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Chapter 10 Notes:

Mix-and-Match Viruses:
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In 2009 the H1N1 virus came about in New Mexico


It was originally called swine flu, but had little to do with pigs and was
actually a combination of many different flu strains
It was thought to be a global epidemic and the flu is one of the most
dangerous viruses known to man

DNA: Structure and Replication


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Molecular Biology- the study of heredity at the molecular level


By the 1950s much was already known about DNA; however, scientists set
out on a quest to discover more

DNA and RNA Structure:


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Both DNA and RNA are nucleic acids, which consist of long chains (polymers)
of chemical units (monomers) called nucleotides
Nucleotides- The basic building block of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA.
It is an organic compound made up of nitrogenous base, a sugar, and
a phosphate group (monomer).
Polynucleotide- a nucleotide polymer
Polynucleotides can be very long and may have any sequence of nucleotides,
so a large number of polynucleotide chains are possible
Nucleotides are joined together by COVALENT BONDS between the sugar of
one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next
Sugar-phosphate Backbone- a repeating pattern of sugar-phosphate-sugarphosphate
The nitrogenous bases are arranged like ribs that project from the backbone
The phosphate group is the source of the acid in nucleic acid. The phosphate
has given up a hydrogen ion, H+, leaving a negative charge on one of its
oxygen atoms.
The sugar group has five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom. It is known as
deoxyribose because, compared with the sugar ribose, it is missing an
oxygen atom
DNA- (Deoxyribonucleic acid) A self-replicating material present in nearly all
living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of
genetic information.
Nucleic- it is located inside the nucleus
Thymine (T) and Cytosine - two types of nucleotides with single ring
structures
Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)- two types of nucleotides with double ring
structures (larger)
Uracil (U)- a molecule similar to thymine that is found in RNA (no thymine in
RNA)

Watson and Cricks Discovery of the Double Helix:

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Shortly after traveling to Cambridge University in England, James Watson


discovered that DNA consisted of a double helix structure while in Francis
Cricks laboratory
Double Helix- the spiral arrangement of the two strands of DNA (two
polynucleotide strands)
A double-ringed base on one strand must always be paired with a singleringed base on the opposite strand
The chemical structure of each kind of base dictates the pairings (A-T) (G-C)
(A is complementary to T and G is complementary to C)
Nitrogenous bases place no restrictions on the sequence of nucleotides along
the length of a DNA strand

DNA Replication:
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When a cell or a whole organism reproduces, a complete set of genetic


instructions must pass from one generation to the next
Each DNA strand serves as a mold. Or template, to guide reproduction of the
other strand
AGTC pairing might very well result in a replication pattern of TCAG just by
knowing that A pairs with T and G pairs with C
When two strands of parental DNA separate, each becomes a template for
the assembly of a complementary strand from a supply of free nucleotides
The nucleotides are lined up one at a time along the template strand in
accordance with the base pairing rules
Enzymes link the nucleotides to form the new DNA strands
DNA replication produces two identical strands of DNA known as daughter
DNA molecules
DNA Polymerases- the enzymes that make the covalent bonds between the
nucleotides of new DNA strands
As an incoming nucleotide base-pairs with its complement on the template
strand, a DNA polymerase adds it to the end of the growing daughter strand
DNA polymerases also help to repair damaged DNA
DNA replication begins at specific sites on a double helix, called origins of
replication
DNA replication ensures that all the body cells in a multicellular organism
carry the same genetic information and that genetic information is passed
along to offspring

The Flow of Genetic Information from DNA to RNA to Protein:


How an Organisms Genotype Determines Its Phenotype:
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Genotype- the genetic makeup of an organism which is the heritable


information contained in the sequence of nucleotide bases in DNA
Phenotype- the organisms physical traits which arise from the actions of a
wide variety of proteins
The Central Dogma- DNA specifies the synthesis of proteins/ however, a gene
does not build a protein directly, but rather dispatches instructions in the
form of RNA, which in turn programs protein synthesis

o The two main stages:


1) Transcription- the transfer of genetic information from DNA into an RNA
molecule
2) Translation- the transfer of the information from RNA into protein
o Archibald Garrod (1909) proposed that the relationship between genes and
proteins was how genes dictate phenotypes through enzymes
o Beadle and Tatum suggested that the function of an individual gene is to
dictate the production of a specific enzyme
o It was later revised to: the function of a gene is to dictate the production of a
polypeptide
From Nucleotides to Amino Acids:
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Genetic information in DNA is transcribed into RNA and them translated into
polypeptides, which then fold into proteins
DNA and RNA are polymers made of nucleotide monomers strung together in
specific sequences that convey information much as specific sequences of
letters convey information in English
The language of DNA is written as a linear sequence of nucleotide bases
A gene consists of thousands of nucleotides in a specific sequence
When a segment of DNA is transcribed, the result is an RNA molecule (the
language is still that is nucleic acids, but they have just been rewritten)
Translation is the conversion of nucleic acid language to the polypeptide
language
The monomers that make up polypeptides are the 20 amino acids common to
all organisms
RNA is only a messenger; the genetic information that dictates the amino
acid sequence originates in DNA
There can be 64 possible different combinations of nucleotide bases (4 3)
The flow of information from gene to protein is based on a triplet code
Codons- a series of three-base words that are the genetic instructions for the
amino acid sequence of a polypeptide chain (DNA and RNA)
One DNA codon (three nucleotides) one RNA codon (three nucleotides)
one amino acid

The Genetic Code:


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Genetic Code- a set of rules that convert a nucleotide sequence in RNA to an


amino acid sequence
Gene Expression- a gene that is activated or in use
A given RNA triplet always specifies a given amino acid
The nucleotides making up the codons occur in a linear order along the DNA
and RNA, with no gaps separating the codons
The genetic code is nearly universal, shared by organisms from the simplest
bacteria to the most complex plants and animals

Transcription from DNA to RNA:


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An RNA molecule is transcribed from a DNA template by a process that


resembles the synthesis of a DNA strand during DNA replication

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With replication the two DNA strands must first separate at the place where
the process will start, but in transcription only ONE of the DNA strands serves
as a template for the newly forming RNA molecule (THE OTHER STRAND IS
UNUSED)
Then the nucleotides that make up the new RNA molecule take their place
one at a time along the DNA template strand by forming hydrogen bonds with
the nucleotides bases
RNA nucleotides follow the pattern of U-T and G-C (No A)
RNA Polymerase- a transcription enzyme that links RNA nucleotides

Stages of Transcription from DNA to RNA:


1) Initiation of Transcription- the attachment of RNA polymerase to the promoter
and the start of RNA synthesis
o Promoter- a nucleotide sequence that produces a start transcribing signal
(located in DNA at the beginning of the gene)
o The promoter is a specific place where RNA polymerase attaches
o The promoter dictates which of the two DNA strands is to be transcribed
2) RNA Elongation- the RNA grows longer
o RNA synthesis continues
o The RNA strand peels away from its DNA template, allowing the two
separated DNA strands to come back together in the region already
transcribed
3) Termination of Transcription- the RNA polymerase reaches a special sequence
of bases in the DNA template called a terminator
o Terminator- a special sequence of bases in the DNA template that signals the
end of the gene
o The polymerase molecule detaches from the RNA molecule and the gene and
the DNA strands rejoin
The Processing of Eukaryotic RNA:
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Messenger RNA (mRNA)- the molecule that is translated into protein


In prokaryotic cells (lack nucl.) the RNA transcribed from a gene immediately
functions as mRNA
In eukaryotic cells the nucleus localizes transcription and also modifies, or
processes, the RNA transcripts there before they move to the cytoplasm for
translation by the ribosomes
Cap and Tail- the addition of extra nucleotides to the ends of the RNA
transcript
Introns- internal noncoding regions
Exons- coding regions which are the parts of the gene that are expressed
Before RNA leaves the nucleus, introns are removed and the exons are joined
to produce an mRNA molecule with a continuous coding sequence
RNA Splicing- before RNA leaves the nucleus, introns are removed and the
exons are joined to produce an mRNA molecule with a continuous coding
sequence

Translation: The Players

Translation is a conversion between different languages from the nucleic acid


language to the protein language and it involves more elaborate machinery
than transcription

Messenger RNA (mRNA):


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Enzymes and sources of chemical energy, such as ATP, are used to translate
mRNA
Requires ribosomes and transfer RNA

Transfer RNA (tRNA):


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Translation of the genetic message carried in mRNA into the amino acid
language of proteins requires an interpreter called tRNA
To convert codons of nucleic acids to the amino acid words of proteins, a cell
uses a molecular interpreter
Transfer RNA (tRNA)- a molecular interpreter
tRNA molecules must carry out two distinct functions: (1) pick up the
appropriate amino acids and (2) recognize the appropriate codons in the
mRNA
Anticodon- a sequence of three nucleotides forming a unit of genetic code in
a transfer RNA molecule (corresponding to a complementary codon in
messenger RNA)

Ribosomes:
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Ribosomes are the organelles that coordinate the functioning of the mRNA
and tRNA and actually make polypeptides
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)- plays a role in transferring information from DNA to
the protein-forming system of the cell

Translation: The Process


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Translation is divided into the same three phases as transcription: initiation,


elongation, and termination

Initiation:
Brings together the mRNA, the first amino acid with its attached tRNA, and
the two subunits of a ribosome
o The initiation process determines exactly where translation will begin so that
the mRNA codons will be translated into the correct sequence of amino acids
1) An mRNA molecule binds to a ribosomal subunit. A special indicator tRNA
then bins to the start codon. The initiator tRNA carries the amino acid Met (its
anticodon, UAC, binds to the start)
o Start Codon- where translation is to begin on the mRNA
2) A large ribosomal subunit binds to the small one, creating a functional
ribosome
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Elongation:
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Amino acids are added one by one to the first amino acid

1) Codon Recognition- The anticodon of an incoming tRNA molecule, carrying its


amino acid, pairs with the mRNA codon in the A site of the ribosome.
2) Peptide Bond Formation- The polypeptide leaves the tRNA in the P site and
attaches to the amino acid on the tRNA in the A site. The ribosome then
catalyzes bond formation. Additional amino acids are added.
3) Translocation- The P site tRNA leaves the ribosome, and the ribosome moves
the remaining tRNA, carrying the growing polypeptide, to the P site. This
movement brings into the A site the next mRNA codon to be translated, and
the process can start again with step 1.
Termination:
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Stop Codon- a codon that tells translation to stop


A stop codon ends elongation
The ribosome splits back into subunits

Review: DNA RNA Protein


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See page 185 for full review

Mutations:
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Mutation- any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA


Mutations are often more harmful rather than helpful

Types of Mutations:
The two types of gene mutations are divided into nucleotide substitutions and
nucleotide insertions or deletions
1) Substitution- the replacement of one nucleotide and its base-pairing partner
with another nucleotide pair
o Some genetic substitution mutations may also have no effect at all
o Missense Mutations- involve a single nucleotide that do change the amino
acid coding (sickle cell)
o Some missense mutations have little or no effect on the shape or function of
the resulting protein, but others can cause changes in the protein that
prevent it from performing normally
o Nonsense Mutations- change an amino acid codon into a stop codon (may
result in a prematurely terminated protein, which probably will not function
properly
2) Deletion or Insertion- the deletion or insertion of one or more nucleotides
o Produce a more disastrous effect
o All the nucleotides that are downstream of the insertion or deletion will be
regrouped into different codons
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Mutagens:
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Mutagens- an agent, such as radiation or a chemical substance, that causes


genetic mutation
The most common physical mutagen is high-energy radiation, such as X-rays
and ultraviolet (UV) light

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Many mutagens can act as carcinogens, agents that cause cancer


To avoid mutagens: not smoking, wearing protective clothing and sunscreen
to minimize direct exposure to the suns UV rays
Mutations can also be useful both in nature and in the laboratory
Mutations are one source of the rich diversity of genes in the living world and
are essential tools for geneticists

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