S cos n
(29)
where S is the surface area and the index n indicates the direction from
which the corresponding wave is incident. The total absorbed power is
obtained by a summation over all waves that are incident in the diffuse
field.
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Room Acoustics
we can derive the following result for the dissipated power Wdis
Wdis =
d cS
4
( ) sin 2
(30)
The average of the absorption coefficient defined by equation (30) is usually

called the absorption coefficient for diffuse incidence,
2
d =
( ) sin(2 )d
(31)
Note that, because sin(2) has a maximum at = 450, the appearance of

() around that angle is of great significance in the computation of d.
The absorption coefficients for perpendicular ( = 00) and grazing
incidence ( = 900) have no influence whatsoever on the value of d.
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Room Acoustics
In the case of a room with several absorbing surfaces that differ in their
respective absorption characteristics, the total absorbed power becomes
c
Wdis = d
d ,m S m
4 m
(32)
where the summation includes all surfaces m that contribute to the total
absorption of the room as a whole. Sometimes, one even makes use of
an average absorption coefficient for the room, defined as
d =
d ,m S m
m
(33)
where S = S m
m
Making use of equations (28) and (32), we can now calculate the loss
factor for the entire room as
c d S
4V
(34)
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Room Acoustics
Making use of equation (27) reverberation time is
T=
V
(24 ln 10)V
= ( with c = 342 m/s) = 0.161
c d S
d S
(35)
That result is Sabines formula for the reverberation time of a room.

When the absorption characteristics of a room are to be described, one
ordinarily reports either an average absorption coefficient or the so-called
equivalent absorption area A.
That area is defined as the total absorbing surface with = 1, i.e., an
acoustic "black hole", which would give the same absorption as the room
considered.
Mathematically, A can be computed from
A=
d ,m S m
(36)
m
where the unit for A is usually called [m2 Sabine], or abbreviated to [m2S].
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Room Acoustics
Table 2 Absorption data for different materials. (Source: M D Egan, Concepts in
Architectural Acoustics, McGraw-Hill, 1972.)
Material
125
Hz
250 Hz
500 Hz
1 kHz
2 kHz
4 kHz
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.07
Untreated
0.36
0.44
0.31
0.29
0.39
0.25
Painted
0.10
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.09
0.08
1 cm
0.28
0.22
0.17
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.35
0.25
0.18
0.12
0.07
0.04
Pressed thin against wall
0.03
0.04
0.11
0.17
0.24
0.35
Thick, drawn up
0.14
0.35
0.55
0.72
0.70
0.65
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
with linoleum layer
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.02
with thick mat
0.02
0.06
0.14
0.37
0.66
0.65
0.15
0.11
0.10
0.07
0.06
0.07
Gypsum slabs
0.29
0.10
0.05
0.04
0.07
0.09
Plywood 1cm
0.28
0.22
0.17
0.09
0.10
0.11
Tile
Concrete
Plywood
Window glass
Draperies
Concrete floor
Wood floor
Ceiling
Absorption coefficient d
Description
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Room Acoustics
Besides the surfaces of the room itself, additional absorption of acoustic
energy is also obtained from any objects (e.g., furniture) and persons that
may be present. These added absorbing entities are normally characterized
by a supplemental equivalent absorption energy A.
Table 3 Added equivalent absorption area from several objects (Source: H Kuttruff,
Room Acoustics, Applied Science, 1973.)
added absorption area [m2S]
Object
Description
With coat
Standing
human
125 Hz
250 Hz
500 Hz
1 kHz
2 kHz
4 kHz
0.17
0.41
0.91
1.30
1.43
1.47
0.12
0.24
0.59
0.98
1.13
1.12
Without coat
Student,
incl seat
Sitting
0.20
0.28
0.31
0.37
0.41
0.42
Chair
Cushioned
0.55
0.86
0.83
0.87
0.90
0.87
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Room Acoustics
Limitations of the Sabine-Franklins theory and later work
The assumption of an ideal diffuse field. That idealization has several parts,
above all that the field consist of incoherent waves. The condition is fulfilled in
practice by taking spatial and frequency averages of our energy quantities.
An ideal diffuse field should be, moreover, homogeneous and isotropic, That
requires that the absorption be uniformly distributed throughout the room, so
that certain directions of propagation do not become dominant.
An example is a rectangular prismatic room in which a wall has a much higher
absorption coefficient than all others, leading to a 2-D diffuse field more so than
a 3-D one; in consequence, a longer reverberation time is obtained than would
be expected from a direct application of Sabines formula.
Since absorption occurs at surfaces in the room, there is a tendency for the
energy density to be smaller in their immediate vicinity than elsewhere in the
room.
In order for the field to remain homogeneous, the typical time that it takes for
sound energy to even itself out throughout the room must be shorter than the
reverberation time.
It can be shown that it limits the validity of Sabines theory to rooms in which
<d> 0.3.
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Room Acoustics
Sabines formula is also used in standardized measurements of the acoustic
absorptive capacity of materials. Measurements of this type must also take
account of the phenomenon of absorption (damping) within the medium itself.
The effect of such damping is particularly important in rooms that have a large
volume, and at high frequencies
Measurement of reverberation time

The standard method of measuring reverberation is based on excitation by
a broad-band noise source in a certain frequency band (third-octave or
octave-band). record a reverberant event by measuring the time decay of
the sound pressure level after a source is abruptly interrupted. For sound
fields with an energy content that varies in time, the rms value is calculated
by means of a so-called moving average, as
1
2
~
p (t ) =
Tav
p 2 ( )d
t Tav
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Room Acoustics
where Tav must be much shorter than the reverberation time T. The traditional
way to carry out the measurement is to record the sound pressure level on a
print-out with a linear SPL scale.
10 dB
T = 4.1 s
T = 5.4 s
T = 4.6 s
10 mm/s
500 Hz
1000 Hz
2000 Hz
Figure 3 Examples of reverberation curves measured in third-octave bands in the

reverberation room at the Marcus Wallenberg Laboratory for Sound and Vibration
Research, MWL, KTH.
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Room Acoustics
If the recording paper unfurls at a constant rate, then an ideal reverberant
event, would be drawn as a straight line. In part, there are random
fluctuations due to the finite averaging interval used to compute the rms
value of the pressure; additionally, non-uniform distribution of absorption in
the room results in some degree of curvature in the decay curve.
Sound fields in rooms

Divide up the sound field into two parts.
The part of the total sound field that has, as such, free field character, is
usually called the direct field..
The other part of the field, consisting of reflected sound beams, is usually
called the reverberant field.
In a stationary situation, the power input to the reverberant field must equal
the power lost in reflections at the surfaces of the room.
We assume that the reverberant field is an ideal diffuse field, and can then
calculate the power dissipated in the room using equations (32) and (33),
which yield
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Room Acoustics
dc d S
Wdis =
4
Direct
field
W dir
(37)
Reverberant
field
Figure 4 Sound field in a room: decomposition into a direct field and a reverberant field.
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Room Acoustics
The power Wdis must correspond to the power provided by the direct field
minus that which is lost in the first reflection, i.e.,
Wdis = Wdir (1 d )
(38)
where Wdir is the power sent out by the source.

Note that we have chosen to use the absorption coefficient for diffuse
incidence in equation (38). implies, in fact, that we have assumed an
isotropic source, and that the direct field spreads out so as to reach the
surfaces of the room with a uniform distribution of angles of incidence.
The energy density of the direct field, at such distances that sound beams
can be regarded as locally plane waves (i.e., in the far field) is given by
dir =
W dir
4cr
(39)
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Room Acoustics
where is the directivity index (direction factor) of the source, which
indicates how the sound beam varies in different directions, and r is the
distance from a reference point at the source (origin) to an observation
point.
The directivity index is defined such that the integral of over all space
angles that point from the source into the interior of the room, is 4 .
For a source that radiates equally in all directions (isotropic source), and
is located in the middle of the room, = 1; for the same source on the
floor, = 2; for that same source located at an edge between the floor
and a wall, = 4; and, for the same source located in a corner of the
room, = 8
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Room Acoustics
=2
Close to one
reflecting
surface
=1
At a distance
from all
reflecting
surfaces
=4
=8
At the intersection of
three reflecting surfaces
At the intersection of two

reflecting surfaces
Figure 5 Directivity index G (direction factor) for an isotropic source located at

various positions in a room with perpendicular surfaces. (Picture: Asf,
Bullerbekmpning, 1977, Ill: Claes Folkesson.)
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Room Acoustics
From equations (37), (38) and (39), the total energy density of the room
can be expressed as
4(1 d )W dir
+
tot = dir + d =
2
c d S
4cr
Wdir
(40)
Equation (40) gives, therefore, an rms sound pressure, from a source in

the room, of

4(1 d )
2
2
2
~
~
~
p tot = p dir + p d = 0 cWdir
+
2
S
4r
(41)
Alternatively, expressing the result in terms of sound pressure level in air,

taking specific impedance to be 0c = 400 Pa s/m, then

4
dir
10
log
=
+
+
Ltot
L
p
W
A
4
[dB]
(42)
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Room Acoustics
where
A =
d S
(1 d )
is called the room constant.

The distance from the source at which the direct field and the reverberant
field are equally strong is called the echo radius. the echo radius is found
to be
A
re =
16
12
(43)
Figure 6 illustrates the main features of the variation of sound pressure

level with distance from a source in a room.
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Room Acoustics
Ldp + 10
Total sound pressure level
L tot
p
Ldp + 5
Ltot
p [dB]
3 dB
Ldp
Sound pressure level in L dp
reverberant field
Sound pressure level in direct
field
Ldp 5
L dir
p
Ldp 10
0
1,0
2,0
Avstnd/Ekoradie r/r e
3,0
Figure 6 The distance-dependence of sound pressure level, with respect to the

level in the reverberant field. The distance to the source is measured in echo
radii. Note that when the distance from the source is equal to the echo radius,
the direct and reverberant fields contribute equally to the total sound pressure
level, which therefore rises by 3 dB.
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Room Acoustics
In practical applications of the results obtained above, A is usually
interpreted as the equivalent absorption area A.
Finally, we note that the value of the sound power emitted by the source,
Wdir, is dependent on the location of the source.
Acoustic absorbents
The most common measure of the acoustic behavior of a room is the
reverberation time.
The distribution of the direct field, as well as reflections that might give
rise to echo effects, must also be taken into consideration in, for instance,
a lecture hall.
Especially demanding venues, such as concert and opera houses, are
usually designed with the aid of special computer programs that, based on
geometrical acoustics, predict the distribution of the sound field through the
first few reflections
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Room Acoustics
2.5
T 60 , [s ]
2.0
Katolska kyrkor
Konsertsalar
Konferensrum
Studios
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
10
100
1000
Volym , [
10000
Figure 7 Optimal reverberation time in various locales, for the frequency range 500-1000
Hz, according to L.L. Doelle, Environmental Acoustics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1972.
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Room Acoustics
To bring about a desired reverberation time in a locale, while minimizing
undesirable reflections (echoes), different kinds of acoustic absorbents are
used.
The absorption coefficient concept provides a measure of the performance
of an absorbent material; for arbitrary sound fields
Wr
=1
Wi
(44)
where the symbols in the numerator and denominator of the second term
indicate total reflected and total incident acoustic power, respectively,
from/upon a given area S.
It is important to note that the absorption coefficient depends on both the
surface characteristics (including geometric form) and on the incident
sound field.
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Room Acoustics
Porous absorbents
Most often, porous absorbents are fibrous materials consisting of thin (2-20m)
mineral or glass wool fibers, arranged in layers and with random fiber directions
in planes parallel to the material surface.
Alternatively, fibrous materials based on natural wood fibers are also available
for building applications.
When sound propagates in a porous fiber absorbent, acoustic energy
dissipation results from the viscous forces arising as air is forced to flow through
the small passages between the fibers.
Additionally, heat transfer adds to the effect, to some extent; the temperature
fluctuations inherent in a sound wave are evened out by contact with the fibers,
which are better heat conductors than the air itself.
That process is never completely reversible, implying that losses occur.
Another mechanism at work, and which may be significant for sound
absorption, is the coupling between sound and vibrations in the porous materials
solid matrix.
That phenomenon is normally negligible for fibrous porous materials, except at
low frequencies (under 300 Hz).
For other types of porous materials (e.g., foam), however, the effect of
the fluid-structure coupling may be quite significant.
41/87
Room Acoustics
The classical model mainly applied to the fibrous type, is based on the
absorbent to be an equivalent fluid. The approach replaces the absorbent
by a homogeneous fluid with viscous damping.
p
0 i u x +
+ u x = 0
x
(45)
in which we have assumed a harmonic signal and written the equation in

complex form, and in which refers to the flow resistance [Pa s/m2]. Values
of for the case of a time-invariant flow is made by measuring the pressure
drop of a steady flow over a slab of absorbent material.
1 ( p1 p 2 )
=
ux
h
(46)
where h is the thickness of the slab.
42/87
Room Acoustics
p
x
ux
Figure 8 The principle for the measurement of the flow resistance of an absorbent
material.
Since represents a wave resistance per unit length, and the cgs unit of
wave resistance is called a Rayl, the cgs unit of is therefore a Rayl/cm.
To convert to SI units, we note that 1 Rayl/cm = 103 Pas/m2.
43/87
Room Acoustics
The absorption coefficient of a porous absorbent is ordinarily determined from
measurements specified by ISO standards.
Traditionally, the absorption is either measured for the case of perpendicular
perpendicular incidence, using standing waves (in a so-called Kundts tube),
or it is measured in a reverberant room.
By measuring the difference in the reverberation time between the room
with, and the room without, the absorbent, and making use of Sabines
formula, the diffuse field absorption coefficient can be inferred.
The most common way to use a porous absorbent in room acoustics is to
locate it in front of a hard wall, for the purpose of reducing the wall
reflections.
44/87
Room Acoustics
Flow resistance , [Rayl/cm]
100
10
1
10
Density [kg/m3]
100
Figure 9 Typical values of the flow resistance f perpendicular to the surface of glass
wool absorbents (solid line) and rock wool (dashed line).
45/87
Room Acoustics
This model is described and requires, the measurement of the flow resistance
. For optimal absorption properties choose a dimensionless flow resistance
h / 0c 2
(47)
where h is the absorbent thickness. The vicinity of the optimum is, nevertheless,
quite flat, so that any value in the interval 1 - 3 would be almost as good.
A bso rption factor
1.0
0 .8
3 2 1
10
0 .6
0.1
0 .4
0 .2
0 .0
h
0
0 .5
1 .0
1.5
2 .0
2 .5
kh
3 .0
3.5
4 .0
4 .5
5 .0
Figure 10 Calculated absorption coefficient for a plane wave with normal incidence
against a fiber-type absorbent mounted in front of a hard (completely reflective) wall.
The parameter in the diagram is the dimensionless flow resistance h/0c.
46/87
Room Acoustics
The thinner the absorbent the greater the flow resistance needed to obtain a
good sound absorption.
For the optimal case, 0.9 for a Helmholtz number kh greater than about 1,
where k is the wave number in air and is the absorption -coefficient for
normal incidence.
Rule of thumb: that an (optimal) absorbent can be expected to provide good
absorption if its thickness is about a quarter wavelength.
At high frequencies, a sound wave passes directly into the absorbent without
reflection, and is then gradually converted into thermal energy as it propagates
further.
If rock wool is used as absorbent, the selected flow resistance corresponds
to a density of about 45 kg/m3. the calculated absorption coefficient in that
case (case I) is shown.
For comparison, the figure also shows the absorption obtained if we only use
an optimal absorbent with h = 5 cm (case II). As would be expected, that
about doubles the frequency at which a 0.9.
A very similar curve is obtained in case III, in which we move the same
absorbent as in case II to a position 5 cm away from the wall.
47/87
Room Acoustics
If the absorbent is moved too far from the wall, say more than 4-5 times its
thickness, then while the low frequency performance is certainly good, there
can be unacceptably large fluctuations in the high frequency performance.
An example would be lecture halls and auditoria in which the ceiling
absorption is enhanced by mounting absorbent panels a couple of decimeters
below the inner ceiling.
A bsorption Coefficient
1.0
I
0.8
II
C ase I 10 cm
III
C ase II 5 cm
0.6
0.4
C ase III5 + 5 cm
0.2
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
Frequency, [H z]
5000
6000
Figure 11 Calculated absorption coefficient for c = 340 m/s, for the three cases
described in the example.
48/87
Room Acoustics
In many applications, the porous absorber must be given some kind of a
covering layer. The cover layer normally consists of a thin plastic foil or the
like, or perhaps perforated plate. A cover layer normally degrades the
acoustic performance of the absorber, especially at high frequencies.
Assume that a 20% reduction of the absorption coefficient, from 1 to 0.8, is
permissible at high frequencies. Then, it can be shown that, for a cover
layer with surface density m and with negligible bending stiffness, the
reduction in absorption is inconsequential up to a frequency of
0c
fg =
2m
(48)
For perforated plate cover layers, an inertia effect also occurs; that is
attributable to the local acceleration of the fluid at the perforation holes.
49/87
Room Acoustics
Resonant Absorbers
This kind of absorbent consists of acoustic systems that provide sound
absorption in frequency bands around the vicinity of their resonance
frequencies. These are primarily used to obtain sound absorption at low
and mid frequencies, up to 500 - 600 Hz. For resonance absorbers, a plane
surface with an impedance of Z is considered.
Z = im +
+ Rd
i
(49)
where m is the mass per unit area, is the spring constant per unit area,
and Rd is a term that describes the system damping. At the resonance
frequency 0, the reflection coefficient at that frequency, for an incident
plane wave, is
Rd 0 c cos i
R=
Rd + 0 c cos i
(50)
50/87
Room Acoustics
Obtain zero reflection, i.e., R = 0, for a certain angle of incidence, by
choosing Rd = 0c/cosi.
For the case of normal incidence, i = 0, in particular, Rd must be chosen so
as to equal the specific impedance of the surrounding fluid.
The most common way to bring about a resonant absorber is to create the
direct acoustic equivalent of a mass-spring system, a so-called Helmholtz
resonator;
To obtain the desired damping, the resonator can be partially, or completely,
filled with porous absorbent material.
Figure 13 Absorbent consisting of a group Helmholtz -resonators.
51/87
Room Acoustics
The most effective approach is to locate the absorbent in, or near, the
constriction. A Helmholtz resonator is a single degree-of-freedom system,
and only gives, therefore, a single resonance frequency about which sound
absorption is to be expected. Another common way to realize resonant
absorption is to place an absorbent behind a compliant plate (panel) panel
absorber.
Figure 14 By varying such design parameters as the distance between fastening points
(i.e., the stiffness), the panel thickness, and distance from the wall, the effective frequency
band of a panel absorber can be tuned to some extent.
52/87
Room Acoustics
Wi
Wr
panel
0
h
absorber
wall
Figure 15 Panel absorbent mounted to a hard wall. The panel is assumed to be

compliant in bending, and has a surface density m''.
The lowest resonance frequency of this system occurs when the contained air
volume acts as a spring, and the panel as a mass. At higher frequencies,
standing waves build up between the wall and the panel, giving rise to a
number of resonance frequencies.
To calculate k, consider a harmonic plane wave, with perpendicular incidence;
from the equation of continuity
53/87
Room Acoustics
i + 0
u x
=0
x
(51)
in which it is assumed that the entire space between the panel and the wall is
air-filled. Integra-tion of equation (51), at low frequencies, yields
i h + 0 ( u x ( h ) u x ( 0 )) = 0
where is assumed constant (independent of x). The boundary condition at the
plate gives ux (0) = vx, and, at the hard wall, ux(h) = 0. Substituting the relation
between sound pressure and density (p = c2, equations finally, gives
p =
i h ( 0 c 2 )
From that equation, the spring constant k (per unit surface area) is directly
obtained as
0c 2
(52)
54/87
Room Acoustics
For oblique incidence at an angle , analogous logic finds that k changes by
a factor of 1/cos2. If the entire space is filled with absorbent, the isothermal
sound speed in air is a good approximation for c at low frequencies. That
speed can be obtained by dividing the adiabatic sound speed by , after
which the fundamental resonance frequency of the panel absorber
f0 =
1
2
1
2
60
mh , adiabatic
0c 2
= {for air}
mh
50
, isothermal
mh
(53)
For a panel absorber which partially filled with absorbent, the resonance
frequency falls somewhere between the two values given by equation (53).
assuming that the systems impedance can be written as Z = iwm + Zabs ,
in which the absorbents impedance is obtained from the model.
55/87
Room Acoustics
For comparison, the resonance frequency of the system is given by
f0
m = 3.0 kg/m 2
50
=
130 Hz
h
0
.
05
m
=
mh
which is some what lower than the peak value, lying around 135 Hz.
A b s o r p tio n C o e ffic ie n t
1 .0
0 .8
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0 .0
50
100
150
250
200
F req u en cy [H z]
300
350
400
Figure 16 Calculated absorption coefficient for a panel absorbent (see figure 15). Data:
m'' = 3.0 kg/m2, h = 5.0 cm, = 3.0 .103 Pa s/m2
56/87
Room Acoustics
Absorbing walls
Hard wall
Wooden beam
Porous board
covered with
plastic laminate
Engine test benches
Figure 17 In the low frequency region, porous absorbers are inadequate. Panel absorbers
may then serve as practical alternatives to reduce high levels of noise in, for example,
workshop environments. (Picture: Asf, Bullerbekmpning, 1977, Ill: Claes Folkesson.)
57/87
Room Acoustics
Sound Transmission through Insulating Partitions
The purpose of insulating partitions is to stop the propagation of sound, mainly
by providing an impedance jump that reflects the sound incident upon it.
The transmission coefficient of a partition with an area S is defined as
Wt
=
Wi
(54)
Transmission coefficient, in general, depends on the mechanical properties of

the partition itself, and its geometric form.
The transmission coefficient of most insulating partitions is in the range 10-6 10-2. The sound reduction index is defined as
R = 10 log
(55)
58/87
Room Acoustics
Understanding the concepts of absorption and transmission coefficients .
Absorber
Wr
Wt
Wdis
Wi
Plate
Figure 18 Power balance for a sound field incident upon an insulating partition
consisting of absorbent attached to a plate.
59/87
Room Acoustics
Using the notation from the figure, the power balance can be expressed in
the form
Wi = Wr + Wt + Wdis
where Wdis is the power lost to damping in the absorber or elsewhere. Using
the definitions of a and t , that can be written as
= +
(56)
where = Wdis / Wi is the dissipation factor

it is normally the case that << , which implies that the absorption
coefficient is not significantly influenced by the plate.
The transmission coefficient can be significantly altered by covering a wall
with an absorbent, if the absorption coefficient is nearly one.
60/87
Room Acoustics
Consider the sound transmission between two rooms (systems 1 and 2)
separated by a wall.
1 E 1 + W 12 = W 11 + W 21
(57)
2 E 2 + W 21 = W 12
(58)
The loss factors in the respective systems (rooms) can for ideal diffuse
fields, is calculated from equation (34),
1 =
cA1
4V1
cA2
2 =
4V2
(59)
(60)
where A1 and A2 , are the equivalent absorption areas of the rooms in

accordance with equation (36).
61/87
Room Acoustics
Figure 19 Sound transmission between two rooms: W is sound power, energy density,
V volume and S the area of the insulating partition. Compare to figure 1.
In order to compute the power transmission between the rooms, we consider

the diffuse fields incident upon the wall separating them, and make use of the
definition of the transmission coefficient
W12 = d I d ,1 S
(61)
62/87
Room Acoustics
W 21 = d I d , 2 S
(62)
in which Id signifies the diffuse intensity and

for a diffuse field.
the transmission coefficient
expressing the fields energy (E = V) and diffuse intensity as energy

densities, and putting those into the equations given above, then it follows
that
d ,1
d ,2
A2
=1+
S d
(63)
2
2
~
=
p
c
d
0 , an expression for the difference in the sound
Because
d
pressure level between the rooms is obtained from equation (63)
L p,1 L p,2 = 10 log(1 +
A2
)
S d
(64)
63/87
Room Acoustics
It is seen that the sound reduction between two rooms depends on both the
partitions sound reduction index and the absorption in the receiving room
Equation (64) is the basis of a technique for the experimental determination
of the transmission coefficient.
Assume that we have two reverberant rooms, coupled by a rectangular
aperture in their separating wall. A wall element to be tested is then mounted
in the aperture.
By measuring the difference in the sound pressure level between the rooms,
with a sound source in one of them (the sender room, room 1), the
transmission coefficient can then be inferred from equation (64).
In practice, the unit-valued term in the parentheses of equation (64) is
normally ignored in the application of that equation to the prediction of the
sound reduction between two rooms.
L p,1 = L p , 2
A2
+ R d + 10 log
S
(65)
64/87
Room Acoustics
Sound reductions across composite partitions
In order to determine the sound reduction index of a composite partition, we
assume that the incident sound power is uniformly distributed over the area
of all sub-elements of the partition. That is the case for an ideal diffuse field,
for instance. This assumption, together with the definition of the transmission
coefficient (equation (54)), directly yields
Wt
=
Wi
Wt , n n ( S n
n
Wi
S ) Wi
Wi
= n (S n S )
(66)
where the index n specifies a sub-element, and . For a sound reduction

index R, one obtains the expression
R = 10 log
S n 10
Rn 10
(67)
65/87
Room Acoustics
Flanking transmission
Flanking transmission is a collective designation for the contributions to the
sound field in a receiving room made by all transmission paths save the
direct one.
In practice, however, there is always a certain amount of flanking
transmission, and the actual sound reduction is therefore somewhat lower
than that predicted by considering the direct path alone; that degraded
sound reduction index is called the field reduction index.
2
1
3
Figure 20 Transmission paths between two rooms. Path 1 is the direct transmission
path, while paths 2 and 3 are examples of other, indirect, paths. The transfer of acoustic
energy via the indirect paths is usually referred to as flanking transmission.
66/87
Room Acoustics
That field reduction index is usually defined by
R = 10 log( Wt , m / Wi ) 1 = 10 log( +
m
m ) 1
(68)
m 1
in which the index m specifies the transmission path and
Wt , m
=
m
Wi
, m1
Simple wall
Consider the sound reduction index of a homogeneous plate surrounded by
a fluid (e.g., air). When a sound wave strikes a thin plate, its response
consists of bending waves.
The bending wave field in the plate satisfies
( m 2 + D p
4
y
) v x = i ((pi + p r ) pt )
(69)
67/87
Room Acoustics
where m is the mass per unit area of the plate, Dp is the bending stiffness,
and it is assumed that all fields have harmonic time-dependencies.
y
pt
pr
pi
Forced bending
wave
Figure 21 Sound transmission through a homogeneous (infinite) thin plate of

thickness h. The fluid on each side is assumed to have the same sound speed and
specific impedance as that on the other. The incident plane wave excites a forced
bending wave with phase velocity c/sin.
68/87
Room Acoustics
Accounting for Snells law, we obtain the following result for these fields
where they contact the plate (i.e., at x = 0),
p = p e
i (t k y y )
(70)
where = i, r, or t. The particle velocity field vx must have the same ydependence as the sound field, i.e.,
v x = v x e
i ( t k y y )
(71)
Substituting equations (70) and (71) into (69) gives
(im +
D p k y4
i
) v x = (p i + p r ) p t
(72)
where ky = k sin and the angle is the same for all three sound fields.
Two additional equations are obtained by requiring that the normal
velocities of all fields, at the plate, be equal.
69/87
Room Acoustics
and
p cos
v x = t
0c
(73)
p i p r = p t
(74)
Eliminating v x and pr from equation (72), using equations (73) and (74),
leads to the result that
D p k y4 p t cos
( i m +
)
= 2 ( p i p t )
i
0c
( ) =
p t
p i
=
m cos
1 +
20c
1 sin
c

(75)
in which c = 2fc is the circular frequency corresponding to the so-called

coincidence frequency fc
c2
fc =
2
m
Dp
(76)
70/87
Room Acoustics
For the case of the lossless simple wall complete transmission is obtained
at a frequency corresponding to fc /sin2 .
At that frequency, the phenomenon of coincidence occurs, i.e., the bending
wave speed is identical to the phase velocity (c/sin) of the sound wave
moving along the plate in the y-direction. for the special case of normal
incidence ( = 0) that the simple wall does not exhibit a coincidence effect.
For normal incidence, no bending waves are excited in the plate; instead,
the entire plate moves in unison as a large piston, and only the mass of the
plate is felt by the sound wave.
With respect to frequency three regimes that characterize the infinite
simple wall.
(i)
f < fc.
In this regime, the inertia terms dominate in the bending wave equation of the
plate. If we ignore the bending stiffness term, then equation (75) provides a
transmission coefficient of
71/87
Room Acoustics
( ) =
p t
p i
m cos
= antag m 0 c 1
2
2
c
0
m cos
1 +
2 0 c
1
From that equation, we can obtain a sound reduction index, for normal
incidence ( = 0), of
m
R = 20 log
= { air} 20 log f + 20 log m 42, f < f c
(77)
20c
and for diffuse incidence (after integration), of
Rd = R 3
(78)
for air at standard temperature and pressure. In practice, we always have

finite walls that deviate somewhat from the result given above. As long as
the plate is large, however, and the frequencies of interest are well below the
coincidence frequency, then the mass law is a good approximation of reality.
72/87
Room Acoustics
Reduction index Rd [dB]
40
30
20
10
0
100
500
Frequency [Hz]
1000
Figure 22 Comparison of the calculated solid line and measured (in third-octave
bands) stars sound reduction Rd across a simple wall consisting of a 13 mm thick
slab of gypsum (m = 650 kg/m2, fc =2500 Hz).
73/87
Room Acoustics
(ii) f fc .
At coincidence, the sound reduction index is controlled solely by the
damping in the plate. Without damping, complete transmission, = 1,
occurs.
(iii) f > fc .
It turns out, however, that finite walls with small to moderate damping do not
behave in accordance with the resulting expression. The reason for that is
that the boundaries of the finite plate reflect the forced bending waves
bringing about a reverberant bending vibration field in the wall
An expression for the sound reduction index of a finite plate, above the
coincidence frequency, is provided without proof:
R d = 20 log
2
f
m
+ 10 log
+ 10 log
,
2 0 c
fc
f > fc
(79)
74/87
Room Acoustics
where is the loss factor for the plate.
The fact that the sound radiation from the reverberant field is normally
only significant above the coincidence frequency implies that added
damping is only warranted if it is that frequency region in which
improved sound insulation is sought.
Finally, we briefly touch upon the sound insulation of a plate at low
frequencies.
We consider the zero-modes and few-modes regions for a plate.
In the few-modes region, we have only a small number of resonant
modes that determine the behavior of the plate.
That implies that the sound reduction index varies strongly; at a
resonance (Zin 0), practically no sound insulation at all is obtained,
whereas at an anti-resonance (Zin ) very large sound reduction
indices are obtained
75/87
R , [ dB ]
Room Acoustics
log f , [
fc
Figure 23 Idealized insulation behavior of a simple wall. In the zero-mode region, the
wall is stiffness-controlled; in the few-mode regions, the behavior is determined by a
small number of resonances; and, in the multi-mode region (if, however, f << fc), the
walls behavior is mass-controlled.
76/87
Room Acoustics
In the zero-mode region, the plate has no resonances and acts as a
pure stiffness k, the magnitude of which is determined by the plates
material properties, geometry, and edge mounting (boundary conditions).
In that region, the impedance takes the form Zin = k / i, which, at low
frequencies, results in a very good sound reduction index.
Summarizing, to serve as effective sound insulators, plates should be
used in either the zero-mode region or the multi-mode region; in the latter,
the mass law applies, provided that we are well below the coincidence
frequency.
In machinery-related applications, for which the insulators are typically
metallic materials, the frequencies of interest are usually below
coincidence (e.g., fc is 6 kHz for 2 mm steel plate).
In building acoustics, on the other hand, the relevant frequencies are
normally well above coincidence (e.g., fc is about 200 Hz for 100 mm thick
concrete).
77/87
Room Acoustics
Double wall
A way to increase the sound insulation of a partition, without too drastic an
increase in the mass, is to construct it of two or more layers, with air pockets
(possibly absorbent-filled) between the layers.
The total transmission coefficient, ignoring all reflections (standing waves)
between layers, is
tot = 1 2 ... n ... N
(80)
in which it is assumed that there are N layers and the transmission coefficient
of the n-th layer is given by n .
For practical reasons, two, or at most three, layers are used in constructions
of this type, e.g., windows. The most common case is that of two layers
(double walls).
78/87
Room Acoustics
The sound reduction index of a finite double wall
double
m1
m2
2 m1m2
= 20 log
+ 20 log
= 20 log
,
2 0c
2 0c
4 02 c 2
f < fc
(81)
where m1 and m2 are the masses per unit area of each wall.
A double wall has a lower frequency bound corresponding to the lowest
mechanical resonance of the system. That fundamental resonance
corresponds to an oscillation in which the enclosed air acts a stiffness, and
the two wall elements as masses.
It follows that for normal plane wave incidence, the enclosed air volume has
a stiffness per unit area of
0c 2
in which h is the thickness of the air pocket. The system considered is

mechanically equivalent to a system with two masses coupled by springs.
79/87
Room Acoustics
1
f0 =
2
0 c 2 (m1 + m 2 )
(82)
m1 m 2 h
Figure 24 Idealized frequency-dependence of the sound reduction across an infinite

double wall obeying the mass law. See below for a description of regions I III. Note that
the analogy between a double wall and a mechanical system requires kh 1, i.e., low
frequencies
80/87
Room Acoustics
Region I corresponds to frequencies less than the fundamental resonance

frequency f0. In that region, the enclosed air has a large stiffness, and the
wall acts as a simple wall with a mass (m1 +m2).
Region II corresponds to frequencies around, and including, the
fundamental resonance frequency f0.
Region III corresponds to frequencies at which the double wall acts as
intended, and we obtain a sound reduction index
81/87
Room Acoustics
Figure 25 A double wall in the form of two light, single wall elements, separated by an air
gap, can insulate considerably better than a corresponding simple wall. Correctly
dimensioned, a double wall can give the same sound reduction as a 5-10 times heavier
single wall. (Picture: Asf, Bullerbekmpning, 1977, Ill: Claes Folkesson).
82/87
Room Acoustics
Sound reduction across some common insulators
Table 4 Sound reduction index R across simple wall constructions.
Thickness [mm]
Tile, 15 mm plaster
ick
with 15 mm plaster
Concrete
Gypsum slab
Sound Reduction Index R [dB] by octave band f [Hz]
Surface
Density
[kg/m2]
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
145
210
34
40
40
46
51
56
270
350
36
42
48
55
56
59
95
150
31
37
37
34
47
52
105
170
31
39
39
37
49
53
145
260
36
42
42
48
53
58
270
480
40
46
51
54
59
62
40
95
31
29
27
36
43
48
70
170
30
33
37
44
51
59
120
300
34
38
48
53
61
63
150
350
38
42
47
54
61
64
190
430
39
43
50
55
62
66
17
18
26
28
32
27
10
10
19
19
26
31
30
34
Material
83/87
Room Acoustics
Sound reduction across some common insulators
Thickness [mm]
Plywood
Particle Board
Al-plate
Steel plate
Cover layer: 0.8 mm

Al-plate.
Core:
Polyurethane foam
Sound Reduction Index R [dB] by octave band f [Hz]
Surface
Density
[kg/m2]
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
10
19
19
22
25
25
19
15
11
18
22
24
27
25
32
25
15
16
25
26
24
30
36
14
16
19
21
25
28
19
15
22
22
27
28
22
24
0.5
1.3
10
12
14
19
25
28
17
23
30
32
35
38
3.5
28
29
33
36
39
41
31
55
33
38
39
40
30
42
50
10
16
18
20
24
32
80
12
17
19
16
32
30
Material
84/87
Room Acoustics
OPTION TO
85/87
Room Acoustics
86/87
Room Acoustics
m
Table 5 Sound reduction index R of double wall insulators. (Source: W Fasold, W Kraak,
W Schirmer, Taschenbuch Akustik, 1982, VEB Verlag.)
Description
Concrete without damping

in the air gap
Light concrete with 50 mm

mineral wool layer in the
air gap
Gypsum with 30 mm
mineral wool layer in the
air gap
d1 [mm]
dh
[mm]
d2
[mm]
[kg/m2]
Sound Reduction Index R [dB], by octave band

f [Hz]
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
40
25
70
275
33
38
43
50
57
55
70
10
70
340
43
44
50
54
55
60
40
50
70
275
35
42
45
53
58
60
70
50
70
340
44
42
48
54
59
58
40
100
70
275
44
42
47
55
58
62
70
100
70
340
43
41
48
54
59
65
70
110
120
175
42
44
46
48
53
60
70
160
70
135
38
41
42
44
52
60
70
50
70
135
37
43
41
44
55
63
115
80
115
190
45
42
46
59
56
64
60
30
60
100
39
40
40
48
55
64
70
60
70
160
35
40
41
46
56
63
80
30
80
170
36
41
39
43
52
67
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Room Acoustics

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Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Suitable methods for the analysis of sound fields, or of sound

Energy-based methods can be used for the analysis of vibrations and

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

We can choose between a number of different methods to describe

For example, an exact description of the sound field as the sum of

In order to make such an analysis possible at high frequencies, various

Laws of geometrical acoustics

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

In order to classify different acoustic problems and assess whether an

in which k = 2/ is the wave number and l a typical dimension (units of

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Three different frequency regions

Wave propagation is ignored. The system can be

A few eigenmodes dominate. A complete

A large number of eigenmodes control the behavior.

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Consider a bounded linear acoustic system

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

An event of the type described by equation (6) is called, in acoustics, a

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

W1,dis = 1E1 + W12

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

In order to obtain independent (uncorrelated) waves, a spatial averaging of

for a sufficiently large value of l.

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Because the density of waves (number/space angle) is N / 4, then against

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

The result in equation (24) depends, however, on the dimension number

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

In order to obtain the rooms loss factor, we use equation (3)

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

The average of the absorption coefficient defined by equation (30) is usually

Note that, because sin(2) has a maximum at = 450, the appearance of

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee