GROUND WAVE

Ground Wave propagation is a method of radio frequency propagation that uses the area between the
surface of the earth and the ionosphere for transmission. The ground wave can propagate a considerable
distance over the earth's surface particularly in the low frequency and medium frequency portion of the radio
spectrum. Ground wave radio propagation is used to provide relatively local radio communications coverage.
Ground wave radio signal propagation is ideal for relatively short distance propagation on these frequencies
during the daytime. Sky-wave ionospheric propagation is not possible during the day because of the
attenuation of the signals on these frequencies caused by the D region in the ionosphere. In view of this,
lower frequency radio communications stations need to rely on the ground-wave propagation to achieve their
coverage.
Typically, what is referred to as a ground wave radio signal is made up of a number of constituent waves. If
the antennas are in the line of sight then there will be a direct wave as well as a reflected signal. As the
names suggest the direct signal is one that travels directly between the two antennas and is not affected by
the locality. There will also be a reflected signal as the transmission will be reflected by a number of objects
including the earth's surface and any hills, or large buildings that may be present. In addition to this there is a
surface wave. This tends to follow the curvature of the Earth and enables coverage beyond the horizon. It is
the sum of all these components that is known as the ground wave. Beyond the horizon the direct and
reflected waves are blocked by the curvature of the Earth, and the signal is purely made up of the diffracted
surface wave. It is for this reason that surface wave is commonly called ground wave propagation.

Polarization & ground wave propagation:The type of antenna and its polarization has a major effect on ground wave propagation. Vertical polarization
is subject to considerably less attenuation than horizontally polarized signals. In some cases the difference
can amount to several tens of decibels. It is for this reason that medium wave broadcast stations use vertical
antennas, even if they have to be made physically short by adding inductive loading. Ships making use of the
MF marine bands often use inverted L antennas as these are able to radiate a significant proportion of the
signal that is vertically polarized.
At distances that are typically towards the edge of the ground wave coverage area, some sky-wave signal
may also be present, especially at night when the D layer attenuation is reduced. This may serve to reinforce
or cancel the overall signal resulting in figures that will differ from those that may be expected.

SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION

Space Waves, also known as direct waves, are radio waves that travel directly from the transmitting antenna to
the receiving antenna. In order for this to occur, the two antennas must be able to see each other; that is
there must be a line of sight path between them. The diagram on the next page shows a typical line of sight.
The maximum line of sight distance between two antennas depends on the height of each antenna.

Space waves have another characteristic of concern to users. Space waves reflect off hard objects and may be
blocked if the object is between the transmitter and the receiver. Site and terrain error, as well as
propeller/rotor modulation error in very-high omnidirectional range (VOR) systems is caused by this bounce.
Instrument landing system (ILS) course distortion is also the result of this phenomenon, which led to the need
for establishment of ILS critical areas.
Generally, space waves are line of sight receivable, but those of lower frequencies will bend over the
horizon somewhat. Since the VOR signal at 108 to 118 MHz is a lower frequency than distance measuring
equipment (DME) at 962 to 1213 MHz, when an aircraft is flown over the horizon from a VOR/DME station,
the DME will normally be the first to stop functioning.

In radio communication, skywave or skip refers to the propagation of radio waves reflected or refracted back
toward Earth from theionosphere, an electrically charged layer of the upper atmosphere. Since it is not limited
by the curvature of the Earth, skywave propagation can be used to communicate beyond the horizon, at
intercontinental distances. It is mostly used in the shortwavefrequency bands.
As a result of skywave propagation, a signal from a distant AM broadcasting station, a shortwave station, or
during sporadic E propagation conditions (principally during the summer months in both hemispheres)
a low frequency television station can sometimes be received as clearly as local stations. Most long-distance
shortwave (high frequency) radio communicationbetween 3 and 30 MHzis a result of skywave
propagation. Since the early 1920s amateur radio operators (or "hams"), limited to lower transmitter power
than broadcast stations, have taken advantage of skywave for long distance (or "DX") communication.
Skywave propagation is distinct from:

groundwave propagation, where radio waves travel near Earth's surface without being reflected or
refracted by the atmospherethe dominant propagation mode at lower frequencies,

line-of-sight propagation, in which radio waves travel in a straight line, the dominant mode at higher
frequencies.

The ionosphere is a region of the upper atmosphere, from about 80 km to 1000 km in altitude, where neutral
air is ionized by solar photons and cosmic rays. When high frequency signals enter the ionosphere obliquely,
they are back-scattered from the ionized layer as scatter waves.[1] If the midlayer ionization is strong enough
compared to the signal frequency, a scatter wave can exit the bottom of the layer earthwards as
if reflected from a mirror. Earth's surface (ground or water) then diffusely reflects the incoming wave back
towards the ionosphere. Consequently, like a rock "skipping" across water, the signal may effectively
"bounce" or "skip" between the earth and ionosphere two or more times (multihop propagation). Since at
shallow incidence losses remain quite small, signals of only a few watts can sometimes be received many
thousands of miles away as a result. This is what enables shortwave broadcasts to travel all over the world.

If the ionization is not great enough, the scatter wave is initially deflected downwards, and
subsequently upwards (above the layer peak) such that it exits the top of the layer slightly displaced. Sky
wave propagation occurs in the waveguide formed by the ground and ionosphere, each serving as
reflectors. With a single "hop," path distances up to 3500 km may be reached. Transatlantic connections are
mostly obtained with two or three hops.[2]

The layer of ionospheric plasma with equal ionization (the reflective surface) is not fixed, but
undulates like the surface of the ocean. Varying reflection efficiency from this changing surface can cause
the reflected signal strength to change, causing "fading" in shortwave broadcasts.

Depending on the transmitting antenna, signals below approximately 10 MHz during the day and
5 MHz at night, entering the ionosphere
a steep angle (near-vertical incidence)
may be back-scattered down to Earth
within a short range. Alternatively,
signals beamed close to the horizon
enter the ionosphere at a shallow angle
and return to Earth over medium to long
distances.

at

Rough plot of Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) to various wavelengths of electromagnetic
radiation, including radio waves.